AGA Plastic Pipe Manual

PLASTIC PIPE MANUAL
FOR GAS SERVICE
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Copyright American Gas Association

Provided by IHS under license with AGA Eighth Edition
Licensee=Occidental Chemical Corp New sub account/5910419101
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS Not for Resale, 12/10/2007 23:46:36 MST
AGA
PLASTIC PIPE
MANUAL
FOR GAS SERVICE
Catalog No. XR0603

DISCLAIMER AND COPYRIGHT
The American Gas Association's (AGA) Operating Section provides a forum for industry experts to bring
collective knowledge together to improve the state of the art in the areas of operating, engineering and
technological aspects of producing, gathering, transporting, storing, distributing, measuring and utilizing
natural gas.
Through its publications, of which this is one, the AGA provides for the exchange of information within the
gas industry and scientific, trade and governmental organizations. Each publication is prepared or sponsored
by an AGA Operating Section technical committee. While AGA may administer the process, neither the AGA
nor the technical committee independently tests, evaluates, or verifies the accuracy of any information or the
soundness of any judgments contained therein.
The AGA disclaims liability for any personal injury, property or other damages of any nature whatsoever,
whether special, indirect, consequential or compensatory, directly or indirectly resulting from the publication,
use of, or reliance on AGA publications. The AGA makes no guaranty or warranty as to the accuracy and
completeness of any information published therein. The information contained therein is provided on an “as
is” basis and the AGA makes no representations or warranties including any express or implied warranty of
merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose,
In issuing and making this document available, the AGA is not undertaking to render professional or other
services for or on behalf of any person or entity. Nor is the AGA undertaking to perform any duty owed by
any person or entity to someone else. Anyone using this document should rely on his or her own independent
judgment or, as appropriate, seek the advice of a competent professional in determining the exercise of
reasonable care in any given circumstances.
The AGA has no power, nor does it undertake, to police or enforce compliance with the contents of this
document. Nor does the AGA list, certify, test, or inspect products, designs, or installations for compliance
with this document. Any certification or other statement of compliance is solely the responsibility of the
certifier or maker of the statement.
The AGA does not take any position with respect to the validity of any patent rights asserted in connection
with any items which are mentioned in or are the subject of AGA publications, and the AGA disclaims
liability for the infringement of any patent resulting from the use of or reliance on its publications. Users of
these publications are expressly advised that determination of the validity of any such patent rights, and the
risk of infringement of such rights, is entirely their own responsibility.
Users of this publication should consult applicable federal, state, and local laws and regulations. The AGA
does not, through its publications intend to urge action that is not in compliance with applicable laws, and its
publications may not be construed as doing so.
Any changes in this document that are believed appropriate should be communicated to AGA by completing
the last page of this report titled, “Form for Suggestions to Change AGA Plastic Pipe Manual For Gas
Service" and sending it to: Operations & Engineering Services Group, American Gas Association, 400
North Capitol Street, NW, 4th Floor, Washington, DC 20001, U.S.A.
Copyrights © 2006, American Gas Association, All Rights Reserved.
ii
FOREWORD
In addition to adding color photos throughout, the following revisions were made in the
2006 edition of the Manual.
Chapter I. Plastic Piping Materials

1. Addressed reprocessed/rework materials.
2. Discussed higher performance polyethylenes, e.g. PE 4710.
3. Added new developments in PE resins.
4. Expanded section on Polyamide-11 (PA-11) piping materials and installations.
5. Revised ASTM D 3350 PE callouts.
6. Added PEX fusion joining information.
7. Revised the PE slow crack growth sections.
8. Revised the chemical resistance and weathering sections.
9. Added additional RCP information.
10. Added note that PVC piping is only permitted in repair applications.
11. Deleted HDS column “For Fuel Gas” in Table I-2.
Chapter II. Engineering Considerations for Plastic Pipe Utilization

1. Revised slow crack growth resistance (SCG) language.
2. Resistance to Rapid Crack propagation (RCP).
3. Expanded discussion of hydrostatic design basis (HDB) including elevated temperature HDBs.
4. Inclusion of references to PA-11.
5. Expanded notes about joining including electrofusion joining and Generic Fusion Procedures.
6. Advice concerning design for high temperature environments and pressures above 100 psi.
Chapter IV. Installation of Plastic Pipe

1. Format was changed for easier reading.
2. Added information about Cold Weather Handling.
3. Added color photos.
4. Added information to be considered when installing Category 2, full seal only fittings.
5. Updated old Standards references.
6. Modified trenching and backfilling section.
7. Added reference to ASTM design standard for Weak Links.
Chapter V. Personnel Training, Field Inspection, and Pressure Testing

1. General revision and rewrite of Typical Outline for Training.
2. Revisions to Pressure Testing sections.
3. Added Project Investigations section.
Chapter VI. Maintenance, Operation, and Emergency Control Procedures

1. Added sections on the Plastic Pipe Data Collection Committee (PPDC).
2. Revised the Static Electricity section.
3. Revised the Pipe Locating section.
4. Added additional guidance to the Repair section.
Added new Appendix H

1. PPI TN-30/2006 “Requirements for the Use of Rework Materials in Manufacturing of Polyethylene
Gas Pipe”
iii
CONTENTS AGA PLASTIC PIPE MANUAL FOR GAS SERVICE
CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE .............................................................................................................................. i
DISCLAIMER & COPYRIGHT ................................................................................................ ii
FOREWORD .............................................................................................................................. iii
CONTENTS................................................................................................................................ iv
INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................... ix
CHAPTER I. PLASTIC PIPING MATERIALS.................................................................... 1

PRIMARY CHARACTERISTICS.......................................................................................... 1
KINDS OF PLASTIC GAS PIPING MATERIALS ............................................................... 2
DESCRIPTION OF PIPING MATERIALS............................................................................ 5
CLASSIFICATION OF POLYETHYLENE MATERIALS................................................... 6
CLASSIFICATION OF POLYAMIDE MATERIALS........................................................... 9
POLY (VINYL CHLORIDE) (PVC) ................................................................................... 11
REINFORCED EPOXY RESIN PIPE .................................................................................... 12
CROSSLINKED POLYETHYLENE (PEX) PIPE ................................................................. 13
NEW PLASTIC MATERIALS FOR PIPING AND MOLDED FITTINGS .......................... 13
FACTORS AFFECTING THE PERFORMANCE OF PLASTIC PIPING
MATERIALS....................................................................................................................... 15
ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF PLASTIC....................................................................... 15
FORECASTING THE LONG-TERM STRENGTH OF PE FITTINGS AND
JOINTS ................................................................................................................................. 23
RAPID CRACK PROPAGATION.......................................................................................... 27
END NOTES ........................................................................................................................... 29
TABLES
TABLE I-1. Typical Physical Properties of Plastic Piping Compounds .............................. 4
TABLE I-2. Hydrostatic Design Basis (Strength Categories) and Hydrostatic
Design Stresses (HDS) for Thermoplastic Pipe Materials for Water Service
at 23° C (73.4° F) ............................................................................................................ 8
TABLE I-3. Classification of Polyethylene Materials........................................................ 10
TABLE I-4. Classification Example for ASTM D 3350 for PE 233464E
Material ............................................................................................................................ 11
TABLE I-5. Typical Properties of PA 11 Based on Testing of 2” IPS SDR
11 Pipe .......................................................................................................................... 12
TABLE I-6. Factors Affecting Overall Performance of Plastic Materials in
Gas Applications........................................................................................................... 14
TABLE I-7. Derating Factors for Exposure to Liquid Hydrocarbons ............................... 26
PHOTOS
PHOTO I-1 Thermoplastic Pipes – Typical Pipes Installed over the Past
40 Years ...................................................................................................................... 2
PHOTO I-2. Fiber Reinforced Epoxy Pipe...................................................................... 3
PHOTO I-3. PE Pellets- Natural and Color concentrates ................................................ 5
PHOTO I-4. PE Pellets- Salt & Pepper Blend................................................................. 5
PHOTO I-5. Long Term Hydrostatic Test Equipment .................................................... 23
iv
PHOTO I-6. PENT Test Equipment ................................................................................ 24

PHOTO I-7. PENT Test Apparatus ................................................................................. 25
PHOTO I-8. RCP Test Apparatus 1................................................................................. 28
FIGURES
FIGURE I-1. Models of Viscoelastic behavior at Constant Load ................................... 16
FIGURE I-2. Excitations and Responses of Viscoelastic Materials................................ 18
FIGURE I-3. PE Pipe Stress Rupture Curve at LTS = 1257 psi...................................... 20
FIGURE I-4. PE Pipe Stress Rupture Curve at LTS – 1265 psi...................................... 20
FIGURE I-5. PE Pipe Stress Rupture Curves.................................................................. 21
FIGURE I-6. Arrhenius Plot for Polyethylene Pipes....................................................... 22
CHAPTER II. ENGINEERING CONSIDERATIONS FOR

PLASTIC PIPE UTILIZATION
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................... 30
PLASTIC PIPING SYSTEMS ................................................................................................ 31
US FEDERAL DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION REGULATIONS...................... 32
CALCULATION OF DESIGN PRESSURE........................................................................... 32
DESIGN FACTOR .................................................................................................................. 35
INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURE ON PLASTIC SYSTEMS ............................................ 37
INFLUENCE OF OTHER STRESSES ON PLASTIC SYSTEMS ........................................ 39
DIMENSIONS......................................................................................................................... 39
JOINTS .................................................................................................................................... 40
PERMEABILITY OF POLYETHYLENE AND PA-11 PIPE ............................................... 40
FLOW OF NATURAL GAS IN PLASTIC PIPE ................................................................... 41
END NOTES ........................................................................................................................... 43
TABLES
TABLE II-1. Part 192 Summary of Standards applicable to Plastic Pipe ............................. 33
TABLE II-2. Effects of Temperature on Long-term Strength of PE 2406............................. 34
TABLE II-3. Elevated Temperature HDB and Flow Rate Marking Code for
Thermoplastic Pipe in Accordance with ASTM D2513-03a............................................... 36
TABLE II-4. Typical HDBs for ASTM D 2513 thermoplastic Materials at
Various Design Temperatures.............................................................................................. 36
TABLE II-5. Pressure Rating of Dimension Ratio Thermoplastic Pipe as a
Function of Material Hydrostatic Design Basis (HDB) Design Pressure
Rating, PSIG ........................................................................................................................ 37
TABLE II-6. Minimum Wall Thickness by Pipe Size and Dimension Ratio for
Thermoplastic Pipe .............................................................................................................. 39
TABLE II-7. Typical Maximum Flow Rates Experienced in 60 PSIG Natural Gas
Distribution Systems............................................................................................................ 42
FIGURES
FIGURE II-1. Stress Rupture, Time Plots for Polyethylene Pipe Materials
Showing Influence of Temperature ..................................................................................... 31
FIGURE II-2. Applicability of Partially or Fully Turbulent Flow Formulas ......................... 43
v
CHAPTER III. PROCUREMENT CONSIDERATIONS, ACCEPTANCE TESTS AND

SUPPLIER SELF-CERTIFICATION FOR THERMOPLASTIC PIPE, TUBING AND
FITTINGS ................................................................................................................................. 44
MODEL SPECIFICATION..................................................................................................... 44
SELECTION OF VENDOR .................................................................................................... 44
ASTM STANDARDS AND TEST METHODS..................................................................... 44
PROCUREMENT CONTROL................................................................................................ 48
USER QUALIFICATION AND ACCEPTANCE TESTING................................................. 49
MONITORING FIELD PERFORMANCE............................................................................. 57
MANUFACTURER SELF CERTIFICATION....................................................................... 57
PHOTOS
PHOTO III-1. Six Inch Polyethylene Gas Pipe ...................................................................... 46
PHOTO III-2. Six Inch PE Pipe on Uncoiler/ Rerounder....................................................... 46
PHOTO III-3. Rerounding of PA-11 Pipe at Installation ....................................................... 47
PHOTO III-4. Typical Printline on 2 inch Coiled PE pipe..................................................... 47
PHOTO III-5. Notch Tensile Test Apparatus ......................................................................... 48
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
PHOTO III-6. Quality Measuring Tools.................................................................................. 52
PHOTO III-7. Bend Back Test for PE .................................................................................... 53
PHOTO III-8. Typical Acceptance PE Ductile Failure .......................................................... 53
PHOTO III-9. Ring Tensile Test ............................................................................................ 54
PHOTO III-10. Melt Index Measurement Apparatus ............................................................. 55
PHOTO III-11. Density Measurement Apparatus .................................................................. 55
PHOTO III-12. Elevated Temperature Sustained Pressure Test ............................................ 56
FIGURES
FIGURE III-1. Suggested Company Acceptance Plant to Obtain Quality Plastic Piping ..... 50
FIGURE III-2. Suggested Manufacturer Self-Certification Plan to Obtain Quality
Plastic Piping Material................................................................................... 51
CHAPTER IV. INSTALLATION OF PLASTIC PIPE ........................................................ 59

SHIPPING, HANDLING AND STORAGE ........................................................................... 59
CUTTING ................................................................................................................................ 60
COLD WEATHER HANDLING ............................................................................................ 60
PLASTIC JOINING REQUIREMENTS................................................................................. 61
PROVISION FOR VALVES................................................................................................... 79
BENDS AND BRANCHES .................................................................................................... 81
EXTERNAL STRESSES......................................................................................................... 81
ALLOWANCE FOR LINEAR THERMAL EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION ............ 81
TRENCHING AND BACKFILLING ..................................................................................... 82
PIPE PLACEMENT IN TRENCHES ..................................................................................... 82
PLOWING TECHNIQUES ..................................................................................................... 83
TRENCHLESS INSTALLATIONS........................................................................................ 84
DIRECT-BURIAL REQUIREMENTS WITH PLASTICS .................................................... 85
PLASTIC INSERTION IN MAINS AND SERVICES........................................................... 86
vi
Provided by IHS under license with AGA Licensee=Occidental Chemical Corp New sub account/5910419101
PHOTOS
PHOTO IV-1. Uncoiling and Rerounding of PA-11 Pipe ................................................... 61
PHOTO IV-2. Large Diameter Coiled PE pipe ................................................................... 61
PHOTO IV-3. Hydraulic Combination Fusion Machine, 2” – 8” ....................................... 63
PHOTO IV-4. Butt Fusion Machine.................................................................................... 64
PHOTO IV-5. Butt Fusion of PA-11 Gas Pipe.................................................................... 64
PHOTO IV-6. Butt Fusion of Large Diameter PE Gas Pipe ............................................... 65
PHOTO IV-7. Saddle Fusion Machine................................................................................ 66
PHOTO IV-8. Saddle Fusion of PE Gas Pipe...................................................................... 67
PHOTO IV-9. Completed PE Saddle Fusion....................................................................... 67
PHOTO IV-10. Socket Fusion of PE Gas Pipe.................................................................... 68
PHOTO IV-11. Typical Butt, Saddle and Socket Fusion Joints in PE ................................ 68
PHOTO IV 12. Heating Coils in Electrofusion Saddle ...................................................... 69
PHOTO IV-13. Schematic of EF Coupler Showing Heating Coils..................................... 69
PHOTO IV-14. Completed PE Electrofusion Joint ............................................................. 71
PHOTO IV-15. Mechanical Couplings – Steel Bolted (Typical 1-1/4” and Larger) ......... 73
PHOTO IV-16. Mechanical Couplings – Plastic Bolted on 4” PA-11 Pipe........................ 73
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
PHOTO IV-17. Mechanical Couplings – Inserting “loose” Stiffener ................................. 74
PHOTO IV-18. Mechanical Couplings – Nut Follower Design.......................................... 74
PHOTO IV-19. Mechanical Couplings – Nut Follower Cut Away..................................... 74
PHOTO IV-20. Mechanical Couplings – Marking Stab Depth........................................... 75
PHOTO IV-21. Mechanical Couplings – Stab Coupling Cut Away ................................... 75
PHOTO IV-22. Transition from Steel to PE – with Flange Adapter................................... 76
PHOTO IV-23. Transition from Steel to PE – Metal Mechanical Coupling....................... 76
PHOTO IV-24. Saddle Fusion Tapping Tee – PE............................................................... 77
PHOTO IV-25. Electrofusion Tapping Tee – PE with Clamping Fixture........................... 78
PHOTO IV-26. Mechanical Tapping Tee – PA-11 with Mechanical Coupling
Service Outlet for PE ......................................................................................................... 78
PHOTO IV-27. Risers – Variety of Designs ....................................................................... 79
PHOTO IV-28. Valves – Small Diameter PE...................................................................... 79
PHOTO IV-29. Valves – Large Diameter PE...................................................................... 80
PHOTO IV-30. EFVs – Typical Installation in Service Outlet ........................................... 81
PHOTO IV-31. Installation – Direct Burial of PE Pipe....................................................... 83
PHOTO IV-32. Installation – Plowing in PE w/ Tracer Wire and Warning Tape ............. 83
PHOTO IV-33. Installation – Directional Drilling .............................................................. 85
PHOTO IV-34. Installation – Insertion .............................................................................. 85
TABLES
TABLE IV-1. Joining Methods for Plastics ........................................................................ 62
CHAPTER V. PERSONNEL TRAINING, FIELD INSPECTION, AND

PRESSURE TESTING.......................................................................................................... 89
PERSONNEL TRAINING ................................................................................................... 89
FIELD INSPECTION........................................................................................................... 91
INSPECTION OF FIELD JOINTS ...................................................................................... 92
PRESSURE TESTING ......................................................................................................... 92
PRECAUTIONS IN TESTING ............................................................................................ 93
vii
CHAPTER VI. MAINTENANCE, OPERATION, AND EMERGENCY CONTROL

PROCEDURES ...................................................................................................................... 95
PERFORMANCE OF PLASTIC PIPING SYSTEMS......................................................... 95
COLLECTION OF PLASTIC PIPE FAILURE DATA....................................................... 95
COLLECTION OF PLASTIC PIPE FAILURE DATA FOR THE VOLUNTARY
PPDC COMMITTEE......................................................................................................... 96
PLASTIC PIPING SYSTEM SURVEILLANCE ................................................................ 96
OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE CODE REQUIREMENTS .................................... 96
EMERGENCY ISOLATION ............................................................................................... 97
STATIC ELECTRICITY...................................................................................................... 98
LEAKAGE SURVEYS ........................................................................................................ 99
PIPE LOCATING................................................................................................................. 99
CRITERIA FOR USE .......................................................................................................... 100
CHEMICAL ENVIRONMENTS ......................................................................................... 100
RODENT DAMAGE............................................................................................................ 100
REPAIRS .............................................................................................................................. 101
EXCESS FLOW VALVES................................................................................................... 101
IMPORTANT OPERATING PRECAUTIONS ................................................................... 101
PHOTOS
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
PHOTO VI-1. Squeeze Off Flow Control in PE Pipe ......................................................... 98

PHOTO VI-2. Use of a Wet Tape to Dissipate Static.......................................................... 99
APPENDIX A. SPECIFICATIONS, TEST METHODS AND PRACTICES FOR

PLASTIC PIPES................................................................................................................. 103
APPENDIX B. GLOSSARY.................................................................................................... 108
APPENDIX C. OTHER SOURCES OF INFORMATION ................................................. 115
APPENDIX D. PLASTICS PIPE INSTITUTE MODEL SPECIFICATION
MS-2/2000 ............................................................................................................................ 119
APPENDIX E. PLASTIC FAILURE REPORT.................................................................... 122
APPENDIX F. FUSION MACHINE QUALITY ASSURANCE CHECKLIST ................. 126
APPENDIX G. NEW PLASTIC MATERIAL/PRODUCT EVALUATION
CHECKLIST ....................................................................................................................... 128
APPENDIX H. REQUIREMENTS FOR THE USE OF REWORK MATERIALS
IN MANUFACTURING OF POLYETHYLENE GAS PIPE TN-30/2006 .................. 133
Index .......................................................................................................................................... 140
Change Suggestion Form ......................................................................................................... 147
viii
INTRODUCTION AGA PLASTIC PIPE MANUAL FOR GAS SERVICE
INTRODUCTION
This Manual is the eighth edition and is an updating of the issue published in 2001. Information is presented on
those plastic materials, piping components, and design and installation procedures currently covered in codes and
standards concerned with piping systems for natural gas distribution. It presents and summarizes data from
manufacturers, users, trade associations and research organizations. The Manual has been prepared for use with the
referenced ASTM standards and Part 192 of the Title 49, Code of Federal Regulations, which contains the Minimum
Federal Safety Standards for the transportation of gas and for pipeline facilities. The Code hereafter will be referred
to as 49 CFR 192, Federal Code or Minimum Federal Safety Standards. When a Code section is referenced it is
designated 49 CFR 192.XXX unless it is clear from context the reference is to Part 192 of Title 49.
The Plastic Pipe Manual Task Group recognizes that the data and information presented in this Manual could
not include the complete details of the available information on plastic gas pipe. New knowledge and developments
continually tend to supplement or make obsolete some of the present manual material. Some of the codes and
standards quoted or cited as references also are undergoing continual modernization and must of necessity be
consulted to determine applicability. State and local codes may specify additional requirements or restrictions. The
Engineer should consult all applicable codes. It is, however, the hope of the AGA Plastic Materials Committee that
this Manual will be acceptable to both users and suppliers as a prime reference on the subject of plastic gas piping.
In view of the rapid progress of technology in this field, it is recommended that this Manual be used in
conjunction with a current copy of the Minimum Federal Safety Standards, 49 CFR 192, and the ASTM Book of
Standards, Volumes 8.01 through 8.04 Plastics.
The latest information, as issued by the manufacturers of resins, pipe, piping components or tools, will contain
in more detail, special or specific properties and recommendations related to their product. Unavoidably, the
publications of the Gas Piping Technology Committee (GPTC) will, in part, parallel this Manual on many items as
they specifically relate to the requirements of the Minimum Federal Safety Standards. Users are encouraged to
reference the additional information provided by these sources.
Modern methods of physical and chemical analysis started to uncover the principles that govern the properties
of natural polymers in 1920. Polymer compounds such as poly (vinyl chloride) were developed in 1931. But it took
the shortages of copper and steel during World War II to start the use of plastic pipe in natural gas distribution.
The gas industry recognized the potential of plastic pipe after limited installation by a few companies in the late
1940s. Beginning in the early 1950s many companies were evaluating plastic pipe performance and developing
know-how on an experimental basis. In 1953 the AGA Distribution Committee formed a subcommittee on Plastic
Pipe Standards. The objective was to compile the physical and chemical data on specific types and formulations of
plastic materials. In cooperation with the membership of the Society of the Plastic Industry, and through AGA
sponsored research at the Battelle Memorial Institute, the gas industry proceeded with the development of such data.
In a meeting of the Subcommittee in 1954, a special committee of the Thermoplastic Pipe Division of SPI
recommended the first three thermoplastic materials for natural gas distribution pipe.
After the mid 1950s the installation of plastic pipe on an operational basis grew rapidly. Annual installations
rose from approximately 100 miles to over 1,700 miles in 1965 and 2,600 miles in 1966.
Operational data, together with field data from experimental installations, was gathered by gas utilities and the
material, pipe and fitting manufacturers for many years leading to the development of gas pipe standards. This work
was supported by the American Gas Association (AGA), the Plastics Pipe Institute (PPI) (a Division of the Society
of the Plastic Industry), the American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM), and the American Society of
Mechanical Engineers (ASME). Results of the research were incorporated in 1966 into the ASTM Standards D 2513
“Specification for Thermoplastic Gas Pressure Pipe, Tubing and Fittings” and D 2517, “Specification for Reinforced
Thermosetting Resin Plastic Gas Pressure Pipe and Fittings.” These, in turn, provided the basis for acceptance and
inclusion of plastic piping into the USAS B31.8 1967, “Pressure Piping Code for Gas Transmission and Distribution
Piping Systems.”
In 1967, with formal acceptance by code groups, the door was opened for general use of plastic pipe. The
cumulative miles of plastic pipe in use grew from 9,200 miles in 1965 to over 45,800 miles at the end of 1970, an
increase of almost 500%. Annual plastic installations increased by over 500% in the five year period to 10,600 miles
in 1970.
Extensive use of plastic for main and service installations has continued in the United States. In 1996 a
magazine survey noted its respondents installed over 32,000 miles of polyethylene mains and services annually for
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
ix
INTRODUCTION AGA PLASTIC PIPE MANUAL FOR GAS SERVICE
the past five years. The cumulative mileage of plastic pipe in use at the end of 1998 was estimated at over 550,000
miles. By the end of 2004 there were over 1 million miles of plastic mains and services installed in the U.S.
Since 1960 polyethylene has evolved into the dominant material used in the gas distribution industry. Today,
over 98% of all the plastic distribution piping installed is polyethylene. In this edition of the Manual recognition is
placed on the almost exclusive use of polyethylene pipe in current installations with expanded coverage of its
material characteristics, pipe design factors, acceptance testing, and fusion, installation and maintenance procedures.
Developments in materials, pipe and fitting technology, and installation and maintenance procedures continue to
improve plastic utilization in gas distribution systems.
In recent years additional thermoplastic materials have received approvals for use in gas piping applications by
their addition to ASTM D2513. These materials, which are now discussed in the Manual, include PEX (Crosslinked
polyethylene) and Polyamide-11 (PA-11) piping. Other plastics installed in prior years are providing satisfying
service to many users, but they are not covered in this manual.
Many aspects of design, joining, installation, operations and maintenance of plastic gas pipelines are covered in
49 CFR 192 and the AGA / ANSI Z380 Gas Piping Technology Committee’s Guide. The role of code requirements,
personnel training and inspection procedures are considered so essential that our text emphasizes them to the point
of repetition. Excellent training aids, including slide presentation and videotapes, are now available from gas
companies, manufacturers and trade associations.
Future revisions of this Manual will be necessitated by the dynamics of technological progress. It is the intent of
the Plastic Materials Committee to periodically update this Manual.
The Committee acknowledges with appreciation the work of the Task Group responsible for these Manual revisions
consisting of:
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Frank Volgstadt, chairman Volgstadt & Associates, Inc.

Stephen Boros Plastics Pipe Institute
Richard Conley Kerotest Manufacturing
Jim Craig McElroy Manufacturing Company
John Goetz Peoples Gas Light & Co
White Jee BP Solvay Polyethylene
Tim Lauder Public Service Electric & Gas
Karen Lively Performance Pipe
Brian Moidel Dominion
Sudheer Pimputkar Battelle Columbus Laboratories
Perry Sheth Keyspan Energy
Rich Stockand Pacific Gas & Electric
The Committee gratefully acknowledges all those who so generously contributed their data, expertise and time to
publishing this edition of the Manual.
This edition of the Manual is dedicated to Larry Ingels of the American Gas Association Staff, who assisted in this
timely update for the manual.
x
CHAPTER I PLASTIC PIPING MATERIALS
CHAPTER I
PLASTIC PIPING MATERIALS
Plastic materials used for the fabrication of pipe and fittings exhibit as broad a range of properties as those of
other piping materials, including metals. The properties of a particular plastic are derived from:
• The type of polymer (e.g. polyethylene (PE), polyamide (PA), poly(vinyl chloride)(PVC), crosslinked
polyethylene (PEX)).
• The structural characteristics of the polymer (e.g. average molecular length, frequency and length of
branches).
• The amount and type of additives.
• The manufacturing process by which the end product is made.
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
For protection of properties during processing and service, and for other purposes, plastic piping materials are
always formulated with additives. Some common examples are processing and ultraviolet stabilizers, pigments,
antioxidants, and sometimes modifiers to enhance a property like impact strength or stiffness. It is essential when
considering a plastic for an engineering application to recognize that its properties will be determined by the quality
and nature of the additives as well as by the polymer or resin type.
PRIMARY CHARACTERISTICS
The primary characteristics of its widespread use in buried application include the following:
• Outstanding corrosion resistance
• Light weight
• Ease of joining and installing
• Economy
Corrosion Resistance
Plastic piping materials are not susceptible to the corrosion mechanisms that affect metallic pipe. Since plastics
are nonconductors of electricity, they are immune to the electrochemical reactions caused by acids, bases, and salts
that cause corrosion to metals. Plastics may be susceptible to other forms of attack such as the action of certain
strong oxidizing, reducing, or other reagents that break down or alter the polymer molecules. They may absorb
solvents that cause softening or weakening.
They may crack if, when under stress, they contact substances called environmental stress cracking agents. These
chemicals increase a plastic's susceptibility to crack initiation and propagation.
These substances are not present in normal soils so that plastic pipe is well suited to buried applications.
Gas piping systems may sometimes contain hydrocarbon condensates which act as solvents. When plastic piping
is likely to contact them or other adverse substances, selection and design should be based on the effects of the
substance on both the long- and short-term strength of the material. Some important known environmental
limitations are discussed later in the chapter under “Factors Affecting the Performance of Plastic Piping Materials”.
Weight
Plastic pipes are significantly lighter than metal pipes. For example, polyethylene (PE) pipe weighs less than 1/6
of the weight of an equivalent sized steel pipe. Weight of plastic pipe can be calculated using the density of the
plastic pipe compound, the nominal or stated diameter, and the nominal wall thickness.*
*
PPI TN-7/2000, Recommended Method for Calculation of Nominal Weight of Solid Wall Plastic Pipe
1
Joining and Installing

Many plastic pipes can be coiled. The Plastics Pipe Institute (PPI) and the Gas Technology Institute (GTI)1 have
developed coiling recommendations. The use of continuous lengths is valuable for insertion where it is
advantageous to use a length of pipe without any joints. For straight lengths, joining techniques allow for quick and
reliable installations provided the joining crew has been properly trained and qualified.
Economy
The installed cost of new plastic piping systems is usually less than that of metallic pipe for sizes up through 12-
inch diameter. For renewal of metallic systems by insertion of plastic pipe, the economics may justify even larger
sizes. Since direct cost comparison of plastic pipe to other competitive piping materials may result in a
misguided decision, a total system cost approach is recommended as a guide in comparing the cost of a plastic
piping system to other material systems.
KINDS OF PLASTIC GAS PIPING MATERIALS

Plastics are divided into two basic groups, thermoplastic and thermosetting, both of which are used to make gas
piping. Photo I-1 shows typical thermoplastic pipes installed for gas over the past 40 years.
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Photo I-1. Thermoplastic Pipes – Typical Pipes Installed Over the Past 40 Years
Photo credit: Southwest Gas
Thermoplastics
Thermoplastics, as the name implies, soften on heating and reharden on cooling. While they can be formed and
reformed repeatedly, the reprocessing steps must be tightly controlled to ensure retention of the original properties.
Thermoplastic pipe is made by the extrusion process whereby the heated plastic is forced through a shaping die. The
2
reprocessing of thermoplastic materials in the production of gas pipe and tubing requires written procedures for the
handling and use of rework (See Appendix H). Fittings are usually made by the injection molding process where
the heated plastic is forced into the cavity of a closed mold.
All thermoplastic pipes and corresponding fittings which have been accepted for fuel gas piping are covered by
ASTM D 2513, “Standard Specification for Thermoplastic Gas Pressure Pipe, Tubing, and Fittings”. They are made
from polyethylene (PE), poly (vinyl chloride) (PVC), or polyamide (PA). Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) and
cellulose acetate butyrate (CAB) were early pioneers in gas distribution and were installed as early as the 1940s. The
former was removed from ASTM D 2513 in 1988 and the latter in 1985. During the mid-1950s, PVC pipe made
from an impact-enhanced composition was first used for gas distribution. Normal impact PVC and PE were
introduced during the early 1960s. By the late 1960s, PE accounted for over 50% of all plastic gas distribution
piping. Over 98% of the plastic pipe installed during 1981 was PE.2 PVC pipe is used for repair only of previously
installed PVC pipe. In 1992, U.S. gas distribution companies installed about 25,000 miles of plastic pipe evenly
divided between mains and services.3 By the end of 2004 there were over 1 million miles of plastic mains and
services installed in the U.S.
Thermosetting Plastics
Thermosetting plastics are hardened into permanent shapes by the application of heat or a "curing" chemical.
Once shaped and cured they cannot be reformed by heating. The excellent adhesive qualities of thermosetting resins
permit their utilization in composite structures in which strength, stiffness and other properties may be enhanced
through the use of reinforcements and fillers. All commercial thermosetting pipe and fittings use some form of
reinforcement, usually glass fibers. By orienting the fibers, reinforced thermosetting resin pipes (RTRP) can be
given properties that are enhanced in one direction over another. Photo I-2 is an example of Fiber Reinforced Epoxy
Pipe.
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
PHOTO I-2. Fiber Reinforced Epoxy Pipe
Photo credit: Volgstadt & Associates
The only RTRP used for fuel gas piping is fiberglass reinforced and is covered by ASTM D 2517, “Standard Specification
for Reinforced Epoxy Resin Gas Pressure Pipe and Fittings”. This pipe is primarily used when the application calls for
pressure, temperature, or resistance to liquid hydrocarbons beyond the limitations of thermoplastic pipe.
Properties of Thermoplastic and Thermosetting Plastics

Table I-1 shows typical physical, mechanical, and thermal properties of the major plastic gas piping materials.
Specific values will depend both on the commercial material used and on the pipe and production process. Values
given for tensile strength, modulus of elasticity, compressive strength, and flexural strength have been determined
using short-term testing and may not be used to define long-term properties. This will be discussed in more detail
later.
The ranges of long-term strength of thermoplastics presented in Table I-1 were determined using ASTM test
method D 2837, which is described later in the chapter. The long-term strength of RTRP was determined using
ASTM test method D 2992.
3
TABLE I-1. Typical Physical Properties of Plastic Piping Compounds (a)
Physical Reinforced
Cross-Linked Epoxy
Property/ Polyamide Polyethylene Poly(Vinylchloride)
Polyethylene Thermoset Pipe
Description
PE2708 PE3608 RTRP 11AU and
PVC PVC
Pipe Designation PA32312 (Formerly (Formerly PE 4710 PEX
1120 2116
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
PE2406) PE3408) RTRP 11CU
Tensile Strength 43.5 (hoop) (d)
7.2 –8.5
(yield), 103 psi 5.6 2.6 3.2 – 3.5 3.3 – 3.8 6.2 – 7.0 3.5 - 4.0
(c) 9.1 (axial) (d)
ASTM D638
Modulus of Elasticity, 28.0 (hoop)
105 psi ASTM D638 NA 0.90 1.1 1.3 4.0 – 5.3 3.3 – 4.1 1.5
11.5 (axial)
Compressive
9.6 –
Strength, 103 psi NA 2.6 3.2 3.4 8.1 3.6 13.5 (axial)
10.0
ASTM D695
Flexural Strength,
167 100 110 150 12 – 16 12 – 15 180 NA
103 psi ASTM D790
Long-Term Strength,
103 psi ASTM D1598 2.5 1.2 – 1.5 1.5 – 1.7 1.5 – 1.8 3.9 – 4.7 3.3 – 4.0 1.5 – 1.8 15.0
ASTM D2837
Izod Impact ft-lbs/in
of notch (f) NA No Break 3 – 24 6 - 24 0.6 – 2.5 5 – 17 6 - 24 41
ASTM D256
Heat Deflect Under
140 at 66 150 – 160 – 156 –
Load, °F at 264 psi NA 160 - 180 180 - 200 220
psi 175 173 162
ASTM D648
Density g/cm3 0.926 – 0.941- 0.947 – 1.37 –
1.03 – 1.06 NA 0.941 – 0.955 1.75
ASTM D792 0.940 0.947 0.955 1.43
Water Absorption
0.04 –
% in 24 h. 0.8 0.1 0.1 0.1 NA 0.1 0.06 – 0.07
0.05
ASTM D570
Methane
Gas Permeability (h) 4.2x10-3 2.4x10-3 2.4x10-3 0.2x10-3 2.4x10-3 nil (e)
Ft3-Mil/Ft3-Day-Atm
Hydrogen (h) 21x10-3 16x10-3 16x10-3 14x10-3 16x10-3 NA

Flammability in/min
NA 1.0 1.0 1.0 nil (e) NA 0.6
ASTM D635
Coefficient of
Expansion
NA 7 – 12 7 - 12 7 – 12 3–4 4–5 7 – 12 1.4
in/in/°Fx10-5
ASTM D696 (b)
(a) Data obtained from specific pipe compound (where available) at 23°C (73.4°F) unless otherwise noted.
(b) Extruded pipe values can vary from molded test specimens. If more exact manufacturer valves are required for a specified resin, or for
extruded pipe, the manufacturer should be consulted.
(c) The only reported difference in physical properties between PVC 1120 and PVC 1220 is the difference in resistance to concentrated sulfuric
acid.
(d) No yield, ultimate reported.
(e) No measurable amount after 1200 hours of test; test discontinued.
(f) The Izod impact value will depend on the method of specimen molding and dimensions and can range beyond values shown.
(g) Average time of burning <5 sec., average extent of burning <10 min.
(h) Permeation rate of polyamide is 30 time less that that of PE 3408 or 2.2 x 10-3 m3/bar/day and 3 times lower for hydrogen or 69 x 10-3
m3/bar/day.
NA = Not Applicable
4
DESCRIPTION OF PIPING MATERIALS

The distinctive characteristics of each of the plastic materials used for fuel gas piping are as follows:
Polyethylene (PE)
Polyethylene is a plastic or resin prepared by the polymerization of ethylene as essentially the sole monomer.
Ethylene, which has the chemical formula of C2H4, is an alkene or olefin; that is, it is an aliphatic hydrocarbon that
has a carbon–carbon double bond in its molecular structure. Ethylene used in the polymerization to polyethylene is
a product of natural gas or oil refining. Polyethylene resins are supplied in the form of pellets that may be either in
a natural (non-colored) or precompounded colored form. Photos I-3 and I-4 show examples of PE pellets.
PHOTO I-3. PE Pellets - Natural and Color Concentrates

Photo credit: PPI
PHOTO I-4. PE Pellets - Salt & Pepper Blend

Photo credit: PPI
5 --``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

Polyethylene properties that account for its place as the leader among plastic gas piping materials are:
• Crack propagation resistance
• Chemically inert
• Low flexural modulus of elasticity which allows the pipe to be coiled
• High impact strength
• Abrasion resistance
• Heat fusibility
• Ability to be squeezed
To provide protection to the polymer during processing, storage, and service, small amounts of ultraviolet (UV)
stabilizers and antioxidants are added. Black PE pipe utilizes finely divided carbon black as both a pigment and a
screen to protect against UV radiation. Nonblack compositions include a UV stabilizer in addition to a pigment.
Although tan or orange pigments have been previously used widely, yellow has become the internationally accepted
identification color for gas pipe. Note: The American Public Works Association/Utility Location Coordination
Council (ULCC) color coding for temporary surface markouts on underground utilities require that natural gas lines
be marked in a fluorescent yellow color.
Properties of Polyethylene
The properties of a polyethylene material depend on three molecular parameters: molecular branching (density),
molecular weight (melt index), and molecular weight distribution. Essentially, PE consists of a long molecular chain
formed by the bonding of thousands of ethylene monomer units. Occasionally, short-chain branches project from
this straight-chain backbone. The chemical makeup, length, and distribution and frequency of these branches
influence how closely the long chains can pack together and form crystalline regions within a sea of less orderly, or
amorphous material. The density reflects the extent of crystallinity. High density PEs have more crystalline regions
which results in greater tensile strength, but lower flexibility.
Branching in a PE resin is normally controlled in two ways. One is by altering the polymerization conditions
including temperature, pressure, and catalyst. The other is by the addition of a copolymer like butene, hexene, or
octene.
Long-term performance of a PE material is strongly affected by average molecular weight and molecular weight
distribution. To express this another way, performance depends on the length of the average chain, and the statistical
distribution of the group around this average. The properties of any PE material are a result of a careful balancing of
these parameters. A 1992 survey revealed that about 2/3 of the gas piping purchased was medium density and 1/3
high density. In 1998, the percentage of medium density is closer to 85%.
Recent developments on improving the properties of polyethylene materials have resulted in numerous
educational presentations and papers on the introduction of higher performance polyethylene at various AGA
forums and increased activity in the standards development area to incorporate these materials while maintaining the
performance requirements and integrity of traditional PE 2406 and PE 3408 gas pipes that have served the gas
industry effectively.
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
CLASSIFICATION OF POLYETHYLENE MATERIALS

ASTM D 3350
ASTM D 3350, “Standard Specification for Polyethylene Pipe and Fitting Materials’ provides a means to classify
polyethylene pipe materials. As shown by Table I-4, this document identifies six cell classes. The first four cells
establish limits for the following short-term properties:
• Density (ASTM D1505)
• Melt index (ASTM D2138)
• Flexural modulus (ASTM D2290)
• Tensile strength (ASTM D638)
The fifth and sixth cells identify the follow long- term properties:
• Slow crack growth resistance using either ESCR (ASTM D 1693) or PENT (ASTM F 1473).
• Hydrostatic strength classification for water at 23C (73F)
Table I-4 illustrates the manner in which ASTM D 3350 would classify a PE 233464E material.
6
PE Pipe Material Designation Code

The Thermoplastic Pipe Material Designation Code provides a useful description of PE materials. The Material
Designation Code consists of the abbreviation for the type of plastic (PE) followed by a four-digit numerical code.
The first two digits designate the ASTM Pipe Grade which is represented by a code that consists of the two letter
abbreviation for polyethylene (PE) followed by two numbers that designate the density cell (Property 1) and the
slow crack growth resistance cell (Property 5) as specified in Table 1 of ASTM D 3350. The last two digits
represent the material’s maximum recommended design stress for water at 23°C (73°F) as provide by Plastic Pipe
Institute document PPI-TR4. The stress is expressed in units of 100 psi. Table 1-3 lists all of the material
designation currently referenced in ASTM D2513. PE3360 was removed from ASTM D2513 in 1985. For
example:
• PE 2406 is a Grade PE24 material with a density cell classification of 2, a slow crack growth cell
classification of 4, and has a maximum hydrostatic design stress (HDS) for water at 23°C (73°F) of 630 psi.
• PE 3408 is a Grade PE 34 material with a density cell classification of 3, a slow crack growth cell
classification of 4, and has a maximum hydrostatic design stress (HDS) for water at 23°C (73°F) of 800 psi.
Note that the hydrostatic strength classification for water is used only for the purposes of material designation.
Federal Regulation 49 CFR 192 limits the design stress for pipes in gas distribution service.
New Developments in PE Pipe Material Classifications

Polyethylene pipe performance properties have improved significantly since the last revision to the PE Pipe
Material Classification. As a result additional material designations are needed to differentiate the higher
performing materials. In 2005 and 2006 there have been changes to ASTM D3350 and PPI TR-4 that resulted in
new Polyethylene Pipe Material Classifications recognizing these improved pipe material properties.
There were two changes in ASTM D3350 that affect the Pipe Material Designation Classification. The previous
density cell classification of ‘3’ (property 1 in ASTM D3350 Table 1) has been split into 2 cells labeled ‘3’ and ‘4’.
The previous density cell classification of ‘4’ has been renumbered as cell class ‘5’. Additionally, a new Slow
Crack Growth cell classification of 7 has been added to the table to recognize PE pipe materials that have a PENT
value exceeding 500 hrs.
PPI TR4 also changed to recognize an increased design factor for higher performing pipe materials. For
materials that meet a PENT of >500 hrs, HDB lower confidence limit of >90%, and meet ASTMD2837
requirements for 50year linear substantiation PPI TR4 recognizes that higher design factor is justified. This results
in a higher Hydrostatic Design Stress for water at 23°C (73°F). As noted above, the hydrostatic design stress
classification for water is used only for the purposes of material designation and classification. Federal Regulation
49 CFR 192 limits the design stress for pipes in gas distribution service.
As a result of these changes new Pipe Material Designations will be added to ASTM D2513 and the Pipe
Material Designations for some current PE pipe materials will change. The following are examples of recent
changes.
• The Pipe Material Designation of most PE2406 pipe materials will change to PE2708
• The Pipe Material Designation of PE3408 pipe materials will change to either PE3608, PE3710, or PE4710
depending on the pipe performance properties.
Note that these changes are not yet incorporated in ASTM D2513 and by reference not incorporated in
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
49CFR192. Until such time that DOT references the newer version of ASTM D2513 that contains these material
codes, the pipes will be marked with both the Pipe Material Designation of the referenced year of D2513 and the
current Pipe Material Designation.
ASTM D 2513
To provide a more useful description of PE materials ASTM D 2513 uses the standard thermoplastic material
designation code which consist of the abbreviation for the type of plastic (PE) followed by a four-digit numerical
code. The first two digits designate the ASTM Pipe Grade which is represented by a code that consists of the two
letter abbreviation for polyethylene (PE) followed by two numbers that designate the density cell (Property 1) and
the slow crack growth resistance cell (Property 5) as specified in Table 1 of ASTM D 3350. The last two digits
7
represent the material’s maximum recommended design stress for water at 23°C (73°F). The stress is expressed in
units of 100 psi with any decimals dropped. For example:
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
• PE 2406 is a Grade PE 24 material in accordance with D 3350 and has a maximum hydrostatic design stress
(HDS) for water at 23°C (73°F) of 630 psi.
• PE 3408 is a Grade PE 34 material with a maximum HDS of 800 psi.
Other pipe designations referenced in ASTM D 2513 are listed in Table I-2. In 1985 PE 3306 was removed from
ASTM D2513.
In this material designation system the HDS is established applying a design (or reduction) factor of 0.5 to the
Hydrostatic Design Basis (HDB). The HDB is the categorized long-term strength and is determined in accordance
with ASTM D 2837, Standard Method for Obtaining Hydrostatic Design Basis for Thermoplastic Pipe Materials.
For further discussion of this subject refer to the section, Forecasting Pipe Strength.
As pointed out in Chapter II, Federal Regulation 49 CFR 192 requires that for fuel gas transport the design factor
to be applied on the HDB be not greater than 0.32. Therefore, the maximum HDS values for water that are part of
this PE material designation system are greater than the maximum permitted for gas. For fuel gas the allowable HDS
is only 64% of the maximum established for water service.
TABLE I-2. Hydrostatic Design Basis (Strength Categories) and Hydrostatic Design Stresses (HDS)
for Thermoplastic Pipe Materials for Water Services at 23° C (73.4° F)
Hydrostatic Hydrostatic Design Stress (HDS)

Material Designation Per
Design Basis at 23° C (73.4° F)3
ASTM D 25131
(HDB)2
For Water
PE 2406 1250 630
PE 3408 1600 800
PA 32312 2500 1250
PVC 1120 4000 2000
PVC 1220 4000 2000
PVC 2116 3200 1600
1
The first two digits of the material designation code the material in accordance with the applicable ASTM material
specification (i.e. ASTM D 3350 for PE, D 4066 for PA, and D 1784 for PVC). The last two digits code the
maximum recommended HDS for water expressed in hundreds of PSI.
2
The HDB is per ASTM D 2837.
3
The maximum HDS for water is established by multiplying HDB by a design factor of 0.5, whereas a design factor
of 0.32 is used for fuel gas.
Polyamide (PA) (a.k.a. Nylon)

Polyamides are thermoplastics produced in a condensation reaction. The polymer is produced from one of three
types of commercially available monomers. The monomer units are joined by amide links hence the name
polyamide. The frequency or density of these amide links will determine the type of polyamide. The most common
polyamides are types 6 and 66. ASTM D 4066 further classifies polyamides into group or type, class, and grade.
Some polyamide materials are modified with fillers, plasticizers, stabilizers and/or pigments. Because of the wide
range of formulations for polyamides, their physical / chemical properties can also vary. In general, polyamides
offer excellent chemical and temperature resistance and good mechanical strength.
Polyamide 11
Polyamide 11 is the only polyamide currently listed in ASTM D 2513 for use in gas piping and is classified by
D 4066 as PA 323. The pipe is currently pigmented yellow to conform to the American Public Works Association /
Utility Location Coordination Council recommendations for the marking of gas lines. Polyamide 11 is made from
the monomer aminoundecanioc acid. This monomer is a derivative of castor oil. Polyamide 11 has been
8
commercially available since 1955. It is used extensively in both onshore and offshore gas and oil production.
Polyamide 11 exhibits excellent resistance to the temperature and environments found in these types of applications.
Polyamide 11 has also been used for gas distribution since 1971 in Australia.
Due to its excellent high temperature/pressure properties and resistance to slow crack growth, PA-11 is an
excellent candidate for gas piping applications such as bridge crossings, horizontal directional drilling (HDD), pipe
bursting, feeder lines to outlying communities, steel replacement and insertion renewal of metal piping.
Properties of Polyamide-11 (PA-11) Materials

The properties of polyamides can vary greatly as a function of type or group. PA 11 is listed in ASTM D 2513
(since 1995). The following properties make PA 11 an excellent candidate for plastic gas distribution pipe:
• Low crystallinity
• Excellent impact strength
• Good flexibility
• Low water absorption
• Excellent chemical resistance
• Low hydrocarbon permeation
• Excellent mechanical strength.
• Heat fusibility
• Ability to be coiled
• Excellent resistance to slow crack growth (SCG) (no PENT failures through 8,000 hrs.)
• Excellent high temperature piping properties (has an 180°F HDB)
• Excellent pressure bearing capabilities (73°F HDB of 2,500 psi)
PA-11 product requirements are described in ASTM D 2513 Annex A5.
The Table I-5 represents typical properties of PA 11 based on testing of 2” IPS SDR 11 pipe.
CLASSIFICATION OF POLYAMIDE MATERIALS

Polyamides are specified by ASTM D 4066. This standard divides polyamides into 11 groups or types based
upon the amide density of the polymer. These groups are then divided into classes based on application. The
classes are finally divided into grades based on properties. PA 323 (PA-11) is currently the only polyamide material
listed in ASTM D 2513 under mandatory Annex A5. PA 323 is a group 3, class 2, grade 3 polyamide. Per ASTM
D 4066 this translates to a heat stabilized polyamide 11 meeting the specification for a grade 3. ASTM D 2513
echoes these requirements.
ASTM D 2513
Polyamide 11 piping requirements are contained in D 2513 Annex A5
Polyamide-11 Installations
Under waivers granted by the US Department of Transportation, Polyamide-11 is now installed and in natural
gas service in various parts of the US under varied pressures (60 to 200 psig), design factors of 0.32 and 0.40, and a
variety of environments (wet and rocky soils, cold and hot/dry climates).
9
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
TABLE I-3. Classification of Polyethylene Materials

Test
Property 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Method
1 Density, g/cm3 D 1505 Unspecified 0.925 or >0.925 - >0.940 – >0.947 – >0.955… … specify
lower 0.940 0.947 0.955 value
A
2 Melt index D 1238 Unspecified >1.0 1.0 to 0.4 <0.4 to 0.15 <0.15 specify
value
3 Flexural modulus, MPa D 790 Unspecified <138 138 - <276 276 - <552 552 - <758 758 - <1103 ≥1103 specify
(psi) value
(<20 000) (20 000 to (40 000 to (80 000 to (110 000 to (≥160 000)
<40 000) <80 000) <110 000) <160 000)
4 Tensile strength at yield, D 638 Unspecified <15 15 - <18 18 - <21 21 - <24 24 - <28 ≥28 specify
MPa (psi) value
(<2200) (2200 - (2600 - (3000 - (3500 - <4000) (≥4000)
<2600) <3000) <3500)
5 Slow Crack Growth

Resistance
I. ESCR D 1693 Unspecified
a. Test condition A B C C … … … specify
(100 % Igepal.) value
b. Test duration, h 48 24 192 600
c. Failure, max, % 50 50 20 20
specify
II. PENT (hours) F 1473 Unspecified … … … 10 30 100 500 value
Molded plaque,
80oC, 2.4 MPa
Notch depth,
F 1473, Table 1
6 Hydrostatic Strength
Classification
I. Hydrostatic design basis, D 2837 NPRB 5.52 6.89 8.62 11.03 … …
MPa (psi), (23oC) (800) (1000) (1250) (1600)
8 10
II. Minimum required ISO 12162 (1160) (1450)
strength, MPa (psi), (20°C)
A
Refer to ASTM D3350 §10.1.4.1
B
NPR = Not Pressure Rated
The ending code letter designates the color and UV stabilizer as follows:
Code Letter Color and UV Stabilizer

A Natural
B Colored
C Black with 2% minimum carbon black
D Natural with UV stabilizer
E Colored with UV stabilizer
10
TABLE I-4.
Classification Example Per ASTM D 3350 for PE 233464E Material
Class
2 3 3 4 6 4 E
Density (0.926 0.940 g/cm3)
Melt index (<0.4 – 0.15)
Flexural modulus (276 - <758 MPa)

(40 000 - <110 000 psi)
Tensile strength at yield (21 - <24 MPa)

(3000 - <3500 psi)
Slow Crack Growth Resistance

II. PENT F 1473
100 h failure time
Hydrostatic design basis at 23oC

(11.03 MPa (1600 psi))
Color and UV stabilizer (colored)
POLY (VINYL CHLORIDE) (PVC)

Recently, ASTM D 2513 was revised to permit the use of PVC piping only for repair of existing piping.
PVC became popular for both pressure and nonpressure piping because of its chemical resistance, long-term
strength and high stiffness. However, PE has largely displaced it for gas distribution.
PVC used for piping contains no plasticizers and minimal quantities of other additives. Such compositions are
generally called rigid PVC to differentiate them from the flexible, plasticized compounds used for nonstructural uses.
Additives that are used may be lubricants, stabilizers, modifiers, and pigments; the amount and type has a major effect on
performance and processability. The formulation is made to attain a balance of these two requirements.
Small variations in additives can also significantly affect aging. Since extruders often do their own compounding,
widely varying aging characteristics are possible. Since ASTM classifications measure only initial short-term
properties of unprocessed material, these differences may go undetected.
A study was made of PVC compounds exposed to three years of outdoor exposure at three U.S.A. locations. It
showed significant differences in aging of the three compounds; each had a different modifier. Similar but less
marked effects were noted for laboratory-stored samples. Rigid PVC used for pressure pipe has been identified by
the Type and Grade designation of the first editions of ASTM D 1784, “Standard Specification for Rigid Poly (Vinyl
Chloride) (PVC) and Chlorinated Poly (Vinyl Chloride) (CPVC) Compounds”. Type I has been formulated to
provide optimum strength, and chemical and temperature resistance. Type II has been made with modifiers that
improved impact strength but reduced the above two properties. Currently little Type II is being made since new
Type I materials have adequate impact strength.
Grade designation refers to chemical resistance. Grade 1 has maximum resistance.
The current ASTM D 1784 classifies rigid vinyl compositions by the use of six cell classes. The first identifies
the nature of the base polymer, PVC, CPVC, or vinyl chloride copolymers. The next five reference the following
short-term properties.
• Impact strength
• Tensile strength
• Modulus of elasticity
• Deflection temperature under load
• Chemical resistance
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
11
TABLE I-5.
Typical Properties of PA 11 Based on Testing of 2” IPS SDR 11 Pipe
PROPERTY UNITS PA 11
TEST METHOD
Hydrostatic Quick Burst Stress ASTM D 1599 psi 7585
Tensile Properties
Stress at Yield ASTM D 638 psi 5690
Strain at Yield ASTM D 638 % 14.0
Flexural Modulus ASTM D 790 psi 211,000
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Apparent Ring Tensile ASTM D 2290 psi 7400
Capillary
Resin Melt Viscosity Rheometry at 1000 Pas 430
s-1, 460°F and
0.04% moisture –
Density ASTM D 792 1.03
Chemical Resistance ASTM D 543 as

Methanol per requirements of % Change in + 3.1 / - 39.5
Ethylene Glycol ASTM D 2513 Weight / %
Mineral Oil change in + 0.6 / -0.3
Tertiary-butyl Mercaptan 5% Stress at Yield +1.4 /-3.7
vol. in Mineral Oil + 0.020 / - 2.0
Toluene, 15 vol. % in Methanol + 4.8 / - 34.2*
Melting Point ASTM D 3418 ºF 371
*
The majority of this change in weight is due to the methanol as 7 months exposure to 100% toluene at 20C (68F) gives
1.5% increase in weight
The following list cross-references the main PVC piping materials from the old to the new ASTM D 1784 classification
system.
Older System ASTM D 1784

Type and Grade Designation Minimum Cell Class
Type I, Grade 1 12454 B
Type I, Grade 2 12454 C
Type II, Grade 1 14333 D
As with PE, pressure piping made of PVC is identified by a combined designation. The material classification is
combined with a code that denotes the maximum recommended HDS for water at 23°C (73°F).
For example:
PVC 1120 is a Type I, Grade 1 (minimum cell class 12454 B per the new ASTM D 1784) with an HDS of 2000
psi for water at 23°C (73°F).
REINFORCED EPOXY RESIN PIPE

In appearance, this pipe is generally translucent with fibers visibly embedded a thermoset epoxy matrix. The
exterior is somewhat uneven but the interior is smooth due to the use of a mandrel during manufacture. The
reinforcement is a glass filament continuously wound around the pipe length. The hoop tensile strength is generally
12
high and can be adjusted by means of the angle of wrap and the amount of glass used.
This pipe is less temperature sensitive than thermoplastic pipes. Depending on the formulation of the epoxy resin
it can have better resistance to organic solvents. The fracture behavior or failure mechanism is almost always by
weeping so that large brittle breaks are rarely encountered. However, it is sensitive to crushing, impact, and point
loading.
Product requirements are defined in ASTM D 2517, “Standard Specification for Reinforced Epoxy Resin Gas
Pressure Pipe and Fittings”.
Epoxy fiberglass pipe can be joined with mechanical fittings or with epoxy adhesive available in special kits.
CROSSLINKED POLYETHYLENE (PEX) PIPE

Due to its excellent thermal stability, resistance to slow crack growth and rapid crack propagation, chemical
resistance, higher temperature long-term strength and abrasion resistance, PEX piping systems are being explored
for use in gas distribution applications where polyethylene pipe can not be recommended.4 Crosslinking is defined
as the formation of a three dimensional polymer by means of interchain reactions resulting in changes in
physical properties. Altering the structure of the polyethylene molecule by modifying the long, simple chain of
hydrogen and carbon atoms creates free radical atoms that reattach in a crosslinked pattern. While crosslinked
polyethylene appears very similar to polyethylene, PEX is a solid thermoset-like material that does not melt.
In North America PEX pipe is produced using one of the following three crosslinking technologies: (a) peroxide
crosslinking, (b) silane crosslinking and (c) irradiation (electron beam) crosslinking. Pipe and tubing requirements
are set forth in Annex A7 of ASTM D 2513.
Joining of PEX Pipe and Tubing

Extra care should be used when selecting a joining method on PEX pipe for gas applications. It has not been
shown that PEX gas piping can be joined by butt fusion or socket fusion. It has been shown to be possible to join
PEX pipe and tubing using conventional non-crosslinked PE electrofusion fittings; however, the performance of
such joints has not been fully investigated for all types of PEX piping. There is some controversy as to the longevity
of such joints. For this reason, it is recommended that electrofusion fittings be used for joining PEX gas piping only
after receiving recommendations for such use by both the manufacturers of the specific PEX gas piping and the
electrofusion fittings to be used. PEX gas piping can be joined using mechanical fittings designed and
recommended by the manufacturer for joining D2513 PEX piping for use in fuel gas applications.
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
NEW PLASTIC MATERIALS FOR PIPING AND MOLDED FITTINGS
Periodically, new materials are proposed for use for pipe or molded fittings in natural gas fuel distribution
systems. Listed below and summarized in Table I-6 is the type of information believed to be most important for the
evaluation of such materials.
Related to Strength, Durability, and Effects of Temperature and Environment:

1.1 Evidence that the pipe and fittings can perform satisfactorily in a fuel gas environment. ASTM D 2513 suggests
a minimum of 3 years of service related experience. There should be no significant change in physical or mechanical
properties during this period.
1.2 Long-term strength with methane and other fuel gases and components at 23°C (73°F) and 60°C (140°F) (ASTM D 2837).
1.3 Effects on long-term strength of surface damage, such as caused by cuts, gouges, and kinks.
1.4 Short-term burst pressure with water (ASTM D 1599).
1.5 Apparent tensile properties (Ring Tensile Strength) (ASTM D 2290, Procedure B).
1.6 Flattening under parallel plate loading, pipe stiffness, crush load and deformation at rupture if any. (ASTM D
2412)
1.7 Impact resistance (ASTM D 2444, Tup B on pipe at 0°C (32°F)).

1.8 Water absorption (ASTM D 570).
13
1.9 Chemical resistance to materials present in a gas system which may include: heptane, toluene, methanol,
isopropanol, t-butyl mercaptan, ethylene glycol, fuel oil, strong acids, and strong bases (ASTM D 2513 or D 2517).
1.10 Other properties such as, but not limited to, fatigue resistance and temperature limitations, and effects of
combined stresses on long-term strength.
1.11 Effect of aging under stress, including change in properties and nature of failure, fracture pattern and change in
pattern.
1.12 Effects of weathering.
TABLE I-6.
Factors Affecting Overall Performance of Plastic Materials in Gas Applications
Related to Strength and Durability

Long-term Strength
Effects of environment on long-term strength
• Weathering
• Organic materials
• Inorganic materials
• Stress-crack sensitivities
Effects of temperature on long-term strengths
Effects of complex and concentrated loadings
Aging
Material specific failure modes
History of service in gas piping applications (at least three years
recommended)
Related to Installation, Maintenance and Safety
Flexibility (coilability)
• Toughness
• Strain sensitivity (as in bending and pinch-off)
• Impact resistance
• Resistance to effects of surface scratching
• Fracture mechanism upon failure
Static electricity buildup
Suitability for connecting
• Plastic to plastic
• Plastic to steel
Ease of repairs
Related to Efficiency and Economy of Operation
Flow
Permeability
Pipe system availability (pipe sizes, fittings, appurtenances)
Availability of ancillary equipment
Related to Installation, Maintenance, and Safety:

2.1 Fracture mechanism, particularly in regard to rapid crack propagation under conditions of use. Does the piping
material fail catastrophically or in a slow growth mode?
2.2 Behavior in compression fittings, such as creep⎯a function of cold flow under compression; pull out resistance.
2.3 Methods of joining and of testing the joints.
2.4 Linear coefficient of thermal expansion, at least over the range -40°C (-40°F) to 60°C (140°F).
14 --``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

2.5 Ability to be squeezed.
2.6 Methods of pipe repair.
Related to Efficiency and Economy of Operation:

3.1 Relative ease of making joints (joint cure, or set time, etc.).
3.2 Relative ease of installation.
3.3 Methane permeability.
3.4 Hydrogen permeability.
Related to Development of Adequate Product Standards.

4.1 Identification of Plastic compounds specifications.
4.2 Fabrication peculiarities and tests for same.
4.3 Chemical sensitivity to specific substances indicating material or fabrication quality; e.g. ASTM D 2152,
acetone immersion test for PVC pipe.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE PERFORMANCE OF PLASTIC PIPING MATERIALS

The service life of a metallic system is largely determined by its corrosion resistance and by the effectiveness of
the cathodic protection system. The durability of a plastic system may be limited by the effects of time, temperature,
and environment on its strength and other properties. When evaluating the potential performance of a plastic system
these effects and others, like those shown in Table I-6, must be considered.
Compared to their metal counterparts plastic pipe has lower tensile strength and is less rigid and more
temperature sensitive. However, plastics do offer sufficient strength and stiffness for the job. They also have
important positive features including:
• immunity from galvanic corrosion
• durability
• light weight
• ease of joining and installing
The combination of these properties gives a system that satisfies the long-term performance requirements of most
fuel gas piping applications in a cost-effective manner.
ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF PLASTIC

Viscoelasticity
Unlike structural metals, the strength, rigidity, and elasticity of plastics can vary substantially with duration of
loading, temperature, and environment. Their response to loads reflects their viscoelastic nature.
Plastics are complex combinations of elastic-like and fluid-like elements. Therefore, they display properties
between those of a crystalline metal and a very viscous fluid. This complexity is shown in simplified form in Figure
I-1. The springs represent the elastic elements, like chemical bonds, crystallinity, and molecular chain rigidity. Each
of these is represented by a different constant or modulus, which responds in accordance with Hooke’s law of
elasticity. The dashpots represent the fluid elements, each of different viscosity, which respond in accordance with
Newton’s viscosity law.
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
15
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
16
Creep
Because of viscoelasticity conventional tensile stress-strain data cannot be used for conditions of continuous
loading or straining.
Tensile tests are conducted over a very short time span. They will not predict the long-term behavior of plastics.
When a plastic is subjected to a constant static load it deforms immediately to a strain predicted by the stress-strain
modulus determined in a tensile test. It then continues to deform indefinitely at a slower rate. If the load is high
enough rupture may eventually occur. This time dependent viscous flow component of deformation is called creep.
The breaking of a specimen during a creep test is called creep rupture.
Tensile creep curves may include three stages.
In the first stage there is large rapid initial deformation.
In the second stage, deformation continues at a relatively slow, decreasing rate. An abrupt failure during this
stage is termed “brittle”.
The third stage usually includes a distinct elongation or yielding of the specimen just prior to a "ductile" rupture.
At the stress levels required for short-term failure there is from about 20% to over 100% material deformation
prior to failure. As the stress levels decrease, time-to-failure increases and material deformation becomes steadily
smaller. At very long failure times deformation is usually less than 5% for thermoplastics. The resultant fracture is
commonly caused by a mechanism of crack initiation and slow crack growth. This brittle failure mechanism, not
excessive deformation, can be the ultimate limit of the performance of plastic pipe subjected to long-term pressure
testing. Inspection of premature field failures confirms this is true. Therefore, resistance to brittle fracture is one of
the most important properties required for gas piping.
Stress Relaxation
Plastics differ from metals in yet another way. Subject a plastic to constant strain (deform it to a given extent) and
if the deformation is maintained, the initial load or stress, generated by this deformation slowly decreases at a
decreasing rate. This is known as the stress relaxation response. Figure I-2 illustrates the effect of time on the creep
and stress relaxation response of plastics.
These two properties are also affected by anything that alters viscoelastic behavior. Temperature, environment,
and substances that can be absorbed such as organic solvents, have a significant effect.
Effective creep and effective stress relaxation modulus are related terms. Effective creep is the ratio of the actual
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
values of stress to strain under continuous loading. Effective stress relaxation modulus is the ratio of the stress to
strain under continuous straining. Because of the creep and stress relaxation responses the effective modulus of
thermoplastics is significantly reduced by the duration of loading. For a 20-year continuous loading period the
effective modulus can be from one quarter to one third of the short-term test value.
Both viscoelastic properties bear careful consideration in the design and selection of a plastic piping material. For
example, the pull out resistance and tightness of seal of a compression fitting depends greatly on creep and stress
relaxation.
Excessive deformation, however, is seldom a design limitation in determining the allowable pressure rating of
plastic pipe. At the allowable design stress levels, the resultant ultimate deformation is not sufficiently large to be of
engineering concern.
Fracture properties of thermoplastics are also sensitive to temperature and other environmental conditions.
Temperature and environment can also affect stiffness and deformation at failure, as well as other mechanical
properties.
The exact time / temperature / environment sensitivity of a plastic depends on:
• The type of plastic (PE, PVC, PA, etc.)
• Polymer characteristics (molecular weight distribution, type and frequency of branching, degree of
crosslinking).
• Composition (types and concentration of additives).
• Fabrication techniques.
17
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Because of these effects each commercial grade of plastic must be individually evaluated for the effects of time,
temperature, and environment, on long-term strength and stress-strain behavior.
The following sections review the time, temperature, and environment dependant aspects of plastics and the
techniques by which such behavior may be assessed.
18
Long-term Strength (LTS)

Both ASTM and Federal Codes require that pressure rating be based on forecasts of long-term strength derived
from tests on actual pipe specimens. These stress rupture tests are performed at temperatures that meet or exceed
those that are encountered in actual service.
One of the key factors to consider in designing a gas distribution system is the maximum allowable operating
pressure (MAOP).
The MAOP for pipe is determined by the long-term strength of the pipe material and the pipe dimensions in
accordance with the following equation:
MAOP = ( 2)( HDB )( DF ) (Eq. 1a)

( DR − 1)
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Where:
HDB b = hydrostatic design basis, psi
DF c = design factor; 0.32 for gas
DR = pipe dimension ratio (ratio of mean outside diameter to minimum wall thickness)
a
Equation 1 is a restatement of the equation prescribed by CFR Title 49, Part 192.121.
b
The hydrostatic design basis (HDB) is the categorized long-term strength of a pipe material in accordance with method ASTM D 2837 (see
text).
c The design factor is used to reduce the HDB to an engineering design stress in consideration of pipe material and pipe quality variables,
strength-time effects, effects of the environment, presence of stresses due to other than internal pressure loading, and safety. CFR Title 49,
Part 192.121 specifies a value of 0.32.As of January 2005 there is a petition before OPS to change the design factor for PA-11 piping to 0.40.
The standard method for establishing a pipe material’s HDB is ASTM D 2837. In this method pipe stress versus
time-to-fail (also known as stress-rupture) data are obtained for the time range between 10 to 10,000 hours. These
data are then plotted on log-log coordinates and the best straight line depicting the stress-rupture behavior is
established mathematically. This line is then extrapolated to 100,000 hours to establish the material’s long-term
strength (LTS).
Figure I-3 shows typical stress rupture data for a 1” SDR 11 PE 2406 material with log hoop stress plotted versus
log time. A regression line is drawn through the data points using a two-coefficient equation:
log t = A + B log S (Eq. 2)
Where:
t = time, hours
S = hoop stress, psi
A, B = constants
This regression line is then extrapolated to 100,000 hours to obtain an LTS of 1,257 psi for this PE 2306 material at
23°C.
Depending on its LTS, a material is classified as follows into one of a number of standard hydrostatic design
basis (HDB) categories:
LTS Range* HDB Category
psi (MPa) psi (MPa)
760-<960 (5.24 to < 6.62) 800 (5.52)

960-<1,200 (6.62 to < 8.27) 1,000 (6.68)
1,200-<1,530 (8.27 to <10.5) 1,250 (8.62)
1,530-<1,920 (10.55 to <13.24) 1,600 (11.03)
1,920-<2,400 (13.24 to <16.55) 2,000 (13.79)
2,400-<3,020 (16.55 to <20.82) 2,500 (17.24)
*
From ASTM D 2837
19
Therefore, PE 2406 material having a 1,257 psi, LTS will be classified with 1,250 psi HDB category.
Once the HDB for the plastic pipe material is known, the pipe DR required for the desired MAOP can be
determined using Equation 1. Standard HDBs at 23°C for thermoplastic pipe materials listed in ASTM D 2513 are
summarized in Table I-2.
ASTM D 2513 requires each commercial pipe composition to have an HDB as determined by ASTM D 2837. All
these data are compiled and evaluated by the Plastics Pipe Institute (PPI), which issues a periodically updated report,
TR-4 that lists commercial materials by their HDB category.
20
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

Rate Process Method to Validate LTS of PE Materials

To help verify linear behavior of the regression line to at least 10,000 hours, ASTM D 2837 includes certain
minimum requirements on testing times (at least 10,000 hours), data point distribution, and minimum number of
data points and tested lots. Furthermore, D 2837 requires statistical tests on quality of data and quality of fit of the
regression line. These measures help to exclude materials with excessive data scatter due to either quality of data or
deviation from assumed straight-line behavior.
For the PE 2306 pipe lot in Figure I-3, which was made in 1965, additional data points have been obtained at
lower stresses and longer times–some over 220,000 hours (25 years). All these data are plotted in Figure I-4. These
additional data points have not affected the LTS value significantly⎯1,265 psi vs 1,257 psi. Therefore, they confirm
that extrapolation of the original 10,000 hours data to 100,000 hours is valid for this pipe lot.
However, some PE materials have exhibited a deviation from linearity, beyond 10,000 hours. This is due to a
change in failure mode from ductile (creep) to brittle or slit (crack propagation). The change in regression line slope
associated with this change in failure mode is known as the “knee” or ductile-to-slit transition. This “knee” occurs
sooner in time as the temperature is increased. When stress rupture data at different temperatures are plotted (log
stress vs log time), one observes a family of curves as seen in Figure I-5. The change in slope is very apparent at
40°C, (104°F) 60°C (140°F), and 80°C (176°F) for this PE 3408 material. The key question is when will this “knee”
or change in slope occur at operating temperature. This is important because the slit failure mode (slow crack
growth) is the long-term failure mode that is actually observed in long-term failures. The ductile failure mode has
only been observed in operating conditions when the pressure is accidentally increased.
From equation 2, it is apparent that log time (t) is linear with log stress (S). At constant stress, rate process theory
correlates log time (t) with reciprocal temperature (T) using this two-coefficient equation:
B
log t = A + (Eq. 3)
T
This time-temperature relationship was first demonstrated by Arrhenius in the 1800s, later by Eyring in the early
1900’s, and more recently by Szpak for PE pipe as shown in Figure I-6.5 Bragaw combined equations (2) and (3) to
develop the Rate Process Method, which is a three-coefficient mathematical expression that combines time,
temperature, and stress as shown in equation (4): 6
B C log S (Eq. 4)
log t = A + +
T T
21
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
By using slit failure mode data at elevated temperatures, the Rate Process Method can project slit failure mode times at
lower temperatures, such as 23°C (73°F), 20°C (68°F), 15°C (59°F), etc. For example, in Figure I-5, the “knee” or change in
slope associated with change in failure mode from ductile-to-slit is projected to occur at 20°C (68°F) at about 30,000 hours.
The Plastics Pipe Institute Extrapolation Methods Committee (EMC) used multi-temperature stress rupture data
from six PE materials of known field performance to evaluate seven predictive equations. Based on correlation
between predicted performance and known performance, and statistical probability for extrapolation, EMC selected
the three-coefficient Rate Process Method equation. 7
Effective January 1, 1986, the Plastics Pipe Institute adopted this Rate Process Method for validating the ASTM
D 2837 assumption of straight-line behavior. This validation method is based on the rate process theory.
In 1988, validation of the HDB for 23°C (73°F) for PE materials was added as a requirement to ASTM D 2837.
This validation requirement uses two procedures; one employs the Rate Process Method equation, and the other
requires no failure at 80°C (176°F) after 6,000 hours. In 1998, validation of the HDB for PE materials at elevated
temperatures was added to ASTM D2837.
In 1990, ASTM D 2513 added validation of PE HDBC as a requirement for the pipe producer. Validation can be
achieved by testing pipe using the Rate Process Method (Procedure I), or by testing pipe at 80°C (176°F) for 6,000
hours with no failure (Procedure II). This 80°C (176°F) performance is accepted as assurance of 23°C (73°F)
regression line linearity to at least 100,000 hours. 8
22
The principal embodied in the Rate Process Method, namely, that for each commercial grade PE material there is
a specific correspondence between stress rupture behavior at longer times/lower temperatures with that at shorter
times/higher temperatures, has also led to a suggested higher temperature quality control test for PE pipe.9 Some
manufacturers and users have already adopted such a test. Furthermore, 80°C (176°F) stress rupture requirements
have been added to various ASTM pipe standards and to international pipe standards.
FORECASTING THE LONG-TERM STRENGTH OF PE FITTINGS AND JOINTS

To assure adequate strength of PE fittings ASTM D 2683 and D 3261 impose the following requirements: that a
fitting be made from the same material as the pipe and, that when tested as a fitting/pipe assembly, its 1,000 hour
rupture strength shall not be less than that of the minimum allowable 1,000 hour strength of the pipe with which the
fitting is to be used. These two ASTM fitting standards also permit the use of 80°C sustained pressure testing as an
option for the manufacturer.
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
PHOTO I-5. Long Term Hydrostatic Test Equipment

Photo credit: Performance Pipe.
The long-term performance of heat fusion fittings and joints has been forecast using the same Rate Process
Method equation that is used for PE pipe validation. Data have been presented on several piping components such
as: socket fittings,10 butt fittings, bending at socket joints,11 and butt-fused pipe. Several examples have also been
given showing very good agreement between experimental data obtained at 23°C (73°F) on fittings and projections
made by the Rate Process Method equation using data obtained on the same fitting type at elevated temperatures.12
Obtaining Rate Process Method data at various temperatures can be very time consuming. Shift functions have
been developed so that data can be shifted bidirectionally to other temperatures and other stresses.13 For example,
one could shift polyethylene 80°C/600 psi data to 23°C/1200 psi. This shift function theory assumes that the
temperature coefficient, i.e., the “B” coefficient in either equation (3) or (4), is constant for all polyethylene
materials. This “B” coefficient is the activation energy, or energy barrier that impedes a rate process. In actuality,
the “B” coefficient is not constant for all polyethylene, as can be seen by the variety of slopes in the log t vs 1/T
Arrhenius plot (Figure I-6). However, the error in assuming that “B” is constant for all PE materials is only about
±15 or 20%. Therefore, as a first approximation, use of the shift function theory can provide a reasonable estimate of
lower temperature failure times by only using one elevated temperature. When using shift functions, one must also
remember that the shift is bidirectional, i.e., the data must be shifted to a lower temperature and a higher stress. By
obtaining elevated temperature data (80°C) at different stresses, one can define the slit slope at this temperature and
then shift the slope to a lower temperature. As a first approximation and recognizing a possible error of ±15 to 20%,
this shift function method can be a very useful tool.
23
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
PENT and Notched Pipe Slow Crack Growth (SCG) Test Methods
Because of the improved resistance to slow crack growth in modern thermoplastic piping materials, two test
methods have been developed to reduce 80°C (176°F) failure times by introducing notches to reduce crack initiation
time: A third slow crack growth test ESCR*, although used in the past, has been displaced by the two methods
described below.
PHOTO I- 6. PENT Test Equipment

a) 80°C (176°F) notch test (ASTM F 1474)
b) PENT test (ASTM F 1473)
The 80°C full notch test was developed by British Gas Corporation in the early 1980s. It is now used in several
European countries and has been incorporated into the International Standard for gas pipe, ISO 4437. In this test
method, the whole pipe is tested at 80°C (176°F). The outside is notched in four places by machining a long notch at
a depth of about 20% of the wall thickness. This test method can be used to establish material requirements for
resistance to slow crack growth, and is also useful as a quality control test for pipe. A key advantage of this test
method is that the whole pipe is tested. It has been demonstrated that changes in extrusion parameters for PE pipe do
have an effect on 80°C (176°F) notch test results.14 Therefore, this test method is very useful for gas companies who
desire to test pipe extrusion quality.
*
Environmental Stress Crack Resistance (ESCR) for PE Materials. In the past it was the experience of some utilities has shown that for some
polyethylene gas piping materials ESCR correlates with long-term performance. Because of this ASTM F 1248, “Standard Test Method for
Determination of Environmental Stress Crack Resistance (ESCR) of Polyethylene Pipe”, was developed. It is acknowledged that this test does not
directly measure slow crack growth. The most common ESCR test done on PE materials is ASTM D 1693, “Test Method for Environmental
Stress Cracking of Ethylene Plastics.”
24
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Photo I- 7. PENT Test Apparatus
The PENT (Pennsylvania Notch Test) is one of the best test methods available to measure slow crack growth
resistance of polyethylene pipe and resins. In this test method (ASTM F 1473), the pipe resin is compression molded
into a bar, which is then slowly notched with a razor blade. The specimen is tested at 80°C (176°F). With the
increased precision and lower failure times resulting from notching a bar specimen, this test method is very useful
for resin and pipe suppliers to monitor SCG resistance of the base resin.15 This test method has also been applied to
other thermoplastic materials.
Temperature Resistance
The stress rating of plastic pipe and components is based on a standard temperature of 23°C (73°F). It is
generally accepted that for most parts of North America the operating temperature of a buried pipeline is unlikely to
exceed this value. Higher temperatures may be encountered such as in the above ground portion of service risers.
This must be considered in the design of the system.
ASTM D 2513 includes provisions for pressure testing pipe at elevated temperatures and then marking the pipe
with a specified two or three-letter code. The first letter identifies the temperature of the pressure rating, the second
letter identifies the HDB of the material at its highest rated temperature and the third letter identifies the melt index.
This coding system is shown in Chapter 2 in Table II-2.
The current version of ASTM D 2513 requires that all PEs to be used for gas piping have an HDB for 60°C
(140°F). This higher temperature HDB requirement is beneficial because of the greater assurance it gives of the
reliability of the long-term strength estimate of the HDB for 23°C (73°F).
Current DOT regulations limit the maximum service temperature to 60°C (140°F) for thermoplastic and 66°C
(151°F) for fiberglass reinforced epoxy pipe.
It is suggested that systems not be operated above 38°C (100°F) unless every component has demonstrated that it
can function safely at the expected pressure and this higher temperature. PA-11 is an excellent candidate for higher
temperature piping applications due to its excellent mechanical strength at higher temperatures with an HDB of
1,600 psi at 140°F (60°C) and 1,250 at 180°F (82°C).
It is advisable to evaluate new materials for long-term strength at two or more higher temperatures even if the
material is to be used at ground temperature. This information can provide a more useful assessment of the long-
term durability of the piping material.
Chemical Resistance
Inorganic Chemicals. Generally speaking, plastic piping is much more resistant to inorganic chemicals than
metals. All plastics currently being installed for gas pipe applications are extremely resistant to the inorganic acids,
bases, and salts that they might encounter in service. Only very strong oxidizing or reducing agents will attack these
plastics. Polyamides are sensitive to attack by strong concentrated inorganic acids and bases and are not intended to
be used in services required to resist prolonged exposure to concentrated strong inorganic acids and bases.
25
Organic Chemicals. Some organic chemicals may affect thermoplastics. The affect may be swelling,
environmental stress cracking or plastification. Swelling and plastification of a plastic is caused by the absorption of
a liquid. The effect can range from complete dissolution to minor swelling and softening with negligible change in
physical properties.
The solvent cementing of PVC pipe is based on solvation. By the use of selective solvents that evaporate after
completing their task, solvent cementing makes it possible to create a monolithic joint that retains the properties of
the original materials.
When plastic is contacted by a solvent in the gaseous state there is no solvation. Therefore, polyethylene pipe is
considered suitable for LPG gases but not for LPG liquids. Similarly, odorants and heavier hydrocarbons can affect
polyethylene in the liquid but not the gaseous state. The extent of the effect depends on the interaction of the
particular plastic with the particular solvent at the exposure conditions. Non-polar liquid hydrocarbons, such as
petroleum distillate, may affect non-polar materials, like polyethylene. Similarly, polar polymers like PVC can be
softened by liquid polar solvents such as those used in the solvent cement systems. Because polyamide (PA) is a
polar material, it is not affected by non-polar liquid hydrocarbons such as LP gas liquids. In fact, PA 11 has a long
history of transporting liquid hydrocarbons, such as automotive fuels, because of its excellent resistance to liquid
hydrocarbons. Liquid polar solvents such as methanol can be absorbed by polyamides and reduce the strength of the
material.
Multiple design factors (service, temperature, chemical, others) may be necessary for certain applications. For
example, one may apply a service design factor (FS) for a specific application and then apply a temperature design
factor (FT) if that piping is used above the temperature for which its HDB has been established. One may also apply
a chemical design factor (FC) if that piping is used in the presence of a chemical environment that lowers the HDB
of the material (see PPI TR-9, TR-19 and TR-22).
F = (FS) (FT) (FC)
Polyamide (PA) pipe is not affected by liquid hydrocarbons; therefore, there is no need to de-rate the design
pressure. It is recommended that when polyethylene (PE) pipe is going to be continuously exposed to liquid
hydrocarbons that the design pressure (Part 192.121) be de-rated in accordance with the Table I-7 below. If the PE
pipe will only have intermittent exposure to liquid hydrocarbons, a chemical design factor between 0.5 and 1.0
should be selected.
TABLE I-7.
Derating Factors for Exposure to Liquid Hydrocarbons
Plastic Piping Material Approved in ASTM D2513 Multiply the Design Pressure determined under
192.121 by the following chemical design factor:
PE (polyethylene) 0.50
PVC (poly (vinyl chloride)) 0.50
PA (polyamide) 1.00
The possible sensitivity of a plastic to a solvent may be checked by means of a simple immersion test such as
those in ASTM D 2513 and ASTM D 2517. However, simple immersion tests may not show changes in measured
properties. Some effects may not be evident unless the plastic is under stress. When there is an effect it may display
itself by increased deformation or lower rupture strength of the plastic. Therefore, simple immersion tests alone are
not adequate for a complete evaluation.
In environmental stress cracking (ESC), no solvation or any form of chemical attack is involved. Although the
exact process leading to ESC is not known, it is believed that it results from the action of a sensitizing agent on
minute flaws in a stressed or strained polymer. The agent accelerates the rate of crack propagation under stress. If
the plastic is not sufficiently stressed, cracking will not occur. Environmental stress cracking agents, such as
detergents and alcohols, are liquids with high surface wetting tendencies.
Therefore, when evaluating the resistance of a plastic piping material to an environment that is likely to be
encountered in service, consideration must be given to the influence of stress.
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
26
Aging Resistance
Aging of plastics results in the loss of strength or some other performance property with time. If the effects of
aging are severe they can be detected visually. More often the changes are subtle and can be assessed only by
mechanical or physical tests capable of detecting small changes in the relevant property. Short-term laboratory tests
which measure tensile, flexural, and impact properties are sometimes useful but they may fail to identify changes in
other important properties such as long-term strength. More precise assessments can be made by long term testing,
such as creep-rupture or by the evaluation of performance experience under actual end-use conditions.
Aging of plastics can result from chemical or physical changes in the structure of the material. Chemical aging
refers to those effects caused by some alteration of the polymer molecule by chemical action such as oxidation,
hydrolysis, photo degradation (most often by sunlight), or biological degradation. Physical aging includes effects
caused by changes in crystalline structure, and the softening and weakening of the plastic by its absorption of
organic solvents.
Under normal field conditions the plastic materials in current use are either naturally immune or have been
protected by the appropriate additives against chemical or physical aging. These additive packages are essential to
good aging resistance.
Weather Resistance
Additives are also required to protect plastic materials from ultraviolet light and heat, the two major effects of
outdoor storage. Currently, there is no test method that can verify adequate weather resistance. Accelerated
weathering and aging tests can be used only as guides. They must be correlated to actual service performance to be
useful.
The user should recognize the possible effects of adverse outdoor exposure and should require assurance from the
supplier that the pipe is suitably protected against such exposure and that it has been properly stored prior to
shipment. Proper storage should also be provided prior to installation at the user’s own facility with special attention
to protection from sunlight.
ASTM D 2513 requires that the piping manufacturer supply pipe with a minimum UV exposure stability of two
years. Consult with the manufacturer for their specific guidelines for UV exposure stability greater than two years.
External Loading
Good system design and proper support procedures must be used to accommodate the inherent low strength of
plastic materials. The overall toughness and resistance to external forces can vary widely and should be considered
when selecting the material and system. Thus, the selection of the piping material, the design and fabrication of the
joints, and proper installation procedures are important factors affecting the performance of the system.
RAPID CRACK PROPAGATION

One of the primary concerns of design engineers for all types of gas distribution piping systems is the possible
mode of failure. A brittle, rapidly propagating break is considered undesirable because it can lead to the release of
large volumes of gas. A safer mechanism is one that results in a small, localized non-propagating type of failure.
Rapid Crack Propagation (RCP) in plastic pipe is a brittle failure involving the growth of a crack at high speed
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
(300 to 1400 ft/sec) that results in a crack of several inches to many feet in length. This mode of failure is distinctly
different from failures involving slowly growing cracks that propagate at minute rates and result in cracks of short
length. The degree of resistance to this mode of failure varies from material to material. PE and PA are considerably
more resistant to RCP than the other thermoplastics.
Experience and test data indicate that susceptibility to RCP increases with increasing pipe diameter, increasing
wall thickness, increasing pressure and decreasing temperature. As the interest in the use of larger diameter PE pipe
increases so does the interest in evaluating the potential for this failure mechanism (current use range up to 12 inch
with some utilities installing sizes to 20 inch).
As of January of 2005 there are two projects open in ASTM F 17.60 Gas subcommittee to add RCP requirements
to the PE and PA annexes of ASTM D 2513.
27
Photo I-8. RCP S-4 Test Apparatus 1

Flexibility
For pipe, a practical measure of flexibility would be the number of cycles through which it could be smoothly
bent and straightened, without actual or incipient failure, or without deterioration in physical properties. Flexibility
is dependent on the material, the wall thickness, the diameter, and the operating temperature of the pipe.
Flexibility can be evaluated by coiling and uncoiling the pipe to a determined diameter within the operating
temperature range and then measuring its long-term strength. Pipe with a sufficient degree of flexibility, such as PE,
can be coiled into relatively long lengths and convenient diameters, which minimizes the number of field joints.
Flexibility also facilitates squeeze-off, insertion into old pipe using small bell holes, and installation by planting or
plowing (see Chapter IV).
Impact Resistance
The impact resistance varies widely for the various kinds of plastics used for gas distribution piping. The design
engineer must select his material to satisfy his impact requirements. ASTM D 2513 includes impact requirements
only for PVC pipe.
There are two modes of impact failure, ductile and brittle. In the ductile mode the material yields and flows in the
area of the fracture. In the brittle mode only small elastic deformations occur prior to failure.
If the crack initiation stress is lower than the yield stress a brittle failure will result since the energy stored in the
sample at the moment of initiation is usually sufficient to propagate the crack. Conversely, if the crack initiation
stress is higher than the yield stress, a ductile failure results. Once the flow of material is initiated the associated
increase in temperature at the point of flow usually ensures that the failure will continue in a ductile mode.
The impact test described in ASTM D 2444 measures the amount of energy absorbed by a pipe sample necessary
to cause fracture. The energy is provided by a falling weight, or tup, which impacts the pipe.
The geometry of the pipe and tup, as well as tup velocity, and temperature of the pipe sample, are all factors in
determining the impact resistance. There is no known way to apply the results to predict service performance of the
pipe but the tup test may be used for quality control testing.
Permeability
Potential loss of natural gas by permeability through the pipe wall is not significant. Plastics are permeable to
practically all gases to some degree. Table I-1 presents data that have been obtained on a variety of plastic pipes for
methane and hydrogen at differential pressures up to 3 atmospheres. The methane values are so low that there is no
problem involving transportation of natural gas. Chapter II gives sample calculations.
28
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

The permeation rate of hydrogen through plastics is several times that of methane. Therefore, if hydrogen is a
major constituent of a fuel gas the potential energy loss should be calculated. Hydrogen permeates at a higher rate;
however, its lower energy content compared to methane is a compensating factor.
END NOTES:
1. PPI TN-6/88, Recommendations for Coiling Polyethylene Plastic Pipe and Tubing.
2. Pipeline and Gas Journal, December 1981, p. 20
3. Pipeline and Gas Journal, December 1991, P. 12
4. Jee and Belforte, “Exploring Crosslinked Polyethylene (PEX) Opportunities in Gas Distribution Applications
17th Plastic Pipe Symposium, San Francisco, CA, 2002.
5. Szpak and Rice, “Procedure for Confirming the ASTM Extrapolation of Strength Regression for Polyethylene
Pipe”, Sixth Plastic Pipe Symposium, Columbus, OH, 1978.
6. Bragaw, “Prediction of Service Life of Polyethylene Gas Piping Systems”, Seventh Plastic Fuel Gas Pipe
Symposium, 1980.
7. Palermo and DeBlieu, “Rate Process Concepts Applied to Hydrostatically Rating Polyethylene Pipe”, Ninth
Plastic Fuel Gas Pipe Symposium, New Orleans, LA, 1985.
8. Mruk, S., “Validating the Hydrostatic Design Basis of PE Piping Materials”, Ninth Plastic Fuel Gas Pipe
Symposium, New Orleans, LA., 1985.
9. Palermo, “Rate Process Method as a Practical Approach to a Quality Control Method for Polyethylene Pipe”,
Eighth Plastic Fuel Gas Pipe Symposium, New Orleans, La. 1983.
10. Bragaw, “Service Rating of Polyethylene Piping Systems by the Rate Process Method”, Eighth Plastic Fuel Gas
Pipe Symposium, New Orleans, LA. 1983.
11. Bragaw, “Forecast of Polyethylene Pipe and Fittings Burst Life Using Rate Process Theory”, York Plastic and
Rubber Institute, 1982.
12. Toll, Palermo and Appleton, “Using Laboratory Tests on PE Piping Systems to Solve Gas Distribution
Engineering Problems”, Tenth Plastic Fuel Gas Pipe Symposium, New Orleans, LA. 1987.
13. Popelar, Kenner and Wooster, “An Accelerated Method for Establishing the Long Term Performance of
Polyethylene Gas Materials”, Polymer Engineering and Science, Vol. 3, No. 24, 1991.
14. Allwood and Beech, “The Notched Pipe Test for the Performance Assessment of Polyethylene Pipe”, 13th
Plastic Fuel Gas Pipe Symposium, San Antonio, 1993.
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
15. Brown and Lu, “Controlling the Quality of PE Gas Piping Systems by Controlling the Quality of the Resin”,
13th Plastic Fuel Gas Pipe Symposium, San Antonio, 1993.
29
CHAPTER II ENGINEERING CONSIDERATIONS FOR PLASTIC PIPE UTILIZATION
CHAPTER II
ENGINEERING CONSIDERATIONS FOR
PLASTIC PIPE UTILIZATION
INTRODUCTION
Engineering design with plastics, including plastics piping, is similar to that with metals in that the same basic
equations that have been derived for metals on the assumption of elastic behavior can also be used with plastics.
However, it is different for plastics in that these materials, being viscoelastic have no true elastic material constants
such as modulus of elasticity, proportional limit, or yield strength. To be able to use the equations derived on elastic
theory, the properties of plastics have to be represented through effective values that reflect these materials
viscoelastic response under a particular set of service conditions. For example, the ultimate strain response of a
plastic is not only determined by stress intensity, but is also significantly influenced by the duration of stress
application. Furthermore, temperature and the absorption of certain chemicals can also have major influence on the
strain response. As discussed in Chapter I, the stress/strain relationship resulting from a particular combination of
conditions can be expressed by means of an effective modulus. Similarly, there is an effective strength for each set
of conditions of loading, stress, duration of loading, temperature and environment. By the use of such effective
values, the design equations developed for elastic materials are rendered applicable for plastics.
Design stress levels for plastics are relatively low compared to metals. However, the strength of plastics is
adequate for the intended service and is not subject to gradual erosion by the corrosion process that afflicts metals.
For plastic pipe there is an appreciable increase in strength as temperatures are reduced below design temperatures.
Correspondingly, there is an appreciable decrease in strength as temperatures are raised above design temperatures.
The standard method for determining long-term hydrostatic strength of plastic pipe is given by ASTM D 2837, “A
Standard Method for Obtaining Hydrostatic Design Basis for Thermoplastic Pipe Materials”. The procedure for
estimating long-term hydrostatic strength is essentially an extrapolation with respect to ASTM D 1598, “A Time to
Failure of Plastic Pipe Under Constant Internal Pressure”. Stress failure time plots are obtained through at least
10,000 hours for the selected temperature and environment; the best straight line running through these points is
determined by statistics and is then extrapolated to the 100,000-hour intercept. The long-term hydrostatic value
strength at which the 100,000-hour line is crossed determines the hydrostatic design basis (HDB) category of the
pipe (See Figure II-1). The HDB expresses a material’s long-term strength by means of one of the following series
of preferred numbers: 1000 psi, 1250 psi, 1600 psi, 2000 psi, etc. The reduction of the long-term strength of plastic
pipe materials into one of these preferred numbers simplifies design and standardization.
Figure II-1 presents a graphical representation of the stress/rupture/time to failure behavior of a typical ASTM
designation PE 2406 and PE 3408 polyethylene pipe material being used in natural gas service. Other polyethylene pipe
compounds would not necessarily yield identical curves. In fact, at temperatures of 49°C (120°F) and 60°C (140°F) there
could be significant differences among polyethylenes even though they may be of the same ASTM designation. Plastic
piping users should obtain specific stress-time rupture data for those materials being considered for use.
Figure II-1 also includes a stress-rupture line for a particular PE 3408 material for 73°F. Increasing temperature
results in a decreased long-term strength similar to that shown for the PE 2406 material. However, as in the case of
PE 2406 materials the specific effect of temperature can vary from one PE 3408 to another.
In addition to the long-term hydrostatic strength, there are other properties that must be considered in selecting a
plastic material for fuel gas distribution.
These characteristics include:
1. Chemical resistance
2. Slow crack growth resistance
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
3. Resistance to rapid crack propagation

4. Aging resistance
5. Weatherability
6. Strength temperature relationship
7. Toughness
8. Permeability
9. Pliability
10. Ductility
11. Ease of joining
30
While all these characteristics are important and should be considered, at the present time the long-term
hydrostatic strength is used as a primary basis for design. The other properties of a plastic material must be given
adequate consideration in determining its suitability for the anticipated service conditions. Extensive studies over
the years have concluded that the predominant failure mode for in service PE gas piping materials is slow crack
growth not burst.
ASTM D 2513 prescribes minimum requirements for thermoplastic pipe, tubing and fittings intended for fuel gas
service. ASTM D 2517 covers reinforced thermosetting epoxy resin pipe and fittings, including adhesives intended
for fuel gas service. The specific plastic material to be used should be thoroughly investigated with respect to gas
serviceability and anticipated operating conditions. It should be adequately resistant to soils, especially aggressive
soils, liquids, gases and chemicals which could be encountered in the gas distribution system, and have sufficient
strength and toughness to withstand the stresses which may be imposed by external as well as internal forces acting
on complex piping configurations. Pay particular attention to the history of plastic pipe service performance in the
actual soil in your service area.
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
The designer should also determine the material’s potential failure mechanisms such as by small nonpropagating
slit (slow crack growth, SCG) or by large rapidly propagating running cracks (rapid crack propagation RCP) under
the anticipated service conditions, and assess their potential influence on maintenance, flow control, and safety.
PLASTIC PIPING SYSTEMS

In selecting a plastic piping system, the design engineer should relate installation and service requirements with
the characteristics of the several plastic systems available. Some of these considerations would be:
1. Adequate wall thickness to sustain the operating pressure.
2. Resistance to SCG
3. Resistance to chemicals, which may be naturally or unavoidably, present or added into the gas system.
4. Effects of maximum and minimum ambient temperatures on joining and installation practices, particularly at
the tie-in points.
5. Installation requirements for a flexible type or semi-rigid type material.
6. Suitability of material for making plastic-to-plastic and/or plastic-to-metal connections.
7. Special design and/or installation requirements.
8. Availability of necessary fittings and tools for joining, tapping, and repairing pipe systems in the field.
9. Capability and compatibility of material for development of satisfactory operating, maintenance and emergency
repair procedures.
As mentioned previously, it is important to remember that there may be significant differences in performances among
the various plastic pipe materials. These differences may still be significant even when materials are categorized by ASTM
31
D 2513 as being of the same kind and type. Laboratory data are helpful for making initial screenings; however, the
ultimate test is in field use of the piping system. Handling and storage, joining requirements, installation considerations,
and special precautionary needs, among other requirements, must be thoroughly evaluated. The prospective user of plastic
pipe should arrange for manufacturer demonstrations and visits to operational plastic pipe users within the same
geographic area whenever possible before making a final commitment.
US FEDERAL DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION REGULATIONS

The US Federal Department of Transportation was assigned certain jurisdictions over transportation of fuel gas in
the United States by the “Natural Gas Pipeline Safety Act” in 1968. The regulations of the Department of
Transportation are contained in Title 49 of the Code of Federal Regulations, Part 192, “Transportation of Natural
and Other Gas by Pipeline: Minimum Federal Safety Standards”. Certain operating limitations on plastic piping
systems are stated in 49 CFR 192.123. The gas engineer who is designing a distribution system should become
familiar with these regulations. Those sections of 49 CFR 192 that directly apply to plastic piping systems are listed
in Table II-1. While this Chapter II deals with “Engineering of Plastic Piping Systems”, all related subjects are listed
in Table II-1 since the gas engineer should in his design considerations take into account all functions of the system.
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
CALCULATION OF DESIGN PRESSURE

Use of thermoplastic pipe in distribution systems and in Class 3 and 4 locations (location classes are defined by
49 CFR 192.5) is currently limited to 100 psig or less by 49 CFR 192.123 except that effective June 14, 2004 PE
2406 and PE 3408 pipe, manufactured after July 14, 2004, may be used at pressures up to and including 125
psig. For other applications in Class 1 or 2 locations, plastic pipe may be used within the general limitations
prescribed in the code.
Operating plastic gas pipelines in excess of these limits requires a waiver issued by US DOT.
Thermoplastic materials for gas service are limited to applications where the operating temperature is not below
-29°C (-20°F); however, -40°C (-40°F) can be used if all pipe and pipelines components whose operating
temperature will be below -29ºC (-20ºF) have a temperature rating by the manufacturer consistent with that
operating temperature.
The design pressure for the specific minimum wall thickness for a given diameter of plastic pipe used in natural
gas service is determined using the following formulas:
t (Eq. 1)
P = 2S ×F
(D − t )
or
2S
P= ×F
(SDR − 1)
PD (Eq. 2)
t=
P + 2 SF
where:
D = specified outside diameter, inches
P = design pressure, psig
S = For thermoplastic pipe, the HDB determined in accordance with the listed specification at a temperature
equal to 73ºF (23ºC), 100ºF (38ºC), 120ºF (49ºC), or 140ºF (60ºC). In the absence an HDB established at the
specified temperature, the HDB of a higher temperature may be used in determining a design pressure rating at the
specified temperature by arithmetic interpolation using the procedure in Part E of PPI TR-3/2000 entitled, Policy for
Determining Long-Term Strength (LTHS) by Temperature Interpolation, as published in the technical Report TR-
3/2000 “HDB/PDB/MRS Policies”. For reinforced thermosetting plastic pipe, 11,000 psig (75,842 kPa).
t = Specified (minimum) wall thickness, inches
F = design factor (specified in 49 CFR 192.121)
SDR = Standard dimension ratio, the ratio of the average specified outside diameter to the minimum specified
wall thickness, corresponding to a value from a common numbering system that was derived from the American
National Standards Institute preferred number series 10.
Note: When the ratio of outside diameter to wall thickness is not in accordance with the preferred numbering system that is referenced by ASTM
D 2513, it is called a dimension ratio (DR).
32
The hydrostatic design basis (HDB) is the materials long-term hydrostatic strength (LTHS) after rounding off to
one of a schedule of preferred numbers in accordance with ASTM D 2837. This document also defines the
procedures for forecasting the LTHS from hoop stress versus time to fail data. The LTHS is, in effect, the
extrapolated hoop stress in psi at which one could expect a pipe failure in a water environment after 100,000 hours
of service. For the example shown in Figure II-1, for 73F testing the PE2406 material intercepts the 100,000-hour
33
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

coordinate at approximately 1450psi stress. In accordance with method ASTM D2837, all plastic piping
compositions which intercept the 100,000-hour coordinate between 1200 psi and 1520 psi are assigned to the HDB
category of 1250psi. Therefore the HDB at 73F for this PE2406 material is 1260psi. This practice ensures
standardization of wall thicknesses of plastic pipes and fittings that have similar stress rupture performances
The performance of all plastic piping compositions is influenced by temperature of use, with higher temperatures
reducing the HDB. Typical values for the HDB of PE materials for elevated temperatures are shown in Table II-4.
Actual HDBs for temperatures higher than 23°C (73°F) will depend upon where the extrapolated stress rupture line
of the particular piping composition intercepts 100,000 hours at that higher temperature (stress limits for the
different HDB categories are shown on the 100,000 hour coordinate in Figure II-1) and may differ from the typical
values in Table II-4. The Plastics Pipe Institute, PPI technical report TR-4 lists HDB values for thermoplastic
materials for gas distribution applications at various temperatures. PPI TR-4 is available for free downloading
through their web site www.plasticpipe.org. To assist the user in obtaining this information, ASTM requires that gas
pipe intended for service at temperature above 73°F be marked with letters that code the material’s HDB for the
maximum temperature, up to 140°F, for which it has been established. In the absence of a design basis for a
particular design temperature, a value may be established by arithmetic interpolation in accordance with PPI TN16,
or the value for the next available higher temperature may be used. Table II-2 shows the effect of 49°C (120°F) and
60°C (140°F) temperatures on the long-term strength of the PE 2406 material used in this example.
ASTM D 2513 also includes a marking requirement specific to polyethylene (PE). The pipe has to be coded to
identify the materials melt flow rate category. This letter code is useful for identifying the material’s heat fusion
characteristics. The table in ASTM D 2513-03a that lists the HDB and melt flow rate marking codes is shown as
Table II-3. (The bottom of the table gives examples of the use of these marks.)
The performance of all plastic piping compositions is influenced by temperature of use, with higher temperatures
reducing the HDB. Table II-2 shows the effect of 49°C (120°F) and 60°C (140°F) temperatures on the long-term
strength of the PE 2406 material used in this example. For this particular PE the 100,000 hour intercepts (i.e. the
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
LTHS) and the resultant HDBs are:
TABLE II-2, Effects of Temperatures on Long-term Strength of PE2406

Long-Term
Hydrostatic Hydrostatic Design
Temperature Strength (LTHS) Basis (HDB) PSI
49°C (120°F) 1110 1000

60°C (140°F) 910 800
The HDB values are in accordance with the categorization schedule prescribed by ASTM D 2837. By this
schedule, the LTHS ranges for the two HDB categories shown above are:
LTHS Range
HDB LTHS Range, PSI
1000 960- to less than 1190
800 760- to less than 950
These typical hydrostatic design bases (HDB) of plastic pipe materials that are currently being used for gas
distribution applications are listed in Table II-4 for various design temperatures.
The following Plastics Pipe Institute Technical Reports are suggested for supplemental study. They are available
as free downloads from the PPI web site www.plasticpipe.org.
TR-3/2004-0 “Policies and Procedures for Developing Hydrostatic Design Bases (HDB), Pressure Design Bases,
(PDB) and Minimum Required Strengths (MRS) Ratings for Thermoplastic Piping Materials or Pipe”.
TR-4/2004 “PPI Listing of Hydrostatic Design Bases (HDB), Pressure Design Bases (PDB) and Minimum
Required Strength (MRS) Ratings for Thermoplastic Piping Materials or Pipe”.
34
DESIGN FACTOR*
To account for normal variations in material and manufacturing quality, as well as to compensate for stresses in
the pipe other than those induced by internal pressure, a design factors specified by 49 CFR 192.121 is used for gas
distribution applications. It should be recognized that this convention of basing design on only internal pressure
considerations and compensating for other stress by use of a design factor presumes that all the other stresses in an
underground installation will be limited. It is important to recognize that the design factor established for gas pipe
assumes that recommended, test qualified and code prescribed joining and installation methods are used. Proper
joining methods must be qualified, well documented and strictly followed without exception. Generic Butt† and
Saddle Fusion Procedures developed and published by PPI are also very useful.
Applicable recommendations issued by the pipe and fitting manufacturers must also be followed. As an example,
manufacturers give minimum radius for field bending of pipe and their recommendation may differ depending on
temperature and whether a joint is present in, or in the vicinity of, the bend section. Another example is
manufacturer’s recommendation for proper squeeze off of pipe.
The design relationships between the operating pressure, wall thickness and hoop stress in the pipe wall can be
computed from the following:
2 (S )(F )
P =
SDR − 1
where the nomenclature is the same as previously defined Equation 1.
Example 1: The maximum design for a pipe produced from a PE 2406 resin composition having an SDR of 11 and
designed to operate at 23°C (73°F) with a design factor of 0.32 would be:
PPE 2406, 73°F = 2(1250)(0.32) = 80 psig

11-1
Example 2: The maximum design pressure for a pipe produced from a PA-11 resin having an SDR 11 and designed
to operate at 60°C (140°F) with a design factor of 0.32 would be:
PPA-11, 73°F= 2(1600)(0.32) = 102 psig

11-1
Influence of Temperature on Selection of Pipe System Wall Thickness

If the plastic pipe system is to be operated at an elevated temperature, the HDB (S) used in the design formula
will be reduced as shown in Table II-4.
For example, if the temperature of operation for a PE 3408 pipe in Table II-4 is 60°C (140°F), the category of
HDB is reduced from the 1600 psi established for the standard test condition of 23°C (73°F) to 800 or 1000 psi
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
based on the specific compound. (See Plastics Pipe Institute publication TR-4 for HDBs for specific pipe
compounds). The higher operating temperature requires either the reduction of the operating pressure or an increase
in the thickness of the pipe wall (decrease in SDR). The example of an HDB of 800 psi results in:
P = 2(800)(0.32) = 51 psig
11 - 1
While at 23°C (73°F) the pipe could be operated at 102 psig. Let us assume that the design pressure for a system is
60 psig and the pipe is intended for a riser application where the temperature may reach as high as 60°C (140°F).
For these conditions, the 2” pipe with a DR 9.33 would be acceptable, as is shown below:
P = 2(800)(0.32) = 61 psig
9.33 – 1
*
As of December 2004 there are a petitions before US DOT OPS to increase the design factor for PA-11 piping to 0.40 and to increase the
maximum operating pressure for PA-11 piping to 200 psig for PA-11 pipe through size 2 IPS.. In addition there is an anticipated petition to
increase the design factor for PE piping to 0.40. An ANPRM was published in the Federal Register for comments and only positive comments
were received regarding these two proposed amendments to Part 192.
†
As published in PPI TR-33 and PPI TR-41
35
TABLE II-3.
Elevated Temperature HDB and Flow Rate Marking Code for Thermoplastic Pipe in Accordance
with ASTM D 2513-03a
Test Category
PROPERTY Method
A B C D E F G
Temperature 200 (93)--
--- 100 (38) 120 (49) 140 (60) 160 (71) 180 (82) ---
°F (°C) -
Hydrostatic
design basis, D 2837 400 (2.8) 500 (3.4) 630 (4.3) 800 (5.5) 1000 (6.9) 1250 (8.6) 1600 (11.0)
psi (MPa)
Melt Indexa D 1238 >0.5 0.2 – 0.5 0.01 – 0.3 <0.01b c
--- ---
Examples: CDB – At 140°F (60°C) the HDB is 800 psi (5.5 MPa). The approximate melt index range is 0.2 to
0.5 g/10 min for this PE pipe.
EF – At 180°F (82°C) the HDB is 1250 psi (8.6 MPa) for this PA-11 pipe. There is no third letter, as
a melt index range is not given for non-PE materials.
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
a
The melt Index information in this table is intended to provide guidance relating to heat fusion joining of PE materials, not for classification of materials. This
property is not applicable to non-PE materials or to mechanical fittings.
b
Typically melt flow measured under condition 190/21.6 is less than 4.01 g/10 min.
c
When a PE pipe or fitting is marked per 7.2 or 7.3 with the letter “E”, it affirms that the manufacturer has verified the applicability of generic fusion joining with
their products in accordance with PPI TR-33 and PPI TR-41 by joining to itself and to other “E” materials and testing the joints in accordance with applicable
regulations.
However, qualification of joining procedures by operators in accordance with applicable regulations may still be required. Information about manufacturers who have
verified PPI TR-33 and PPI TR-41 generic fusion joining with their products is found in PPI TR-33 and PPI TR-41. Consult PPI and the manufacturer for additional
information.
TABLE II-4
Typical HDBs for ASTM D 2513 Thermoplastic Materials at Various Design Temperaturesa
DESIGN TEMPERATURE
Material Designation
23°C 38°C 49°C 60°C 82°C
Per ASTM D 2513
(73°F) (100°F) (120°F) (140°F) (180°F)
PE 2406 1250 1250 1000 800 or 1000 ---
PE 3408 1600 1250 1000 800 or 1000 ---
PA 32312 2500 --- --- 1600 1250
PVC 1120 4000 --- --- --- ---
a
See PPI TR-4 for actual HDB product listings
The Code of Federal Regulations limits the maximum allowable operating temperature for plastic pipes. The
ruling under 49 CFR 192.123 allows application of plastic piping systems above ground in metal protective sleeves,
such as meter risers. The gas engineer is advised that in any design which involves temperature changes that may
result in a lowering of the pipe HDB, consideration should be given to the consequence on pipe pressure rating and
the possible need to offset this effect by the selection of a thicker walled pipe or the selection of a thermoplastic
material with a higher temperature rating or higher pressure rating at the anticipated temperature.
A simpler method for computing pipe pressure as a function of the pipe material’s HDB is made possible by the
dimension ratio (DR) sizing system, whereby the ratio of pipe diameter to wall thickness is constant independent of
nominal pipe size. Table II-5 shows the pipe pressure rating as a function of HDB and dimension ratio.
36
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
TABLE II-5.
Pressure Rating of Dimension Ratio Thermoplastic Pipe as a
Function of Material Hydrostatic Design Basis (HDB)a
Design Pressure Rating, PSIGb
Dime HDB (psi)
nsion 2500
Ratio 4000 3150 2000 1600 1250 1000 800
32.5 81 51 64 40 32 25 20 16
26 102 54 80 51 40 32 25 20
21 128 76 100 64 51 40 32 25
17 160 100 126 80 64 50 40 32
13.5 204 128 161 102 81 64 51 40
11.5 243 152 192 121 97 76 60 48
11 256 160 201 128 102 80 64 51
10 284 178 224 142 113 88 71 56
9.33 308 192 242 154 123 96 77 61
9.0 320 200 252 160 128 100 80 64
7.0 427 267
a
Calculated using Equation 1 of this Chapter and assuming a 0.32 design factor.
b
US DOT 49 CFR 192.123 limits the maximum pressure in distribution systems of Class 3 and
4 locations to 100 psig except PE 2406 and PE 3408 pipe manufactured after July 14, 2004 may
be operated at pressures up to 125 psig
INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURE ON PLASTIC SYSTEMS

The engineering properties of thermoplastics are influenced by temperature to a greater extent than those of other
materials of construction such as wood, metals, and ceramics. The pressure bearing capability of thermoplastic pipe
declines with increasing temperature as was earlier demonstrated in Figure II-1.
Plastic piping systems should be engineered for the environmental temperatures anticipated for the geographic
or localized area of installation.
Anticipated temperature environments influence the selection of piping materials and the SDR of the piping.
Thermal Stress
It is extremely important that axial expansion and contraction of the plastic piping system, due to temperature
change in the ground, be considered when selecting and installing mechanical fittings for mechanical joints. As
described below, the anticipated thermally induced movement can be considerable and if the movement is
constrained, the resultant pullout forces on the joint can also be considerable. Chapter 4 devotes an in-depth
discussion to the correct procedures for properly installed mechanical joints.
Movement of plastic piping installed in an underground gas system is restrained by earth soil friction, by its
configuration (changes of direction and attached fittings) and by its connection to adjacent piping. Buried pipe is
also subject to daily and seasonal changes in temperature, which generates expansion and contraction forces in
proportion to the temperature change and the material’s coefficient of thermal expansion (listed in Table I-1) and the
material’s effective modulus of elasticity. Unrestrained polyethylene pipe would shrink approximately 1” per 100’
of pipe for every 10°F temperature drop. However, when the pipe is restrained, the initial force at the restraint,
resulting from a 10°F instantaneous temperature drop, would be the same as if the pipe were shrunk and stretched
back to the original length. This force is the reaction to the internal stress in the axial direction of the pipe wall.
37
Because of the lack of soil friction, insert renewal pipe should be considered as essentially unrestrained. The force
and the pipe stress can be calculated from the following:
S = E x C x Δt (Eq.3)
where
S = stress, psi
E = effective modulus of elasticity, psi
C = Coefficient of expansion, in/in/F
Δt = temperature difference, F
and
F=SxA (Eq. 4)
where
F = force, lbs.
A = cross sectional area of the pipe wall, sq. in.
An example would be a typical 2” SDR 11 polyethylene pipe with a cross sectional area of 1.625 sq. in. and a
coefficient of expansion, C of 0.00012 in/in/°F. If the ground temperature at installation were 60°F and the
minimum in service temperature were 32°F and E, the material’s effective modulus of elasticity under short-term
loading is 150,000 psi at 32°F.
Thus using Equation 3, the initial pipe wall stress in the axial direction is:
S = E x C x Δt
= 150,000 x 0.00012 (60 -32)
= 504 psi
Using Equation 4, the resultant axial force that acts on the end connection, is:
F = 504 x 1.625
= 819 pounds of force
The end connection must be capable of resisting this axial force without risk of pipe pullout. Restraint
requirements increase with increasing temperature difference and with increasing cross sectional area of larger
diameter or heavier walled pipe.
When measured, the actual forces due to the thermal changes have been determined to be less than those
calculated by the above assumptions. Furthermore, they decrease with time. The apparent discrepancy is due to the
phenomena of stress relaxation in viscoelastic materials which results in an effective modulus under long-term
loading that is lower than the effective value under instantaneous conditions (see Chapter 1). The 150,000 psi value
for effective modulus used in the above calculation is for the short-term loading conditions which does not recognize
that the temperature change takes place gradually which allows for stress relaxation to occur as the temperature
changes. The real force on the 2” pipe used in the example is estimated to be about one half of the calculated value
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
when the temperature change is gradual instead of instantaneous.
38
TABLE II-6.
Minimum Wall Thickness by Pipe Size and Dimension Ratio for Thermoplastic Pipe a
Nominal Outside Dimension Ratio (DR)
Pipe Size Diameter
Inches 32.5 26 21 17 13.5 11.5 11 10 9.33
Inches
½ 0.840 -- -- 0.062 0.062 0.062 0.073 0.076 0.084 0.090
¾ 1.050 -- -- 0.090 0.090 0.090 0.091 0.095 0.105 0.113
1 1.315 -- -- 0.090 0.090 0.097 0.114 0.119 0.132 0.141
1¼ 1.660 -- -- 0.090 0.098 0.123 0.144 0.151 0.166 0.178
1½ 1.900 -- -- 0.090 0.112 0.141 0.165 0.176 0.190 0.204
2 2.375 -- 0.091 0.113 0.140 0.176 0.207 0.216 0.238 0.255
3 3.500 0.108 0.135 0.167 0.206 0.259 0.307 0.318 0.350 0.375
4 4.500 0.138 0.173 0.214 0.264 0.333 0.395 0.409 0.450 0.482
6 6.625 0.204 0.255 0.316 0.390 0.491 0.576 0.602 0.663 0.710
8 8.625 0.265 0.332 0.410 0.508 0.639 0.750 0.785 0.863 0.924
10 10.750 0.331 0.413 0.511 0.633 0.797 0.935 0.977 1.075 1.152
12 12.750 0.392 0.490 0.608 0.750 0.945 1.109 1.159 1.275 1.367
a
Dimension Ratio (DR) System enables the user to select different sizes of pipe for a piping system, all of which will have the
same design pressure. Shaded wall thicknesses are minimums required by 49 CFR 192.321 for pipe that is not encased. They
are not a function of dimension ratio.
INFLUENCE OF OTHER STRESSES ON PLASTIC PIPING SYSTEMS

Stresses developed on gas distribution systems beyond those discussed above include bending during installation,
earth loading, subsidence, and third party construction activity. Chapter IV describes the procedures for properly
installing plastic piping systems.
DIMENSIONS
The dimensions of plastic piping systems are based on those long used sizing conventions for iron pipe and
copper tubing. The plastic pipe dimensions are referred to as iron pipe size and called IPS. The plastic tubing
dimensions are referred to as copper tubing size, and called CTS.
Pipe
Table II-6 shows minimum wall thickness of pipe made to standard iron pipe size (IPS) outside diameters.
The DR values in Table II-6 are translated to maximum allowable operating pressures in Table II-5. As discussed
in this chapter’s section on design stress, the pipe material’s HDB for the design conditions determines the minimum
wall required for a certain operating pressure. The long-term hydrostatic stress of a plastic piping composition
determines the wall thickness of the pipe.
Pipe which is intended for heat fused saddle fittings should be of sufficient wall thickness to insure that blowouts
do not occur. Mains that are tapped for service lines under pressure (called hot tapping) are subject to such
blowouts. For example for 2” PE a wall thickness of 0.216” is suggested. For other diameters consult the pipe
manufacturer. When designing for pressures above 100 psi, this phenomenon of blowouts is a special concern.
Tubing
Thermoplastic piping based on copper tubing size (CTS) dimensions has been extensively used for insert renewal
of service lines. A considerable amount of the smaller size tubing has been used for direct burial of new services.
39
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

Code of Federal Regulations, specifically 49 CFR 192.321, requires that thermoplastic piping that is not encased
must have a minimum wall thickness of 0.090 inches, except that piping with an outside diameter of 0.875 inches or
less may have a minimum wall thickness of 0.062 inches.
The minimum wall thicknesses in ASTM D 2513 reflect these requirements.
Fittings
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Fittings must be selected for use with corresponding outside diameter-sized pipe. ASTM fitting specifications are
available, for socket-fusion fittings, butt-fusion fittings, electrofusion fittings and mechanical fittings.
ASTM D 2513 lists specifications for fittings applied to gas distribution.
JOINTS
The joint between sections of pipe or between pipe and fittings must perform with equal integrity to the other
components of a gas distribution system, but not less than the strength of the pipe being used. The installation of a
plastic system must provide that joining techniques comply with 49 CFR 192 Subpart F–Joining of Materials Other
Than by Welding.
Where the joining method is limited to selected materials, pipe diameters, operating environments or installation
conditions follow recommendations appropriate to the qualified procedure.
All joints must sustain longitudinal forces specified in 49 CFR 192.273(a). Anticipated external forces are
difficult to quantify. Such forces may include earth loading, subsidence and third party damage. Where mechanical
fittings are used in plastic systems, the joint design, consisting of the fitting assembly and any supplemental restraint
(if required) should be reviewed to ensure compliance with 49 CFR 192.273(a).
ASTM D 2513 also specifies performance requirements of the heat-fused, mechanical and solvent-cemented
joints in gas distribution service. Except for the repair of existing PVC piping, solvent cements shall not be used for
joining piping in gas distribution systems. In joint design, the engineer should refer to all code requirements and to
the operating limits listed in this chapter. ASTM has published standard specifications F 1924 and F 1948 covering
plastic and metallic mechanical fittings for use on plastic pipe.
The Plastics Pipe Institute has developed a “generic” joining procedure for butt fusion (TR-33) and for saddle
fusion (TR-41) that could be qualified by pipeline operators for most applications.
PERMEABILITY OF POLYETHYLENE and PA-11 PIPE

The transmission of molecules through films or walls is termed permeability. Numerous papers have been published
on the permeability of natural gas through polyethylene. The permeability constant, K, is defined as
Vt
K =
AP θ
(Eq. 5)
K APθ
V=
t
where
V is the volume of gas, in cubic centimeters, at 23°C (73°F) and atmospheric conditions (14.7 psia) that permeates
through the pipe wall,
t is the wall thickness of the pipe in mils,
A is the pipe outside wall area in units of 100 square inches,
P is the gauge pressure in the pipe in atmospheres, and
θ is the time in days.
Typical values for K with units of cm3 mil/(100 in2 atm day) for PE2406 and PA-11 pipe are:
Permeant KPE 2406 KPA-11
Methane 85 0.38
Carbon Monoxide 80 na
Hydrogen 425 18.0
40
These permeability constants are considered typical for other medium density polyethylene pipes. Other units for K,
such as cubic feet per psig per mile-day, are also found in the literature. In practice, the permeability constant is a
function of temperature.
Example:
Determine the volume of methane at 60 psi that will permeate a mile long PE pipe of 2” nominal diameter, in one
day.
Rearranging equation 5,
(Eq. 6)
where K = 85 cm3 mil/(100 in2 atm day) for methane.
Calculation of the pipe outside surface area, given:

Diameter of 2” pipe = 2.375 in.
Ft/mile = 5280
In/Ft = 12
Area = (2.375)(π)(5280)(12) = 473,000 in2
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
A is expressed in 100 in2, so in this case, A is 473,000/100 = 4730

P = 60 psia expressed as atmospheres,
or 60/14.7 = 4.1
θ = days, in this case the permeability is
calculated for one day
t = 0.216 inches, which is 216 mils
So, using equation 6:
( )
0.5
V = (85)(4730)(4.1)(1) = 7,631 cm3 ⎡ P12 − P2 2 D 5 ⎤
⎛ Tb ⎞ ⎢ ⎥
216 Q = ⎜ 0.4692 ⎟ ⎢ ⎥ log (3.7 D / K )
⎝ Pb ⎠ ⎢ GTZL
⎣ ⎥⎦
Cubic centimeters/cubic foot =[(2.54)(12)]3 = 28,317
V = 7,631 = 0.27 cubic feet

28,317
Measured at 23°C (73°F) and atmospheric pressure, standard temperature and pressure (STP).
FLOW OF NATURAL GAS IN PLASTIC PIPE

Plastic pipe has a very smooth surface. Its frictional resistance is considerably less than that of steel pipe. On this
basis many people naturally assume that plastic pipe has significantly more flow capacity than steel pipe. This
assumption would be correct under fully turbulent flow conditions, such as those encountered in water service.
However, investigation of flows in natural gas distribution systems indicate that the design flows usually fall within
the range of only partially turbulent flow (see Table II-7 for an indication of the typical flow rates in gas distribution
systems).1 In this range, the smooth-pipe flow equations apply to both plastic and steel; therefore, the pipe-wall
roughness is not a significant factor unless the steel pipe has corroded. Flow formulas found to be satisfactory for
sizing steel pipe in natural gas service are recommended for sizing plastic pipe as well. Consideration must,
however, be given to differences in inside diameter. In most pipe sizes, plastic pipe wall thicknesses are more than
likely to be greater than those encountered with steel pipe. Consult the pipe manufacturers for flow equations and
roughness factor for their products.
41
TABLE II-7.
Typical Maximum Flow Rates Experienced in 60 PSIG Natural Gas Distribution Systems
Nominal
Pipe THOUSAND CUBIC FEET PER HOUR
Diameter MCFH
Inches
2 17.4
3 43.5
4 81.1
6 163.0
10 555.6
Fully Turbulent Flow (Rough-Pipe Flow Law)

The equation for fully turbulent flow is as follows:
(Eq. 7)
Definition of Terms Used in Flow Equation 7

D = inside pipe diameter, inches
G = specific gravity
L = length of pipe section, feet
Pb = base pressure, psia
P1 = upstream pressure, psia
P2 = downstream pressure, psia
Q = gas flow rate, MSCFH
Tb = base temperature, Rankine
T = average temperature of flowing fluid, Rankine
Z = average compressibility factor
K = effective roughness of pipe surface, inches 2
= 0.00006 inch for plastic
= 0.01 inch for cast iron
Partially Turbulent Flow (Smooth-Pipe Flow Law)
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Any of the accepted gas flow equations used with steel pipe, such as Mueller, Pole, or the IGT Distribution
Equation, can be used for calculations of plastic pipe flow capacities. Those equations which yield conservative
values for steel pipe will also be conservative with plastics.3 The IGT Distribution Equation is thought to be
representative of both steel and plastic for most distribution design situations. It is as follows:
( )
5
T ⎞ ⎡ P − P2 ⎤ ⎛ 8 3 ⎞⎛ 4 9 19 ⎞
2 2 9
⎛ (Eq. 8)
Q = ⎜ 0.6643 b ⎟ ⎢ 1
Pb ⎠ ⎥ ⎜ D ⎟⎜ G μ ⎟
⎝ ⎣ TL ⎦ ⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠
Definition of Terms Used in Flow Equation 8

D = inside pipe diameter, inches
G = specific gravity
L = length of pipe section, feet
Pb = base pressure, psia
P1 = upstream pressure, psia
42
P2 = downstream pressure, psia

Q = gas flow rate, MSCFH
Tb = base temperature, Rankine
T = average temperature of flowing fluid, Rankine
μ = viscosity, lbm/ft-sec
In specific cases where the flow is rather high and a comparison of pressure drop between plastic pipe and steel
or cast iron is desired, the following method is suggested:
1. Using Figure II-2 and the given flow and pipe size determine whether the partially or fully turbulent flow
formula is applicable.
2. If Figure II-2 shows the flow to be in the range where the Smooth pipe flow law equation or “laminar” flow
equation (partially turbulent flow) apply for the steel or cast iron pipe being considered, then there is no
advantage for plastic because of reduced pipe surface friction.
If Figure II-2 shows that the rough-pipe flow law (fully turbulent flow) applies, then there may be some
advantage for plastic pipe, depending on relative wall thickness.
FIGURE II-2. Applicability of Partially

or Fully Turbulent Flow Formulas.
ENDNOTES
1. G. G. Wilson and R. T. Ellington, Selecting Flow Equations for System Network Calculations, GAS 4546
(September, 1958).
2. Handbook of Natural Gas Engineering, McGrawHill, New York.
3. See Gas Flow Formulas Strengths, Weaknesses and Practical Applications by Hyman, Stoner, and Karmitz. AGA
Publication (75D34).
43
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

CHAPTER III PROCUREMENT, ACCEPTANCE TESTS, AND SUPPLIER CERTIFICATION
CHAPTER III
PROCUREMENT CONSIDERATIONS, ACCEPTANCE TESTS,
AND SUPPLIER SELF-CERTIFICATION FOR
THERMOPLASTIC PIPE, TUBING AND FITTINGS
MODEL SPECIFICATION
The Plastics Pipe Institute (PPI) has a model specification for polyethylene piping on their web site entitled MS-
2, “Model Specification for Polyethylene Plastic Pipe, Tubing and Fittings for Fuel Gas Distribution Systems, as a
service to the gas industry. It is included in Appendix D for use as a starting point and guide in developing
appropriate final specifications for a user gas company. It is also available on their web site, www.plasticpipe.org.
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
As a note, PPI is currently developing a model specification for PA-11 plastic pipe, tubing and fittings.
SELECTION OF VENDOR
After the user has decided which material is best suited for their purpose, the next step is selection of one or more
qualified vendors. The user gas company can best be assured of quality plastic piping by dealing with reputable
pipe and fitting manufacturers who use material they certify to meet the requirements of ASTM D 2513. Extruder
integrity and service are paramount in the successful utilization of plastic piping, especially for those users making
initial installations. An onsite visit and inspection of the manufacturer's facility is recommended. In the initial
search for candidate suppliers, considerations should include:
1. Pipe and fittings production from resin, which the user has selected, which is listed in PPI TR4. The supplier
should provide a qualified joining procedure for this material in accordance with Federal Code requirements,
2. A demonstrated commitment to the industry as evidenced by facilities investment and products offered,
3. A good reputation for product quality and service based on user comments,
4. Adequate in-plant inspection and quality control testing, and,
5. The ability to provide sound technical support.
Along with the selection of one or more qualified vendors, the user should have established procedures for
Qualification Tests and Acceptance Tests, both of which are discussed later in this chapter. Basic to these tests is a
familiarization with the applicable ASTM Standards and Test Methods.
ASTM STANDARDS AND TEST METHODS

General
The basic standards relating to plastic piping intended for fuel gas service are:
1. Applicable ASTM Standard for basic raw material, type, and grade referenced in ASTM D2513; and
2. ASTM D 2513 “Standard Specification for Thermoplastic Gas Pressure Pipe, Tubing, and Fittings”.
The following paragraphs, some taken from ASTM D 2513, suggest some factors to be considered before
purchasing thermoplastic piping materials.
Material
All piping products shall be made from virgin quality materials. Scrap shall not be used. Clean rework material,
generated from the manufacturer's own pipe, tubing, or fitting production of the same type and grade, may be used
by the same manufacturer so long as the products produced meet all requirements of the specification for the
particular material. It is recommended that the user consult PPI Technical Note 30, “Requirements for the Use of
Rework Materials in Polyethylene Gas Pipe”, to determine which tests are applicable for evaluating rework material
a copy of which is in the appendixes of this Manual.
44
Color
Thermoplastic piping for gas distribution is generally available in two colors: yellow, and black with yellow
stripes. Although not required by Part 192 (49CFR 192), these colors have been adopted by the gas industry to be
consistent with the nationally recognized voluntary code for underground piping. Plastic pipe that may be stored
outside or otherwise exposed to ultraviolet light should contain sufficient ultraviolet absorbing additives or
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
inhibitors to enable the pipe to withstand the effects of weathering.
Considerations regarding the storage of plastic piping materials, in order to minimize the effects of weathering,
are addressed in Chapter IV.
Workmanship
The pipe should be homogeneous throughout and free from visible cracks, grooves, foreign inclusions, blisters,
dents, or other injurious defects. Spider marks resulting from the extrusion process which cause significant
indentations in the pipe shall be grounds for rejection of any plastic pipe. The pipe shall be as uniform as
commercially practical in color, opacity, density, and other physical properties. The printline on the pipe shall be
legible and be able to withstand normal outdoor exposure.
Dimensions and Tolerances

The physical dimensions of the piping materials shall be in conformance with the appropriate tables and
references in ASTM D 2513. Tolerances listed in these tables and references are maximum allowable deviations. It
is recommended that, whenever possible, tighter tolerances are used as mutually agreed upon by the purchaser and
vendor. Some plastic resins and extrusion processes allow tighter control than others, and the tolerances should be
set within these abilities or limitations.
Pipe Length and Pipe Coils

The pipe should be supplied in suitable lengths corrected to 73ºF. Certain types and sizes of plastic pipe or
tubing may be coiled. The base material supplier and the manufacturer of the pipe or tubing should provide
recommendations and requirements for coiling. Prior to ordering coiled pipe, the user should consider:
1. Material handling capabilities of the user’s warehouse or jobsite, as appropriate
2. Construction/installation equipment capabilities owing to coil outer diameter and coil length
3. Shipping and storage limitations based upon stack height and available floor space
4. Historical lengths used based upon installer experience
The manufacturer must have coiling procedures in place to ensure that pipe distortion resulting from coiling does
not exceed the ovality requirements defined in ASTM D2513. Banding used to secure coils must not result in
permanent pipe deformation that interferes with the acceptable fusion of fittings, joining to other pipe or connecting
mechanical fittings. There are mechanical devices available to successfully reround the pipe as it is pulled from the
coil trailer.
45
PHOTO III-1. Six-Inch Polyethylene Gas Pipe

Photo credit: Polypipe.
PHOTO III- 2. Six Inch PE Pipe on Unccoiler / Rerounder

46
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

PHOTO III-3. Rerounding of PA-11 Pipe at Installation

Photo credit: Arkema.
Marking
All marking requirements are fully stated in the Marking section of ASTM D 2513. All gas pipe and tubing
produced with rework materials shall be identified by the manufacturer in accordance with ASTM D2513
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
PHOTO III-4. Typical Printline on 2 inch Coiled PE Pipe

47
Tests for Pipe Quality

In addition to those requirements stated above, the following tests referenced in ASTM D 2513 are useful in
determining pipe quality. The specific ASTM Test Method is referenced.
1. “Standard Test Method for Time-to-Failure of Plastic Pipe Under Constant Internal Pressure” ⎯ ASTM D 1598
2. “Standard Test Method for Resistance to Short-Time Hydraulic Pressure of Plastic Pipe, Tubing, and Fittings”
(Quick burst) ⎯ ASTM D 1599
3. “Standard Test Method for Apparent Hoop Tensile Strength of Plastic or Reinforced Plastic by Split Disk
Method” — ASTM D 2290
4. “Standard Practices for Evaluating Resistance of Plastics to Chemical Reagents” — ASTM D 543
5. “Standard Test Method for Determination of the Impact Resistance of Thermoplastic Pipe by Means of a Tup
(Falling Weight)” ⎯ ASTM D 2444
6. “Standard Test Method for Slow Crack Growth Resistance of Notched Polyethylene Plastic Pipe” — ASTM
F1474
In addition, the following ASTM tests are also useful in determining resin characteristics.
1. “Standard Test Method for Melt Flow Rates of Thermoplastics by Extrusion Plastometer” ⎯ ASTM D 1238
2. “Standard Test Method for Density of Plastics by the Density-Gradient Technique” ⎯ ASTM D 1505
3. “Standard Test Method for Notch Tensile Test to Measure the Resistance to Slow Crack Growth of
Polyethylene Pipes and Resins” (PENT Test)⎯ ASTM F1473. See Photo III-5 below.
PHOTO III-5. Notch Tensile Test Apparatus
The standards referenced herein, like all other standards, are minimum requirements. It should be recognized that
two different plastic resin materials even though of the same kind, type, and grade may not exhibit identical physical
and chemical properties. Therefore, the purchaser of plastic piping products is advised to obtain specific values for
the aforementioned tests, from the resin supplier or product manufacturers, to assure optimum performance from a
particular material. Furthermore, it is recommended that the user be informed of the precise resin used to produce
the piping products being evaluated.
Although the manufacturer is obligated to comply with specific ASTM Requirements in order to mark the
product ASTM D 2513, it is suggested that the purchaser consider performing selective Qualification Tests, prior to
product purchase.
PROCUREMENT CONTROL
The purchaser should establish quality-monitoring requirements such as a company acceptance plan (Figure III-
1) or a manufacturer certification plan (Figure III-2) to ensure the continued receipt of pipe and fittings that meet
user purchase specifications. Each company should have such a plan tailored to satisfy its requirements and the
application provisions as specified in 49 CFR 192.
48
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

The purchaser should reserve the right to inspect upon delivery and to reject any shipment that does not conform
to specifications. Upon agreement, the vendor should also allow access of purchaser or his agent during the
extrusion or molding of the specific lot purchased. Products found to be defective should be replaced by the vendor.
USER QUALIFICATION AND ACCEPTANCE TESTING

Qualification tests are typically performed on a “one-time” basis, when the user is considering one or more
potential vendors from which to purchase plastic pipe and/or fittings. Qualification tests are performed to verify that
the products under consideration will satisfy the user's requirements.
One or more of the ASTM tests listed in the “Tests for Pipe Quality” section of this chapter might be considered
to provide assurance that the extrusion or molding process has not adversely affected resin properties.
In addition, the user may also elect to perform dimensional measurements to assure conformity to user
specifications as well as tests, which simulate actual installation practices to confirm that the new pipe and/or
fittings are compatible with any existing tooling and system components.
The user can perform these tests, or the user may elect to have all or some of the tests performed and certified
by one of several nationally recognized accredited laboratories.
Figure III-1 is a suggested user acceptance plan for plastic pipe and fittings. The end result of this plan is, for
each shipment received, an Acceptance Report that documents the pipe and fittings supplied conform to the user's
purchase specification. The two principle inputs to the Acceptance Report are the user's Acceptance Test results and
the manufacturer's “Declaration of Compliance”.
Declaration of Compliance
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
To assure the purchaser that the piping product actually complies with all the requirements of the purchase
agreement, it is recommended that the purchaser obtain, from the manufacturer, a written certification of compliance
that includes, at minimum, the applicable ASTM specifications. However, as mentioned previously, since the ASTM
specifications are minimum requirements, the purchaser may also wish to require the inclusion of other physical
properties test results. As such, the manufacturer should be accorded an opportunity to provide detailed exceptions
to the purchaser’s specification.
The purchaser should also request copies of the quality control records performed during the production of the
piping product supplied, referenced by lot, date, and shift numbers. This is considered evidence of quality.
Acceptance Testing
It is recommended that user Acceptance Test procedures be established on each incoming lot to verify the
following:
1. Compliance with purchase order and general purchase specifications.

2. The pipe and/or fitting have been manufactured from the proper resin.
3. The resin is within its normal range of physical properties.
4. The resin has not been adversely affected by extrusion or molding conditions.
49
ASTM PPI Model

Material Specification
ASTM Product (Pipe and Fittings)

Specification
Resin Manufacturer’s
Recommendations
Additional User Requirements

(Varies)
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Manufacturer’s Quality User Material (Purchasing)
Control Specification
User’s Receiving
Inspection
Test Results
Test Results
Declaration of Compliance
(For certification)
Resin & Pipe Plant Acceptance Reports

Inspections & Certification
Feedback to
Manufacturer
User’s
FIGURE III-1. Suggested Company acceptance plan to obtain quality plastic piping material.
50
User Receiving,
Inspection &
Acceptance
Testing
Is Material
Consistently No Continue Routine
Acceptable Acceptance Plan
Without Problems
Detected?
Yes
Does Manufacturer Have No

Controls In-place to Ensure Decertify
Consistent Quality for the Manufacturer
Product?
Yes
Return to Incoming
Acceptance Plan
Supplier Certification
Yes
Are Field
Implement
Problems
Certification &
Maintenance Encountered?
Plan
No
FIGURE III-2. Suggested manufacturer certification plan to obtain quality plastic piping material.
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
51
There is a number of user Acceptance Tests that might be selected by the user. In making the selection, the user
might want to consider the following parameters:
1. The time required to perform the test should typically not exceed three days. This includes conditioning the
sample in a controlled temperature environment.
2. The tests should be relatively simple to perform.
3. The test results should be easy to compare against pre-established limits.
4. The labor and equipment costs to perform these tests should be directly related to the benefit and experience
gained.
The remainder of this chapter contains various types of Acceptance Tests that might be considered by the user.
This list is not meant to be all-inclusive, nor is it expected that a single user would incorporate all of the tests cited.
The number of individual tests selected as well as the level of test complexity should be determined by each user in
light of parameter #4 listed above.
The Acceptance Tests offered for consideration are listed in three groups:
1. The first group includes three tests that are the simplest to perform and require a minimum expenditure of
manpower and equipment:
1.1 Visual Inspection⎯Inspect the outside and inside of the pipe for appearance, workmanship and proper
markings. The presence of “Spider” or “Knit” lines are generally detected visually as a continuous or a series
of individual indentations in the longitudinal direction of the pipe or tubing. If the indentation is excessive,
this type of defect may cause failures during hydrostatic testing or during service, with the failure mode more
likely brittle than ductile.
1.2 Standard Test Method for Determining Dimensions of Thermoplastic Pipe and Fittings (D
2122)⎯Dimensional measurements should be made with good quality measuring tools. See Photo III-6.
Dimensional checks may be with circumferential (Pi, π) tapes, calipers or “Go-No-Go” gages. “Go-No-Go”
gages may be tapered or made with three steps to indicate the lower, optimum, and upper limits. The two
extremes are self-explanatory. The optimum will indicate the ideal fit with internal couplings or tubular
stiffeners and with external socket or compression-type mechanical fittings.
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
PHOTO III-6. Quality Measuring Tools
52
1.3 Bend Back Test⎯At room temperature, cut rings approximately 1” wide from the selected samples of pipe
or tubing. See Photo III-7.
On smaller diameter pipe or tubing rings, make a single longitudinal cut so that a single strip is obtained. On
larger diameter pipe sizes, it may be necessary to cut the rings into segments or reduce the wall thickness by
machining the outside diameter to the extent that the test strips could more easily be bent. Place one end of
the strip securely in a vise and, with a pair of pliers or other suitable tool, bend the strip back on itself (i.e.
straining the “inside” surface) to the maximum extent possible. As many areas of the inside surface should
be strained in this manner as possible.
PHOTO III-7. Bend Back Test for PE
Examine the inside surface while the strip is strained to the maximum. Any sign of cracking crazing that
shows up should constitute failure. In this event, additional new samples shall be selected and tested along
the same portion of the circumference as the portion that failed. Here again, the piping manufacturer should
be consulted for test criteria. This test should be considered as a “Go or No-Go” situation. Properly extruded
pipe suitable for the transport of fuel gases should be able to pass this test.
2. The following group includes five tests which tests that satisfy the recommended time limitation of less than
three days, but require the use of more costly equipment:
2.1 Standard Test Method for Resistance to Short-Time Hydraulic Pressure of Plastic Pipe, Tubing, and
Fittings (Quick burst) ⎯ ASTM D 1599
This method consists of loading a specimen to failure in a short time interval by continuously increasing the
internal pressure, while the specimen is immersed in a controlled temperature environment at 23°C (73°F).
A sample is filled with water and pressurized uniformly and continuously with nitrogen until the sample fails
(bursts). The failure time must be between 60 and 70 seconds. See Photo III-8.
PHOTO III-8. Typical, Acceptable PE Ductile Failure
53 --``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

The burst pressure is recorded and compared to the Minimum Burst Pressure Test Requirements for Plastic
Pipe as given in ASTM D 2513 or ASTM D 2517. Note that for Polyethylene Pipe, a ductile failure mode is
required (see Photo.III-8) instead of a minimum test pressure. A brittle failure is a failure of the test for PE
pipe.
2.2 Standard Test Method for Apparent Hoop Tensile Strength of Plastic or Reinforced Plastic by Split
Disk Method — ASTM D 2290
This method examines the apparent tensile strength of tubular plastic utilizing a split disk test fixture and a
tensile pull machine. This test is typically used as an alternate to the above quick burst test when testing
larger sizes of pipe. See Photo III-9. The test consists of cutting three 1/2” rings from each test sample. The
test specimen is loaded through self-aligning split disk test fixtures that apply tensile stress to the test ring.
The rings are uniformly stretched at a constant rate, until failure. The specimen elongation at failure is then
compared against a pre-established minimum. For example, polyethylene is stretched at a rate of 0.5
inch/minute, with a minimum elongation standard of 600% of the original diameter. This test is helpful in
determining whether weld lines, die lines and inclusions are present in the tubing.
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
PHOTO III-9. Ring Tensile Test
2.3 Standard Test Method for Determination of the Impact Resistance of Thermoplastic Pipe by Means
of a Tup (Falling Weight) ⎯ ASTM D 2444
This method is typically used only to qualify PVC pipe. This method tests the impact resistance of
thermoplastic pipe and fittings under specified conditions of impact by means of a Tup (falling weight). Five
test specimens are needed from each sample lot. The specimens are conditioned in a mixture of ice and
water at 32°F to 35°F for one hour and tested immediately upon removal from this medium. A 20-pound tup
is used for sizes 2-inch and less, and a 30-pound tup for sizes greater than 2-inches. Each of the five
specimens is impacted from
a predetermined height. All five specimens must pass. If one specimen fails, a second set of five can be
tested. None of the second set should fail.
2.4 Standard Test Method for Melt Flow Rates of Thermoplastics by Extrusion Plastometer ⎯ASTM D
1238. This method gives a measure of the rate of extrusion of molten resins through a die of a specified
length and diameter under prescribed conditions of temperature and load on the piston, as time measurement
is being made. See Photo III-10.
54
A small sample of the plastic being tested is placed in a heated chamber in a small test extruder. The sample
is extruded through a calibrated die under a prescribed load for a specific period of time.
The extruded portion is weighted, recorded and compared against a prescribed condition.
This method, which serves to indicate the flow rate of the polymer, provides a comparison against specified
melt index.
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
PHOTO III-10. Melt Index Measurement Apparatus
2.5 Standard Test Method for Density of Plastics by the Density-Gradient Technique ⎯ ASTM D 1505
This method is based on observing the level to which a test specimen sinks in a liquid column exhibiting a
density gradient, in comparison with standards of known density. See Photo III-11.
The density of a solid is a conveniently measurable property that is frequently useful as a means of following
physical change in a sample, as an indication of uniformity among samples, and as a means of identification.
PHOTO III-11. Density Measurement Apparatus
55
3. The following group of four tests can also be useful as user acceptance tests although they do exceed the
recommended three-day limitation as well as requiring specialized test equipment:
3.1 Standard Test Method for Time-to-Failure of Plastic Pipe Under Constant Internal Pressure
⎯ASTM D 1598.
This method consists of exposing specimens to a constant internal pressure under conditions and requirements
specified in ASTM D 2513.
It is the consensus of the manufacturer and user companies that when performing this test, that the piping
components be tested as a system, that is, short lengths of pipe, tubing and fittings joined together in a suitable
configuration adaptable to the testing apparatus.
At the specified test temperature of 23°C (73°F) the specimens are tested for 1,000 hours (41.7 days).
During this period, this sample must not balloon, burst, weep, or leak. This test is rapidly being supplanted
by the following more discerning elevated temperature sustained pressure test.
3.2 Elevated Temperature Sustained Pressure Test⎯This test is performed in the same manner as described
above, except that the test temperature is elevated to 80C (176°F). At this elevated temperature, test
duration is shortened. Other testing temperatures have also been used. See Photo III-12.
PHOTO III-12. Elevated Temperature Sustained Pressure Test
3.3 Standard Test Method for Slow Crack Growth Resistance of Notched Polyethylene Plastic Pipe F1474.
This test is the same as 3.2 except the pipe specimen is notched to reduce the failure time. Four notches are
machined in a pipe specimen. The pressurized pipe is tested in a 176ºF (80ºC) water tank until the
minimum defined test time or failure occurs. A measurement of the notch depth is recorded after the test is
complete.
In each of the above three categories, those tests which show an ASTM designation are covered in more
detail in Appendix A.
3.4 Thermoplastics Pipes for the Conveyance of Fluids – Determination of Resistance to Rapid Crack
Propagation (RCP) – Small-scale Steady-state Test (S4 Test)” ISO 13477. This test is conducted to
determine the critical temperature and pressure at which plastic pipe becomes subject to brittle like
fractures prior to the normal (operating) ductile to brittle transition. Large diameter (typically greater than
8” IPS) polyethylene pipe is subject to RCP owing to diameter, operating pressure and temperature.
Careful investigation of RCP is warranted to determine the safe operating limits for a particular pipeline
based upon environmental and operating parameters.
56
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

This method consists of impact testing pressurized pipe specimens that are 7 diameters in length at a
specified temperature. A series of tests is conducted at the specified temperature to determine the critical
pressure of the pipe by correlating the laboratory results to the results of a full-scale (ISO 13478) RCP test.
This correlation will provide an accurate measure of the critical pressure that will be achieved under actual
field conditions. *
MONITORING FIELD PERFORMANCE
The user's procurement department should establish a well-defined mechanism for field reports of defective or
changed/unapproved material. Plastic material defects such as inclusions, or ovality are often only identified in the
field since the coiled or bundled straight material can only be inspected at the ends of the packaging. Rapid
identification by the user and corrective action by the supplier will facilitate the acceptance of plastic material in
field installations and reduce overall installation costs.
Changed resin supplies are more difficult to determine in the field. Generally, manufacturers will inform purchasers
that a new or changed resin supply has occurred prior to shipment. A purchaser’s laboratory or testing facility will
typically not have high-end resin testing equipment. Instead, purchasers should rely on plant inspections and plant
quality control documents to ensure that all material supplied meets the purchaser’s specifications.
MANUFACTURER SELF CERTIFICATION
As the experience with a plastic pipe manufacturer is gained and all material is routinely passing acceptance testing
the plastic pipe user may want to determine if manufacture certification is acceptable for procurement control.
Manufacturer Certification is an optional step in the customer-manufacturer relationship. Once adequate experience
with a pipe manufacturer has been achieved, the customer may want to implement manufacturer certification.
Manufacturer Certification is the processes of evaluating a manufacturer to self accept materials. The utility
customer evaluates the production and distribution controls for the material. If the manufacturer has adequate
controls in place the material can be shipped directly to stock without incoming inspection. Manufacturer
Certification can shorten the turn around time for receiving materials and reduce the user's incoming inspection
costs.
The steps for manufacturer self certification used at one large gas
utility include, See Figure III-3:
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
1. Examine the history of the manufacturer for the past two years. Has the manufacturer obtained ISO 9000
certification? Has any material been rejected at acceptance inspection? Have there been any field problems
with the material during the last two years? What kind of reputation does the manufacturer have for responding
to problems identified by the user? The user should have a satisfactory history with the material and supplier
response prior to moving forward with Manufacturer Certification.
2. The user should review the Manufacturer's Quality Assurance (QA) Manual. This review should include:
2.1. Review of design and drawing control

2.2. Material control for raw materials coming into the manufacturing facility
2.3. Test methods for measuring items during production and finished product
2.4. Record control including traceability of quality records and test reports to specific lots of material
2.5. QA plan defining the checks and balances in place to ensure that the product will meet user requirements.
The quality control process should be administered by trained QA technicians using industry-approved
equipment and standards.
*
There are currently two ASTM projects open to add RCP requirements to D2513 for PE and PA-11 pipe.
57
3. A process capability study should be completed by the manufacturer and reviewed by the user. Process
Capability is a process that uses statistical process control (SPC) records compared to material specifications to
verify that the manufacturer can consistently control the manufacturing process to produce product well within
specification limits.
4. A plant visit is made by the user to verify that the quality procedures, plans and process controls are consistently
carried out in the manufacturing process. Each plant where material is produced must be individually certified.
5. The manufacturer is notified that they are a certified manufacturer and that routine incoming inspection will no
longer be required by the user.
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
6. The user controls certification by periodic plant audits and material spot checks when receiving material or at
field locations. The user also monitors material field performance reports.
The user develops a decertification process. Decertification occurs when there is evidence that the supplier is no
longer following their quality plan or the material no longer meets specification. Decertification is cause for
continuing routine user acceptance.
58
CHAPTER IV INSTALLATION OF PLASTIC PIPE
CHAPTER IV
INSTALLATION OF PLASTIC PIPE
Plastic pipe, when properly installed and protected, is capable of giving many years of satisfactory service.
While the requirements for installing plastic pipe are for the most part the same as for installing coated steel pipe,
there are some important differences. These are due to the differences in basic physical properties of plastics and
steel, in joining techniques, the effect of environmental conditions during and after installation and in the experience
level of workers installing plastic and steel piping systems. Recognition of these differences in piping design and
installation procedures is essential to obtain the desired objectives of a piping system that will provide reliable long-
term natural gas service. The use of proper materials and equipment along with written procedures and installer
qualification is required to achieve sound connections using adhesives, solvent cement, heat fusion, or mechanical
methods.
Requirements for plastic pipe installations are specified in Federal Code 49 CFR 192. General requirements for
plastic piping are contained in Subpart A, with standards incorporated by reference, including ASTM D 2513, listed
in 192.7.
Minimum requirements for joining are contained within Subpart F, Sections 192.271 to 192.287. Minimum
requirements for construction are contained within Subpart G, Sections 192.301 to 192.327 for mains, and Subpart
H, Sections 192.351 to 192.383 for service lines. Minimum requirements for testing are contained in Subpart J,
Sections 192.501 to 192.517. The ANSI/GPTC Z 380 Gas Piping Technology Committee (GPTC) Guide for gas
piping systems supplies additional information. State and local codes may specify additional requirements or
restrictions. The engineer should consult all applicable codes
SHIPPING, HANDLING AND STORAGE

Pipe is available for shipment in coils or in straight lengths depending on its diameter, wall thickness and
material. During transport, the plastic pipe should be continuously supported in such a manner as to minimize
movement between the pipe and its supports; also, being relatively soft, poor handling techniques may result in
gouges, scratches, cuts, or punctures. Coils, when shipped are usually stacked and strapped on nonreturnable pallets,
sometimes called “silo packs”. Straight lengths or “sticks” are packaged in bundles, sometimes called “bulk packs”.
When lengths of pipe or tubing shorter than the coil length are used, it is advantageous to have the pipe or
tubing banded intermittently during the coiling operation in manufacturing. This prevents complete uncoiling when
outer bands are removed.
Initial handling and storage of the pipe should be made with the pipe in packaged form, thus minimizing
damage during this phase. When loading, unloading, or handling, it is preferable to use mechanical equipment to
move or stack the packs. The exact height to which plastic can be stacked depends on many factors such as material,
size, wall thickness, and ambient temperatures. At no time should the loading cause the pipe section to be forced out
of round. It is always prudent to obtain the manufacturer’s recommendations for stacking. Plastic pipe and tubing
should be stored so as to minimize the possibility of the material being damaged by crushing, piercing, or extended
exposure to direct sunlight.
If the pipe is to be stored outdoors, the manufacturer must be consulted for recommendations on maximum
storage time limits. Covering the pipe to protect it against UV exposure can, in some cases, create excessive heat
that may also be harmful to pipe performance. Again, the manufacturer should be consulted for recommendations on
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
maximum temperature exposure. When storing outdoors, the cumulative exposure period should be determined by
referencing the Pipe Production Code that includes the date of extrusion. By using this date, allowance is also made
for exposure received during storage by the manufacturer. In general, most manufacturers store the pipe outdoors
prior to shipment. Exposure time can be minimized by issuing from storage on a “first in, first out” rotation with the
extrusion date used as the control. The pipe with the earliest extrusion date should be issued first for installation.
Pipe, which has been stored outdoors for longer than the manufacturer’s recommended time, or pipe which
shows apparent visual surface degradation, should be tested prior to installation. These tests should examine the
fusibility as well as the long-term serviceability of the pipe. Samples of the overexposed pipe should be sent to the
manufacturer for testing or the samples could be examined by the user based on tests recommended by the
manufacturer.
59
Field Inspection Prior to Joining

Plastic pipe and tubing must be carefully inspected for cuts, gouges, deep scratches, and other imperfections
before use. Deep scratches or gouges can reduce the pressure ratings of the pipe and may act as stress risers. A
commonly used rule of thumb is that defects greater than 10% of the wall thickness should not be installed.
CUTTING
Pipe cutters with extra wide rollers and thin cutting wheels, specifically designed for cutting plastic pipe, provide
the best and easiest method of cutting the pipe. Specially designed shears can also be used on small size pipe or
tubing. Guillotine pipe cutters are available and are used primarily for larger size plastic pipe. Pipe cutters designed
for metal pipe should not be used because they tend to severely distort the ends of some types of plastic pipe.
Plastic pipe can also be cut with a handsaw designed for this purpose or an ordinary hacksaw or carpenter’s saw
with fine-tooth blades and little or no set. Power saws are also used on large diameter pipe. The pipe should be cut
square and all burrs and cuttings should be removed, as these are detrimental to making good joints. For butt fusion
the squareness and smoothness of the cut will be corrected during the facing operation. Burrs may be easily removed
with a chamfering tool, reamer, sharp knife, pipe facer, or fine-tooth file. A miter box, welders pipe tape, or a cold
ring is useful to ensure square cut ends.
COLD WEATHER HANDLING

Damage
Temperatures near or below freezing will affect thermoplastic pipe by increasing stiffness, vulnerability to
impact damage, and sensitivity to suddenly applied stress. Significant impact or shock loads against a polyethylene
pipe that is at freezing or lower temperatures can fracture the pipe.
• Do not drop pipe. Do not allow pipe to fall off the truck or into the trench.
• Do not strike the pipe with handling equipment, tools or other objects.
• Do not drag pipe lengths at speeds where bouncing against the surface may cause impact damage.
Pipe should be firmly supported on both sides when cutting with a handsaw. Low temperature can cause the pipe to
split at the cut if bending stress is applied.
Coil Handling
At freezing temperatures and below, more effort will be required to uncoil the pipe, and piping will spring back
more forcibly if the ends are not anchored or restrained. The forceful movement of the loose ends of pipe becomes
more pronounced in cold weather and all personnel must be aware for their own safety.
Installing large diameter coiled PE pipe in freezing or sub-freezing conditions is discouraged. Observe
straightening and re-rounding equipment manufacturer's recommendations for low temperature equipment
operation. At temperatures below 32°F (0°C), piping should be fed through straightening and rerounding equipment
at a reduced rate, usually half, or less than half of the rate at ambient temperatures.
60 --``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

PHOTO IV-1. Uncoiling and Rerounding of PA-11 Pipe

PHOTO IV-2. Large Diameter Coiled PE Pipe

PLASTIC JOINING REQUIREMENTS

General Provisions
Each operator is required to assure that joining procedures are qualified as stated in 49 CFR 192.283. Plastic pipe,
tubing, or fittings are joined together by heat fusion, (hot plate and electrofusion), solvent cement, adhesives, or
mechanical fittings. Plastics may be joined to metal by means of compression fittings, flanges, or other types of
qualified proprietary transition fittings. Table IV-1 indicates the joining method for various types of plastic pipe.
61
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

TABLE IV-1.
Joining Methods for Plastics
Joining
PA-11 PE PVC RTRP
Methods
Adhesive -- -- -- X
Solvent
-- -- X --
Cement
Hot Plate
X X -- --
Heat Fusion
Electrofusion X X -- --
Mechanical X X X X
General Requirements
The general requirements of joining materials including plastic pipe are specified as follows in 49 CFR 192.273:
“(a) The pipeline must be designed and installed so that each joint will sustain the longitudinal pullout or thrust
forces caused by contraction or expansion of the piping or by anticipated external or internal loading.
(b) Each joint must be made in accordance with written procedures that have been proven by test or experience
to produce strong gastight joints.
(c) Each joint must be inspected to ensure compliance with this subpart.”
49 CFR 192.281 states “A plastic pipe joint that is joined by solvent cement, adhesive, or heat fusion may not be
disturbed until it has properly set” and that “plastic pipe may not be joined by a threaded joint or miter joint.”
However, factory-made miter joints are acceptable.
Inspection of all plastic piping joints should be made before pressure testing and putting into gas service. In all
cases, visual inspections should be made and compared to standards for good joints on the particular type of pipe.
Additional inspections may be made by ultrasonic or radiographic methods.
Handling equipment for larger sizes of pipe may be required in order to consistently produce a properly made
joint. This equipment aids in alignment and supplies a more uniform force required for butt or sidewall fusion or for
insertion of the pipe into the socket to its full depth.
Qualification and Training

Formal training and qualification of construction personnel in the methods of installing plastic pipe is required
prior to installation of plastic piping. Written instructions must be provided to all personnel as stated by 49 CFR
192.283 and they must be straightforward and simple. However, the latitude for variance is small. It is necessary for
all personnel involved in the installation to understand the “whys” and “wherefores” of the installation procedures.
This training should include both classroom and practical “hands on” instruction. The classroom work should
include the following:
1. Explanation of physical properties and characteristics of plastic pipe.
2. Explanation of methods of installation and joining including visual aids showing proper techniques. Also
reviewing manufacturer’s recommendations for installation.
3. Live demonstrations of making various types of joints.
4. A test covering what has been taught.
5. Each person should make each type of joint while being observed by an experienced supervisor. Each sample
should be visually inspected, sectioned, and inspected further. Sections should be tested for strength. A person
must be able to make proper joints and pass the exam prior to doing any actual installations.
62 --``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

PHOTO IV-3. Hydraulic combination fusion machine, 2” – 8”

Photo credit: McElroy.
Heat-Fusion Joints
Heat-fusion joints are made by heating mating surfaces to their fusion temperature and then bringing the
surfaces into contact using a qualified procedure, as required by 49 CFR Part 192.283. ASTM D 2657 is a
recommended practice for heat joining of thermoplastic pipe and fittings. Properly made heat-fusion joints will be as
strong as or stronger than the pipe itself when tested in accordance with 49 CFR Part 192.283. Direct application of
heat using a torch or other open flame is prohibited. Manufacturers should be consulted for recommendations on
heating cycles, temperatures, and procedures for specific plastic materials. Such items should be included in the
operator’s instructions to ensure high quality joints.
It should be noted that cold weather and wind could adversely affect the heat-fusion process. Such items as
shielding and longer heating times must be considered under these conditions. The joiner must possess skill and
knowledge to consistently produce high quality heat-fusion joints. Formal training and qualification as directed by
49 CFR Part 192.285 is required for joiners. The fusion temperature required to produce a strong bond depends on
the particular plastic being joined. Overheating may degrade the material and insufficient heating will not
adequately melt the material. The pipe manufacturer has determined the temperature range that any particular
material may be satisfactorily joined. Reference should be made to the pipe manufacturer’s specific
recommendations appropriate to each plastic material. It is also necessary to understand the requirements for
maintaining the heat-fusion equipment in factory operating condition. Satisfactory joints may not be attained with
equipment in poor condition. See Appendix F for sample fusion equipment checklist.
Cleanliness of heating faces, proper temperatures of heating tools, alignment and operating condition of joining
machines is of paramount importance.
Heating tools must be capable of maintaining uniform temperature within the specific melt temperature range and
should have an indicating thermometer. A crayon temperature indicator or, preferably, a precise temperature-
measuring device such as a pyrometer are recommended to check heater face temperature regularly. The
temperature crayon mark must not be made on that part of the heater face that comes in direct contact with the pipe
or fitting. Heating tool faces shall be wiped with a clean non-synthetic cloth (cotton) or oil free paper prior to
joining.
Heating tools are not explosion proof and shall not be energized in a gaseous environment. Review the
manufacturer’s operating instructions before making fusions. Four heat-fusion techniques are covered in this
handbook: butt fusion; saddle fusion; socket fusion; and electrofusion.
63
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

PHOTO IV-4. Butt Fusion Machine

Butt Fusion
Butt fusion is the most widely used method of heat- fusion and the most economical. This technique consists of
heating the squared ends of the pipe or fittings to be joined by holding them against a heating plate until fusion
temperature is reached, pushing the two softened ends against one another, holding under pressure for the prescribed
time, and allowing the joint to cool. Mechanical equipment shall be used to make this type of joint to ensure high
quality fusion, as stated in 49 CFR 192.281 (c).
PHOTO IV-5. Butt Fusion of PA-11 Gas Pipe

64
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

PHOTO IV-6. Butt Fusion of Large Diameter PE Gas Pipe

A good source of information on butt fusion procedures is PPI TR-33 “Generic Butt Fusion Procedures for
Polyethylene Gas Pipe.” This technical report outlines generic butt fusion procedures for fusing similar
polyethylene materials and is recommended in ASTM D2657.
Typical Steps in a Butt Fusion Joining Procedure are:

1. Secure: Clean the inside and outside of the pipe to be joined by wiping with a clean lint-free cloth.
Remove all foreign matter. Clamp the components in the machine. Check alignment of the ends and adjust
as needed.
2. Face: The Pipe ends must be faced to establish clean, parallel mating surfaces. This operation provides for
a perfectly square face, perpendicular to the pipe centerline on each pipe end and with no detectable gap.
3. Align: Remove any pipe chips from the facing operation and any foreign matter with a clean, untreated,
lint-free cotton cloth. The pipe ends must be rounded and aligned with each other to minimize mismatch
(high-low) of the pipe walls. This can be accomplished by adjusting clamping jaws until the outside
diameters of the pipe ends match.
4. Melt: Heating tools that simultaneously heat both pipe ends are used to accomplish this operation. A
pyrometer or other surface temperature-measuring device should be used periodically to ensure that the
pipe manufacturer’s recommended temperature of the heating tool face is maintained.
Install the heater in the butt fusion machine and bring the pipe ends into full contact with the heater. To
ensure that full and proper contact is made between the pipe ends and the heater, the initial contact should
be under moderate pressure. After holding the pressure very briefly, it should be relaxed without breaking
contact. (On larger pipe sizes, initial pressure may be maintained until a slight meld is observed around the
circumference of the pipe). Continue to hold the components in contact with each other, without force,
while a bead of molten polyethylene develops between the heater and the pipe ends. After completing the
heating process, in accordance with the manufacturer’s recommendations, remove the heater.
5. Join: After the heater tool is removed, quickly inspect the pipe ends, then immediately bring the molten
pipe ends together with sufficient fusion force to form a double rollback bead against the pipe wall. Always
follow the pipe manufacturer’s recommended pressures.
6. Hold: Hold the molten joint immobile under pressure until cooled adequately to develop strength.
Allowing proper times under pressure for cooling prior to removal from the clamps of the machine is
important in achieving joint integrity. The fusion force should be held for the amount of time as prescribed
by the pipe manufacturer. Avoid pulling, installation or rough handling for an additional 30 minutes
7. Record: An optional step in this process could be recording the joints to insure the proper parameters were
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
65
used. If a record of the critical parameters of each butt fusion joint is required, data logging devices are
available for use with hydraulic machines. They record the heater surface temperature, heating, fusion, and
cooling pressures and times and can download this information to a PC for a permanent record. They can
also be used as a training aide for operators.
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
PHOTO IV-7. Saddle Fusion Machine
Saddle Fusion
This technique consists of simultaneously heating both the external surface of the pipe and the matching surface
of the “saddle” type fitting until both surfaces reach proper melt. The melt pattern is inspected and the fitting is
placed on the heated section of the pipe, held in place under pressure for the prescribed time and allowed to cool.
Although it is preferable to accomplish this using a saddle fusion machine, some companies fuse saddle fittings on
by hand. Large branch saddles and high volume tapping tees may require 500 pounds force or more for proper
fusion. This requires a well-designed machine capable of adequate force generation and accurate application. Many
gas companies have adopted or established standards for machine-applied saddle fusion as the manual method relies
solely on the knowledge, skill, judgment, strength, and experience of the operator joint integrity. The machine
should hold the main and fitting in a fixed position to provide for and to maintain precise alignment. The machine
should also provide a means of controlled application of pressure. This may be accomplished by:
1. A lever handle with torque measuring drive, or
2. Pneumatic or hydraulic pressure, or
3. A spring, or
4. A lead screw with integral hydraulic load cell.
Some machines offer butt fusion capability as well as saddle fusion capability. These are called combination
machines.
A good source of information on saddle fusion procedures is PPI TR-41 “Generic Saddle Fusion Procedures for
Polyethylene Gas Pipe.” This technical report outlines generic saddle fusion procedures for fusing similar
polyethylene materials.
66
PHOTO IV-8. Saddle Fusion of PE Gas Pipe PHOTO IV-9. Completed PE Saddle Fusion
Photo credit: McElroy. Photo credit: Transportation Safety Institute.
Note: The following procedure describes the saddle fusion method performed with a saddle fusion tool. The tool
must be capable of holding and supporting the main, rounding the main for good alignment between the pipe and
fitting, holding the fitting, and applying and indicating the proper force during the fusion process. If the saddle
fusion is performed by hand, consult the utility procedure for proper installation steps.
Typical Steps in a Saddle Fusion Procedure are:
1. Preparation: Install the Saddle Fusion Tool on the main according to the manufacturer’s instructions. The
tool should be centered over a clean, dry location where the fitting will be fused. Secure the tool to the
main. A main bolster or support is recommended under the pipe on 6” IPS and smaller main pipe sizes.
Abrade the main, where the fitting will be joined, until a thin layer of the pipe surface is removed. Abrade
the fitting base. Approved abrading materials must be used.
Insert the fitting in the Saddle Fusion Tool loosely. Using the Saddle Fusion Tool, move the fitting base
against the main pipe and apply enough force to seat the fitting. Secure the fitting in the Saddle Fusion
Tool.
2. Heating: The heater must be fitted with the correct heater adapters. The temperature of the heater adapter
fusion surfaces must be at the pipe manufacturer’s recommend surface temperature range.
Place the heating tool on the main centered beneath the fitting base. Immediately move the fitting against
the heater faces, apply the Initial Heat Force (see fitting label), and start the heat time. Follow the
recommended heating procedure from the pipe manufacturer.
At the end of the Total Heat Time, remove the fitting from the heater and the heater from the main with a
quick snapping action. Quickly check for an even melt pattern on the pipe main and fitting heated surfaces
(no unheated areas).
3. Fusion and Cooling: Press the fitting onto the main pipe very quickly (within 3 seconds) after removing
the heater and apply the Fusion Force (see the fitting label and /or the pipe manufacturers procedures).
Maintain the Fusion Force on the assembly for the recommended time by the pipe manufacturer.
Cool the assembly for an additional 30 minutes before rough handling or tapping the main
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
67
Socket Fusion
This technique consists of simultaneously heating both the external surface of the pipe end and internal surface of
the socket until the material reaches fusion temperature, inspecting the melt pattern, inserting the pipe end into the
socket, and holding it in place until the joint cools. Mechanical equipment may be used for sizes larger than 2” to
ensure proper alignment and joining force.
PHOTO IV-10. Socket Fusion of PE Gas Pipe PHOTO IV-11. Typical Butt, Saddle
Photo credit: McElroy. and Socket Fusion Joints in PE
Photo credit: Performance Pipe
Typical Steps in a Socket Fusion Procedure:
1. Prepare: Select the proper size clean tool faces and heat to the fusion temperature of the material to be joined.
2. Cut: Cut the end of the pipe square and chamfer the edges. Remove all contamination including any scraps or
shavings, oil, or dirt from the surfaces to be joined.
3. Measure: Measure the proper insertion depth on the pipe. This is normally accomplished by using a “depth
gauge”. Install a clamp commonly called a “cold ring” onto the pipe. The cold ring rounds the pipe and
maintains the proper insertion depth after the depth gauge is removed.
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
4. Heating: Bring the hot clean tool faces into contact with the outside surface of the end of the pipe and with the
inside surface of the socket fitting.
5. Melt: Allow the heating tool faces and plastic surfaces to remain in contact with one another until the plastic
surfaces melt. The pipe and/or fitting manufacturers have established time and visual guidelines in accordance
with 49 CFR Part 192.281. The degree of melt for a given material is a function of time, ambient temperature,
tool temperature, and size of the parts. Pipe and fittings of larger diameters require more time to reach the
proper melt consistency. Underheated material will not form a good fusion and overheated materials may be
degraded, and may cause gas flow restriction, especially in smaller sized pipe.
6. Fuse: Simultaneously remove the pipe and fitting from the tool, inspect melt pattern for uniformity, and
immediately insert the pipe squarely and fully into the socket of the fitting; do not twist the pipe or fitting. Press
the socket uniformly against the “cold ring” Hold or block the pipe in place for sufficient cooling time so that
the pipe cannot come out of the joint while the mating surfaces are in the softened state. The cooling should be
accomplished slowly.
Heat-Fusion Using Resins with differing Cell Classifications
68
Research, testing, and field practice have indicated that polyethylene plastic pipe and fittings made from
different resins can be successfully heat-fused together. Some gas companies have been heat-fusion joining these
dissimilar polyethylenes in the field for several years without difficulty.
The PPI Generic Butt Fusion Procedure, TR-33, has the approval of gas pipe manufacturers for joining most PE2406
to PE3408 materials. This procedure does not include Uponor Aldyl A and Phillips 7000 and 8000 materials. When
fusing to these materials, consult the pipe manufacturer for the proper procedure or see PPI technical note TN-13 for
general guidelines.
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Electrofusion Joints
Electrofusion (EF) joints are made with, fittings that incorporate imbedded wire or other electrical conductors in
the polyethylene material of the fitting. An electrical power source provides energy to the conductor, which
generates heat for the fusion. Like heat-fusion joints, electrofusion joints must be made using a qualified procedure
as required by 49 CFR Part 192.283. ASTM F1055 is the specification that covers electrofusion polyethylene
fittings. ASTM F1290 is the Standard Practice for Electrofusion Joining.
PHOTO IV-12. Heating Coils in PHOTO IV-13. Schematic of EF Coupler

Electrofusion Saddle Showing Heating Coils
Photo credit: Transportation Safety Institute. Photo credit: Kerotest.
Manufacturers should be consulted for recommendations on heating cycles, power supplies and procedures for
specific plastic materials. Such items should be included in the operator’s procedure to ensure high quality joints.
Universal electrofusion systems incorporate universal control processors that are capable of recognizing and
fusing fittings produced by different manufacturers. Some universal electrofusion processors utilize bar coding to
enter the fusion parameters, voltage, time, etc., for fittings that are equipped with bar code labels.
The joiner must possess skill and knowledge to consistently produce high quality electrofusion joints. Formal
training under the supervision of a qualified instructor is required for new joiners. Joiners should demonstrate their
understanding of the procedure by making fusions and subjecting them to destructive testing as required by 49 CFR
192.285.
Electrofusion control boxes are not considered explosion proof and should not be energized in a gaseous
environment. As an added precaution, most power supply cables to the fitting can be connected prior to energizing
the control box.
To avoid contamination or degradation of fitting fusion surfaces, electrofusion fittings should be stored in their
original packaging, away from UV exposure, until immediately prior to use.
Refer to the fitting manufacturer for specific recommendations in regard to:
• Plastic material to be joined.
• Power requirements
• Ambient temperature limitations.
• Pipe/fitting preparation.
69
• Pipe/fitting support requirements.

• Cooling time.
• Accessory equipment needed with electrofusion fittings includes:
• Control box
• Alignment clamps
• Pipe scraping tools
• Non-oil based permanent marker and measuring tape
• Isopropyl Alcohol – consult fitting manufacturer for recommended strength or concentration.
• Clean, non-dyed, lint-free cloth.
• Adequate output rating power supply source (generator). This is typically the major source of difficulty
encountered while performing electrofusion joining. Users should evaluate the continuous duty cycle of the
generator to determine adequacy.
Electrofusion Couplings. These fittings typically join two pipe and/or fitting ends.
Typical Steps in an Electrofusion Coupling Procedure:

1. Preparation: Square the pipe and/or fitting ends. Clean dirt from the surfaces to be joined. Measure the total
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
length of the coupling and mark ½ of the length on each pipe end to indicate the stab depth of the pipe end into
the coupling.
2. Scrape: Using a permanent marker, mark the surface of the pipe in the area to be scraped. Scrape a thin layer
of polyethylene from the surfaces to be joined to the fitting. Examine for indication of remaining markings;
continue scraping until markings are removed. Do not allow the scraped surfaces or coupling to be
contaminated. Do not touch scraped surfaces with your hands, consult fitting manufacturer for proper cleaning
instructions in the event that a fitting becomes contaminated.
3. Align: Align the ends to be joined and center the electrofusion fitting over the abutted pipe ends and stab depth
marks. Avoid movement during fusion if specified by the fitting manufacturer.
4. Connect / Fuse: Supply power from the control box to the fitting. The amount of power is normally
predetermined or automatically controlled.
5. Cool: Allow joint to cool as recommended by the fitting manufacturer.
70
PHOTO IV-14. Completed PE Electrofusion Joint

Photo credit: Kerotest.
Electrofusion Saddles. These fittings fuse to the outside of a polyethylene pipe, usually for making repairs, or
installing lateral connections such as services
Typical Steps in an Electrofusion Saddle Procedure:
1. Prepare: Clean excess dirt from pipe surface.
2. Scrape: Using a permanent marker, mark the surface of the pipe in the area to be scraped. Scrape a thin layer
of polyethylene from the pipe surface in the area to be joined to the fitting. Examine for indication of remaining
markings; continue scraping until markings are removed. Do not allow the scraped surface or coupling to be
contaminated with dirt, water or oil from your hands.
3. Align: Align the electrofusion fitting on the scraped surface and clamp in place.
4. Connect / Fuse: Supply power from the control box to the fitting. The amount of power is normally
predetermined or automatically controlled.
5. Cool: Allow clamped assembly to cool as recommended by the fitting manufacturer.
Adhesive Joints
A two-component epoxy adhesive is commonly used to join reinforced thermoset epoxy resin FRP pipe. The
adhesive must conform to ASTM D2517 and the FRP piping and adhesive must be compatible with each other.
Testing and recommendation by the manufacturer that the materials and adhesives are compatible is advisable. An
adhesive, which can produce joints stronger than the pipe, can be considered compatible.
Proper mixing of the adhesive components, surface preparation, and retention of the newly bonded joint in place
is extremely important to producing high quality joints. In all cases, the manufacturer’s instructions should be
obtained and used as a guide for the written procedures. Procedure qualification as stated in 49 CFR Part 192.283 is
required.
Basic Joining Techniques

Basic joining techniques are as follows:
1. Surface Preparation: Plain-end pipe⎯Remove the surface gloss with a file or other abrasive device and
71
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

thoroughly clean both surfaces to be bonded with cleaning solvent and paper towels or equivalent.
Tapered-end, bell, and spigot pipe⎯Thoroughly clean both surfaces to be bonded with cleaning solvent and
paper towels or equivalent. When field cutting is necessary, pipe ends can be tapered with available portable
tools.
2. Mix: Thoroughly mix the two components of the adhesive.
3. Apply: Apply the mixed adhesive to the cleaned surfaces, making sure surfaces are completely covered or
wetted with the adhesive.
4. Assemble Joint: Insert plain or tapered end (spigot) into socket to the proper depth; then giving a quarter turn
to produce adhesive distribution and/or in the case of the tapered end, a mechanical lock.
5. Cure: Time for adhesive cure is dependent on the ambient temperature. When it is less then 16°C (60°F),
heating should be used to accelerate cure. Radiant heaters, chemical packs, and electrical-resistance heating
pads are commonly used for this purpose. When curing by these methods, care should be taken not to vaporize
any components of the adhesive and in no case should an open flame be used. A properly assembled joint will
always have a small adhesive bead on the exterior of the pipe. The hardness of this adhesive bead is a good
indication of the status of the cure of the joint adhesive. An installation should never be pressurized or moved if
any of the adhesive beads are not hard.
Solvent-Cement Joints
Solvent cement joints are made by dissolving small quantities of the pipe’s basic raw material in an active
solvent, such as methyl ethyl ketone. These solvent cements are readily commercially available. Thus, when the
cement dries, the material remaining on the joined surfaces is similar to that of the plastic pipe and fitting. Refer to
ASTM F402 for Safe Handling of Solvent Cements and Primers.
Solvent Cements
Solvent cements for PVC are described in ASTM D2564. Solvent cements must conform to the appropriate
ASTM specification and be recommended by the pipe manufacturer or material supplier as being suitable for the
purpose intended. Recommended procedures for solvent cementing for PVC are given in standard ASTM D2855.
Basic Joining Techniques

Basic joining techniques are as follows:
1. Condition: Temperature condition pipe and fittings to the same temperature.
2. Cut: Square cut end of pipe, free from burrs, and bevel leading edge for insertion into socket fittings.
3. Prepare: Clean and dry mating surfaces and check fit of pipe into tapered socket. Pipe should freely enter
fitting but not bottom against the internal shoulder.
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
4. Apply Solvent Cement: Uniformly coat both mating surfaces with solvent cement using pure bristle brush or
equivalent. A light coating should be applied to the socket with a heavier coating being applied to the pipe.
5. Assemble Joint: Immediately insert the pipe into the tapered socket with a turning motion and set against the
bottom of the fitting. Each joint should be checked immediately after being made up to see that the pipe does
not begin to extrude out of the fitting. Holding the completed joint together for several seconds helps to
eliminate this tendency. Wipe off any excess cement from the pipe at the end of the socket.
6. Cure: Allow joint to cure or dry without being disturbed or moved. A minimum of 30 minutes is recommended
and due to variations in cement composition, ambient temperature and humidity, longer times may be required.
Recommended set times are listed in the recommended practices or are available from the material supplier.
Final pressure testing or handling of solvent-cemented joints should not generally be undertaken until the joint
has developed a high percentage of its ultimate strength, which varies with ambient temperature and humidity. In all
cases, bending or torque forces acting on the joint should be avoided or minimized and the written procedures
should be strictly followed. Procedure qualification as stated in 49 CFR Part 192.283 is required.
72
Mechanical Connectors and Transition Fittings

Mechanical fittings, flanges, flange adapters, and other proprietary designs may be utilized as mechanical
connectors or transition fittings for both similar and dissimilar pipe. They must satisfy the requirements of 49 CFR
192.273, 192.281, and 192.283 outlined earlier, and state codes.
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Mechanical Fittings
Mechanical fittings normally create a gas tight seal on the O.D. or I.D. surface of plastic pipe using one of several
different methods. One way is to apply a compressive force to an o-ring or gasket on the outside of the pipe using a
screw-type or bolted end ring. Other mechanical fittings take advantage of the viscoelastic behavior of plastic by
using a plastic or metal ring on the pipe’s outside surface to seal the inside surface of the pipe against a stiffener or
spigot. A third method, used in stab type fittings, places the sealing material in compression against the outside of
the pipe when the pipe is inserted into the fitting. When the mechanical method of joining is used, it should be
determined that the sealing material in the joint is compatible with the plastic, i.e., no component of the seal will
migrate into or tend to initiate deterioration of the plastics. Experience has shown this not to be a problem when
making compression joints on polyethylene gas pipe.
PHOTO IV-15. Mechanical Couplings – Steel Bolted (Typical 1-1/4” and Larger)
Photo credit: PPI.
PHOTO IV-16. Mechanical Couplings – Plastic Bolted on 4” PA-11 Pipe

Since plastics can be deformed at ambient temperatures and relatively low load levels, it is necessary to reinforce
the cylinder of the plastic pipe that is subjected to the compressive forces as required by 49 CFR 192.281. A rigid
73
close fitting internal tubular stiffener to support the pipe wall must be used in conjunction with the fitting. Some
stiffeners are fluted, knurled or serrated and are retained by or attached to the fitting to provide higher pullout
resistance. The stiffener should support the pipe cylinder by extending under the entire area affected by the gasket or
auxiliary gripping device (where used). It should be free of rough edges; the leading edge tapered, and should
provide a snug fit in the pipe. The stiffener should be stamped with the pipe SDR if not attached to a fitting. A split
tubular stiffener does not provide sufficient support and is prohibited by 49 CFR 192.281(e).
PHOTO IV-17. Mechanical Couplings – Inserting “loose” Stiffener

Photo credit: PPI.
PHOTO IV-18. Mechanical Couplings – Nut Follower Design

Photo credit: PPI.
PHOTO IV-19. Mechanical Couplings – Nut Follower Cut Away
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
74
The installed joint must effectively “sustain longitudinal pullout or thrust forces caused by contraction or
expansion of the piping or by anticipated external or internal loading.”(49 CFR 192.273) Such provisions may be
provided for in the design of the mechanical fitting, the joint, or in the installation, or a combination of these.
Fittings that make joints designed to be at least as strong as the pipe are commercially available in both service and
main sizes. Such full seal-full restraint fittings are classified as “Category 1” under ASTM D2513. This standard
specification also provides for “Category 2” fittings which feature seal only and “Category 3” fittings which feature
seal and partial restraint. If a Category 2, full seal only, fitting is used, 49 CFR Part 192.273 requires the operator /
installer to make additional provisions for joint restraint. Some mechanical fittings have a compression nut, which
bottoms out when sufficient torque has been applied for proper installation. If the fitting has nut-type followers or
bolted end rings without a bottom out feature, the installation torque requirement as well as the recommended
wrench size and force, should be obtained from the manufacturer and included in the written procedure. Metallic
rings or gripping devices that cut or appreciably penetrate into the pipe walls should be evaluated with the intended
piping material to determine that the serviceability of the plastic pipe is not impaired.
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
PHOTO IV-20. Mechanical Couplings – Marking Stab Depth

Photo credit: Perfection.
PHOTO IV-21. Mechanical Couplings - Stab Coupling Cut Away

Photo credit: Perfection.
Pipe should be carefully inspected for and be free of scratches or gouges prior to joining, or an effective seal may
not be achieved. ASTM D2513 requires of indent marking that “the marking will not provide leakage channels when
elastomeric gasket compression fittings are used to make the joints”. Evidence has shown that this is not a problem
with currently used mechanical fittings.
ASTM specifications F 1924 and F 1948 are two good references for the design of metallic and plastic
mechanical fittings for use on plastic pipe.
75
Flanges and Flange Adapters

49 CFR 192.147(b) states: “Each flange assembly must be able to withstand the maximum pressure at which the
pipeline is to be operated and to maintain its physical and chemical properties at any temperature to which it is
anticipated that it might be subjected to in service.”
PHOTO IV-22. Transition from Steel to PE – With Flange Adapter

Flat-faced companion metal or plastic flanges with full-face gaskets or some type of O-ring design have been
used in the past. The manufacturer should be consulted for proper gasketing material and bolt-torque specifications.
Flange adapters are usually used with the less rigid plastics to avoid difficulties that could be encountered due to
the cold-flow characteristics of the materials. In many designs, the plastic material is used as the sealing gasket.
Transition Fittings and Other Special Purpose Fittings

A transition fitting is a specialized fitting designed to provide a connection between two dissimilar materials.
This can be used at a metal to plastic junction.
Several types of modified compression-type fittings are available for this application. Others are of proprietary design,
generally consisting of a factory prefabricated metal to plastic joint in the fitting, which is then joined by conventional
methods to the plastic and the metal pipe ends. The prefabricated joint is generally a socket design with the plastic pipe in
compression between metal components with auxiliary sealing devices such as O-rings. When welding to the metal end
of such transition fittings, care must be taken to avoid heat damage to the plastic/metal joint.
PHOTO IV-23. Transition from Steel to PE –Metal Mechanical Coupling

Photo credit: Transportation Safety Institute.
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
76
Manufacturer’s performance information for the fitting should be reviewed and the installation instructions
should be considered for incorporation into the written procedures. ASTM F1973, “Specification for Factory
Assembled Anodeless Risers and Transition Fittings in Polyethylene Fuel Gas Distribution Systems” is a good
reference for the design of transition fittings for use on plastic pipe.
Service Connections
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
49 CFR 192.361 and 192.363 state the general requirements of service lines of all materials. 49 CFR 192.273,
192.281, 192.367, 192.369, and 192.375 cover specific requirements of plastic service lines or their connections to
mains of various materials. Procedures, recommendations, and remarks are intended to implement these
requirements as they apply to plastic. Repetitions occur in an effort to maintain continuity or for emphasis.
Main Connections
Plastic service lines may be connected to metal mains using fittings with compression ends or other transition
connections. Plastic fittings are commonly used to connect plastic services to plastic mains.
PHOTO IV-24. Saddle Fusion Tapping Tee – PE

Plastic service fittings may be mechanical type, adhesive bonded, solvent cemented, or fusion joined to either or
both the main and the service line. Each joint in the service line to main connection must be designed and installed
to “sustain the longitudinal pullout or thrust forces caused by contraction or expansion of the piping or by
anticipated external or internal loading” to comply with 49 CFR 192.273. In addition, mechanical type connections
to the main must comply with 192.367(b).
77
PHOTO IV-25. Electrofusion Tapping Tee –PE with Clamping Fixture

When mechanical fittings are used, they should be of the full encirclement type and of a design, which will not
damage the pipe. Where used with thermoplastic pipe, the type and grade material, and pipe wall thickness must be
considered in determining the suitability of the mechanical service connection. It is important that the joint is
designed to prevent rotation on the main.
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
PHOTO IV-26. Mechanical Tapping Tee – PA-11 Tee with Mechanical Coupling Service Outlet for PE
Photo credit: RW Lyall.
The connection of the plastic pipe to the service tee has been shown by experience to be a critical junction.
Compaction of backfill under the service tee and pipe is of prime importance to provide adequate support and to
avoid the potentially high tensile, shear or bending stresses on the plastic at this point. Installation of a protective
sleeve over this connection can be used in addition to proper backfill to minimize these stresses. Historically, some
incidents have been attributed to failures at this connection as detailed in report number SIR-98/01 published
by the National Transportation Safety Board. Manufacturer’s instructions should be carefully followed.
78
Service Head Adapters

Service head adapters are specialized field assembled transition fittings used to connect and effect a gas seal
between a plastic service and a metal pipe sleeve, usually at the building.
These fittings are generally a combination of a compression-type joint with a pipe thread, a crimp sleeve or a
socket for solvent cementing or fusion joining of the plastic. The compression portion can be designed to receive
either the plastic or metallic pipe and effect the gas seal from the plastic pipe to either the inside or outside of the
sleeve. If the plastic pipe is in compression it must be reinforced with a tubular insert stiffener as discussed
previously under compression-type couplings. Further variations have been used in service risers and the designs
available vary widely. Each design must be checked to determine that it complies with the general information
requirements of 49 CFR 192.273, 192.281, and 192.283 and must be qualified.
Insert Service Risers (anodeless riser)

Insert service risers utilize plastic service pipe inserted through a casing that is terminated mechanically above
ground level. These risers are typically coated steel pipe or coated flexible metal conduit with a top seal provided for
by a factory fabricated transition joint and a gas tight seal or moisture seal underground. The service installation
shall comply with the requirements stated in “Direct⎯Burial Requirements With Plastics⎯Services”, portion of this
chapter. The mechanical service termination point should comply with 49 CFR 192.273, 192.281 and 192.283 and
must be qualified. The design of anodeless risers is covered by ASTM F 1973, “Specification for Factory Assembled
Anodeless Risers and Transition Fittings in Polyethylene Fuel Gas Distribution Systems”.
PHOTO IV-27. Risers - Variety of Designs

PROVISION FOR VALVES

49 CFR 192.193 states: “Each valve installed in plastic pipe must be designed so as to protect the plastic material
against excessive torsional or shearing loads when the valve or shutoff is operated, and from any other secondary
stresses that might be exerted through the valve or its enclosure.”
PHOTO IV-28. Valves - Small Diameter PE

Photo credit: Kerotest.
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
79
Avoiding Excessive Torque

Methods commonly used to avoid excessive torque when operating metallic valves include:
1. Using a low torque valve (such as a ball valve).
2. Anchoring the valve body in such manner so as to resist turning.
3. Making the transition from plastic to metal some distance from both sides of the valve or using rigid pipe casing
fastened to the valve. Each installation, however, should be designed to prevent excessive strain on the plastic
pipe.
4. Using a long metallic rigid stiffener. This is a method sometimes used with small diameter pipe at curb stops
PHOTO IV-29. Valves - Large Diameter PE

Thermoplastic valves are widely used in plastic piping systems. They are available in all pipe and tubing sizes at
least through 12 IPS. They are produced in all thermoplastic materials listed in ASTM D 2513.
Metallic valves, because of the corrosion concerns, should only be used as a last resort in plastic fuel gas piping
systems and may need to be cathodically protected. If metallic valves are used, transition fittings or transition
valves must be used to connect to the plastic piping. The code currently incorporates thermoplastic valve
requirements through reference standards ASTM D2513 and ANSI B16.40, the latter being the thermoplastic fuel
gas valve standard specification. ASTM D2513 requires that all plastic valves comply with ANSI B16.40.
Any transition from plastic to metal or to a more rigid section of plastic pipe should be supported on undisturbed
or well compacted soil, or bridged or encased in a sleeve to minimize shear and bending stresses.
When curb boxes or other valve enclosures are required, they must be supported independently of the valve and
pipe so as not to impose external stresses on the plastic pipe. Curb stops or main valves may require anchoring to
prevent valve rotation before and during installation of the box and backfilling.
If metallic valves are installed in plastic piping systems, provisions must be included to mitigate corrosion of the
valve.
Excess Flow Valves/Flow Limiters --``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
An Excess Flow Valve or flow limiter (EFV) is a fitting or device installed in the service line between the main
and meter set, near or adjacent to the service tee. Through a variety of designs, the EFV senses a significant increase
in gas flow that may be the result of outside third party damage or failure of the service line between the service tee
and the meter set. When this high gas flow exceeds a predetermined rate, depending on the design and sizing of the
EFV, it activates, shutting off the flow of gas to the service and/or limiting the flow to a small “bleed by” rate. This
“bleed by” is necessary in those EFV’s that are designed to automatically reset themselves upon repair of the
damaged service line. It should be noted that EFVs are not effective in all leak situations and that false closures of
EFV’s have been reported. Consult the EFV manufacturer for specific engineering data and appropriate application.
Performance standards for excess flow valves are given in 49 CFR 192.381. Performance test methods for Excess
Flow Valves are given in ASTM F 1802.
80
PHOTO IV-30. EFVs - Typical Installation in Service Outlet

Photo credit: UMAC.
Customer notification for excess flow valves is covered by 49 CFR 192.383. This federal regulation outlines the
following procedure for customer notification:
1. Which customers must receive notification
2. What to put in the written notice.
3. When notification and installation must be made.
4. What records are required.
5. When notification is required.
BENDS AND BRANCHES

Changes in direction with plastic pipe may be made with bends, elbows, tees, or saddle tees. The pipe may be
bent or deflected but the radius should not be less than the minimum recommended by the manufacturer. Where
pipefittings are included, bending limitations for some materials may be more restrictive than those for pipe alone.
The manufacturer may recommend additional limitations. Bends should have a smooth contour and be free of kinks,
cracks or other evidence of damage. For all practical purposes, properly installed bent pipe will have the equivalent
strength of straight pipe.
Field miter joints and field fabricated pipe-to-pipe butt type branch connections are not permitted. Factory
fabricated miter joints are acceptable.
EXTERNAL STRESSES
Stresses due to external forces, i.e., bends, non-uniform support, potential earth settlement areas and surface
loading, should be avoided or minimized. External sleeves, where appropriate, should be used on service line
takeoffs to minimize stresses due to pipe deflection. In addition, tamping or puddling of consolidated granular
backfill should be provided, especially directly under the service line takeoff. Side fill on large diameter pipe should
be consolidated prior to backfilling the trench. In summary, support should be continuous.
ALLOWANCE FOR LINEAR THERMAL EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION

Plastic pipe changes in length due to temperature change at a rate significantly higher than that for steel or cast
iron pipe. The thermal coefficient of linear expansion depending on the type of plastic may be ten or more times
that for steel. Typical values for various plastics are shown in Table I-1, Chapter 1. These coefficients of expansion
are for pipe materials in an unrestrained mode. Mains and services installed by insertion are considered to
approximate unrestrained pipe, except for end and lateral connections. End connections on both direct buried and
inserted plastic pipe should be made with fittings designed to provide restraint equal to or greater than the strength
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
81
of the pipe or be supplemented with additional restraint such as anchoring, bracing, or strapping. This would ensure
freedom from pullout should the joint be subjected to extreme combinations of axial forces due to thermal changes,
pressure end thrust, settlement, or even contact by mechanical equipment.
Temperature Changes
When properly restrained at the end connections, plastic pipe is not prone to failure due to temperature changes
because:
1. With its lower modulus of elasticity, the internal stress buildup is considerably less than the long-term
strength of the material.
2. The passive resistance of the soil prevents some movement when pipe is direct buried.
3. Plastics are viscoelastic, i.e., they are capable of relaxing or adjusting with time to stresses imposed by
constant strain. However this relaxation over time may not relieve all of the stresses imposed.
The crucial period for failure due to temperature effects is during installation, when temperature changes may be
quite rapid and before adhesive, solvent-cemented or heat fused joints have been fully cured or have attained a high
percentage of their ultimate strength. Installation of the plastic pipe under tension must be avoided to minimize the
effects of contraction from thermal changes. It should be allowed to cool to ambient temperature prior to trimming
and final connection.
TRENCHING AND BACKFILLING

Plastic pipe should be laid and continuously supported on undisturbed or well-compacted soil rather than on
blocking to minimize shear stresses. When rock, ledge, hardpan or boulders are encountered, the trench bottom
should be undercut at least 6 inches and the undercut refilled with stable granular material that can be readily
worked under the sides of the pipe to provide satisfactory haunching and soil densities after compaction. Backfill
material for at least 6 inches over the plastic pipe should be select, fine material free of stone. Backfill material
should be compacted in lifts thick enough to prevent damage to the plastic pipe. If the trench is wide enough,
sidefills should first be compacted. When heavy equipment (such as hydrohammers, truck wheels, etc.) is used to
compact backfill, special care must be exercised to prevent damage to plastic pipe; for example, provide at least 24
inches of cover and pressurizing the pipe before compaction. When puddling of the trench is used to consolidate
backfill, it should be done in lifts to prevent plastic pipe from floating from its original position on the trench
bottom. ASTM D 2774, “Standard Practice for Underground Installation of Thermoplastic Pressure Pipe”, defines
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
soil classification as well as bedding and backfilling recommendations for plastic pipe in detail, and may be referred
to for further information.
PIPE PLACEMENT IN TRENCHES

Plastic piping may be joined in the ditch or above grade. Generally, most joining is done above grade prior to
lowering pipe into the ditch. When adhesive, solvent-cemented or heat-fused joints are made; sufficient time (see
paragraphs on adhesive, solvent cement and heat fusion joints earlier in this chapter) must be allowed for the joint to
set up before moving the pipe. Plastic pipe should always be handled with care to avoid buckling as it is lowered
into the ditch. It should not be subjected to unnecessary stresses, such as twisting or bending to a radius less than the
minimum recommended by the manufacturer. When handling plastic pipe at extremely high or low temperatures, it
should be remembered that the tensile strength will be lower at high temperatures and the flexibility reduced at low
temperatures. Plastic pipe should be handled with wide webbing type slings rather than metal slings or chains to
avoid damage to the pipe. Pipe should never be dragged over rough surfaces that could scratch or gouge the pipe.
In some cases, it may be desirable to leak test “strings” of joined plastic pipe prior to lowering into the ground. In
above ground pressure testing, it is possible for solar radiation to increase the pipe temperature and mask a small
leak or conversely the cooling effect of the ground or removal of solar radiation could falsely indicate a leak. The
length of the pressure test should be sufficient for the temperature to stabilize. See Chapter V for safety precautions
to consider when performing pressure tests.
82
PHOTO IV-31. Installation – Direct Burial of PE Pipe

The pipe should be lowered into the ground without being placed in extreme tension or flexure. Where possible,
the trench should be cut with a square bottom so the full width is available for providing slack. Snaking the pipe
from one side of the ditch to the other is desirable. This allows for some contraction of the plastic pipe. In warm
weather, as plastic pipe cools to ground temperature, it shrinks in length. Sufficient time should be allowed for
contraction after placement in the trench prior to trimming and joining adjacent sections.
PLOWING TECHNIQUES
Plowing techniques can be used for installing plastic mains and services. This technique is typically used in areas
where there are few surface and subsurface obstructions such as walks, driveways, culverts, other underground
facilities, or trees and where soil is relatively free of rocks. Primary advantages are speed, low cost, and minimum
disturbance to the ground surface. Disadvantages relate in degree to the type of ground and terrain encountered and
to the number of other underground facilities that might be encountered.
Plowing Methods
There are two basic methods used for installing plastic pipe with a plow.
The pull-in method is generally utilized for services or shorter strings of pipe. The plant-in method is less likely
to damage the plastic pipe and allows continuous pipe placement with minimum chance of abrasion damage to the
pipe walls.
PHOTO IV-32. Installation – Plowing In PE w/ Tracer Wire and Warning Tape

83
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

The Pull-in Method

The pipe is pulled through the ground (dragged) in an oversized borehole created by a mole on a subsoiler (plow
blade) pulled by a winch or tractor(s). The pipe is attached behind the mole or moling head section of the subsoiler.
Sections of pipe are dragged into the ground in lengths that may range from fifty to over a thousand feet long. The
length depends on the size and type of plastic pipe and the soil. The connection between the pipe and the mole head
is often designed to break at a pull of not more than 1/2 the apparent yield strength of the pipe that is being installed.
However, engineering analysis and local practice may permit using a higher fraction of the yield strength for
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
the weak link. ASTM F 1804, “Determining Allowable Tensile Load for Polyethylene (PE) Gas Pipe During Pull-
in Installation,” provides detailed information on stresses during pull-in.
Plant-in Method
The pipe is installed in place underground (planted) by means of a chute that terminates at the rear of a subsoiler
attachment. The pipe is fed through the chute into the ground and is not dragged or pulled through the ground. The
plow can also be equipped with other chutes for planting a locating wire or a warning tape above the plastic pipe.
The plastic pipe for this method is usually in coiled form and the coil may be carried on the plow or strung out
ahead, over the plow and into the chute. The plastic pipe must not be bent to a radius less than that recommended by
the manufacturer in getting it into the plow, through the chute and into the ground. Sudden change of elevation or
direction of the plow such as when the plow hits a large rock can damage the plastic pipe. Any suspected damage to
the pipe should be investigated.
Installation – Uncoiling and Rerounding PA-11 Pipe

Plowing techniques are best utilized in flat or gently rolling terrain and in soil that is relatively compactible and
free from large rocks. A pilot pass with the plow set shallower and without the pipe attached is sometimes feasible in
marginal soil. An inspection should be made to ascertain soil and terrain suitability for plowing. Underground
structures, such as other utilities, must be located to prevent damage while plowing. Vibratory plows that require
less drawbar pull for operation have been used with both methods.
TRENCHLESS INSTALLATIONS
There are a variety of boring or pushing tools available to allow the installation of gas pipe with minimal surface
damage. Normally, the boring or pushing tool is set up at one end of the job and directed underground to the other
end of the job. The pipe is then pulled in as the equipment is removed. Under the proper conditions, several hundred
feet can be pulled at one time. An economic analysis of these types of installation should consider:
1. Setup time
2. Underground obstacles
3. Restoration costs
Before utilizing boring or pushing equipment with plastic pipe, a thorough investigation of the area should be
made to determine the location of all underground utilities or structures. If the exact location and depth is not
known, an excavation should be made.
Soil condition in the area must also be considered. If soil conditions are such that damage to the plastic pipe is
likely, a casing should be used.
If plastic pipe is pulled into the annular space, a weak link should be used that would limit the pulling forces on
the pipe. (Recommended pulling forces for various sizes are available from the pipe suppliers.) There is an ASTM
Recommended Practice for determining allowable tensile loads during pull-in installations.* Some companies also
utilize an oversized pulling head in front of the weak link.
* F 1804 Standard Practice for Determining Allowable Tensile Load for Polyethylene (PE) Gas Pipe During Pull-In Installation
84
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
PHOTO IV-33. Installation – Directional Drilling Photo IV-34. Installation – Insertion
Photo credit: Peoples Energy Photo credit: Peoples Energy
The oversize hole minimizes the forces applied to the pipe. Additional information can be found in GRI Report
No. 97/0033 “Horizontal Directional Drilling Guidelines for Installing Polyethylene Gas Distribution Pipes”.
DIRECT-BURIAL REQUIREMENTS WITH PLASTICS

Mains
Plastic main installations must be constructed in accordance with the general requirements of 49 CFR Subpart G
of which Sections 192.311, 192.321, and 192.325 covers specific requirements on installations of plastic pipe. Some
of the points to consider are as follows:
1. Distribution mains must have a minimum cover of 24 inches (49 CFR 192.327); however, a main may be
installed with less than 24 inches of cover if the law of the state or municipality
• “Establishes a minimum cover of less than 24 inches”;
• “Requires that mains be installed in a common trench with other utility lines; and”
• “Provides adequately for prevention of damage to the pipe by external forces.”
2. Sufficient clearance must be maintained between plastic mains and steam, hot water, power lines, and other
sources of heat, to avoid temperatures in excess of 140°F (60°C) for thermoplastic pipe and up to 150°F (66°C)
for thermosetting pipe. At temperatures above 73°F (23°C) the design pressure of the piping system will be
reduced. For details refer to “Calculation of Design Pressure” in Chapter 2.
3. An electrical conductor (i.e. tracer wire) should be installed with direct-burial plastic pipe to facilitate locating with an
electronic detector unless other means are available for locating the pipe underground. This conductor can be a coated
metal wire or a coated metallic tape, and should be corrosion resistant. Leads into curb boxes, valve boxes, and on
service risers can be used for direct connection of locating equipment. See Chapter 6 for additional information.
Cathodic protection for the tracer wire should be considered and implemented if warranted. The tracer wire should be
selected to last the life of the pipe. The Regulations currently prohibit wrapping the tracer wire around the plastic pipe
and contact with the pipe must be minimized, but is not prohibited.
85
4. Accurately measured location records for mains should be noted as being plastic on records and maps. Warning
tape may also be buried above the plastic main to indicate its presence provided that adequate separation
between the pipe and the warning tape is maintained.
5. When work is being done near plastic mains, such as: punching or drilling holes; digging; or using heat for frost
thawing; the main should be located and marked and the work should be done by hand where close proximity is
unavoidable.
Services
Requirements of the federal code for the installation of plastic service lines includes those listed in 49 CFR
192.321, 192.361, 192.365, 192.367, and 192.375. Some installation points to consider are as follows:
1. Depth. “Each buried service line must be installed with at least 12 inches of cover in private property and at
least 18 inches of cover in streets and roads. However, when an underground structure prevents installation at
those depths, the service line must be able to withstand any anticipated external load.” Measures used to
reinforce the plastic include increasing the wall thickness, sleeving, or bridging. Some state codes may have
more stringent cover requirements.
2. An electrical conductor (i.e. tracer wire) should be installed with direct-burial plastic services to facilitate
locating with an electronic detector unless other means are available for locating the pipe underground. This
conductor can be an insulated metal wire or a coated metallic tape, and should be corrosion-resistant. Leads into
curb boxes, valve boxes, and on service risers can be used for direct connection of locating equipment. See
Chapter 6 for additional information. Cathodic protection for the tracer wire should be considered and
implemented if warranted. The tracer wire should be selected to last the life of the pipe.
3. Support and backfill. “Each service line must be properly supported on undisturbed or well-compacted soil, and
material used for backfill must be free of materials that could damage the pipe.”
4. Plastic services may be terminated above ground providing:
• “The above ground part of the plastic service line is protected against deterioration and external damage.”
The casing, if metallic, should be adequately protected against corrosion and extend a minimum of 6 inches
below grade.
• “The plastic service line is not used to support external loads.” The meter or its connecting pipe would be
considered such loads.
• “the operating temperature limits of the plastic are not exceeded.”
5. Plastic pipe is not permitted for use as house piping for gas. If installed under a building, it must be encased in
gastight conduits. The space between the conduit and the service line must be sealed to prevent leakage into the
building and, if the conduit is sealed at both ends, a vent line must be extended above grade and to a point
where gas would not be a hazard. It must terminate in a rain and insect resistant fitting.
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
PLASTIC INSERTION IN MAINS AND SERVICES

Insertion of plastic pipe and tubing through existing mains and services can result in significant savings to the
utility and also in improved public relations because of reduced excavations in streets or on customer property.
General Considerations
Plastic pipe or tubing with an OD almost as large as the ID of the old pipe may be inserted if this large size is
needed for capacity (such as 11/8 OD plastic in 1 ¼” steel service pipe or 3 ½” OD plastic pipe in 4” steel pipe).
These advantages are attainable provided the resulting reduction in flow capacity can be tolerated or if the system is
operated at a higher pressure. Fortunately, the use of this technique is feasible in many of the distribution systems
installed years ago. Some or all of the reasons as listed may be responsible for the above situation.
1. In colder climates freezing water in the annular space may cause service interruption/flow reduction.
2. Mains and particularly services were originally oversized or load has been reduced or transferred to other
mains.
3. Mains were sized for low BTU manufactured gas. Conversion from manufactured to natural gas may have the
86
effects of more than doubling energy deliverability.

4. Existing gas distribution systems may be scheduled for uprating to higher operating pressures. Much low-
pressure (0.5 psi and lower) piping has been converted to elevated pressure piping with the accompanying
increase in gas deliverability.
From the preceding, it is quite apparent that the insertion technique is complementary to the present trend of
substituting increased operating pressures for main and service size. As a consequence of uprating, it may be
necessary to install or modify individual service regulators for each customer, but this is offset by the increased
operating flexibility and load capacity, reduction of pipe sizes, and elimination of district regulators.
General Requirements
Any procedure developed for insert renewal of mains and services should meet the following requirements:
1. Exposed plastic pipe or tubing outside the pipe casing must be of sufficient strength to withstand the anticipated
external loading or it must be protected using a suitable bridging piece capable of withstanding the anticipated
external loading. Many successful systems simply use a pipe qualified for direct burial with continuous support
when it emerges from the casing.
2. When exposed plastic pipe spans disturbed earth, it must be protected from crushing or shearing from external
loading or settling of backfill. A bridging piece may be required if satisfactory backfill objectives cannot be
attained. When holes are cut in the old main for service connections to the new plastic insert main, it is desirable
to remove only the top part of the old main so the plastic will be assured continuous support.
3. An allowance for thermal expansion and contraction must be made at lateral and end connections on inserted
plastic pipe, particularly those over 50 feet in length. Every joint must be designed to prevent pullout caused by
thermal contraction. It is desirable that the fittings used should be capable of restraining a force equal to or
greater than the strength of the pipe; otherwise, the pipe should be restrained by anchoring, bracing, offset
connection, or straps across the fitting. To minimize the stresses caused by thermal contraction, pipes inserted in
summer should be allowed to cool to ambient temperature before tie-ins are made. Inserted pipes, especially
those pulled in, should be stress relieved to avoid initial tensile stress.
The following should aid in satisfying the requirements of 49 CFR 192.321 (f) that states: “Plastic pipe that is
being encased must be inserted into the casing pipe in a manner that will protect the plastic. The leading end of the
plastic must be closed before insertion.”
A sufficient starter ditch must be opened to allow the plastic pipe to be inserted without causing buckling,
exceeding the manufacturer’s recommended minimum radius, or overstressing the joints. The length of the starter
ditch depends on the stiffness of the pipe material. The casing (main or service) should be cleaned and reamed to the
extent necessary to remove any excess deposits, sharp edges, projections, or abrasive material, which could damage
the plastic during or after installation. Excavations and cutouts are required at offsets, drips, service and other main
connections, etc.
It is an excellent idea to leak test long "strings” of previously assembled plastic pipe prior to inserting them into
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
mains. Safety precautions in case of failure include removal of non-essential personnel from the area and anchoring
of the pipe with stakes, ropes or sandbags. This does not eliminate the advisability of a test after insertion.
The end of the plastic being inserted must be plugged to prevent dirt from entering the lead opening during
insertion. To prevent damage to the plastic during insertion, a smooth funnel devised from a firm non-abrasive
material, preferably of hardness equal to or less than the pipe being inserted should shield the casing opening. If the
plastic is inserted by pulling, the tensile loading should not exceed ½ the yield strength of the pipe. High resistance
on pulling or pushing is indicative of friction or abrasion resulting in possible damage to the plastic pipe. The
leading edge of couplings should be beveled to aid in riding over small obstructions.
Some utilities consider it desirable to plug the annular space between the plastic and old pipe at all openings made in the
old mains or services so that the space between the plastic and old pipe will not act as an unrestricted conduit for leaking
gas. Others contend that should a leak occur in the plastic insert and the casing opening is sealed, the gas could be forced to
emerge at a more critical location (e.g., near the building). Where there is a large annular space, it should be plugged at
openings to prevent backfill from entering the void causing settlement of the insertion hole. O-ring seals, split foam plugs, or
plastic sleeves are devices used to seal the ends of old service pipes. Service cutouts on old mains may be sealed with a
foamed-in-place material, grout or caulking material that is compatible with the plastic insert main.
The requirements listed under the section dealing with direct-burial plastic mains and services also apply to
plastic insert renewals where applicable. Particular attention should be given to those requirements concerning
87
installation of plastic services into or under buildings (49 CFR 192.361).

Plastic insert renewal of services appears to offer the greatest possible benefits for the company beginning to use
plastic pipe because of the large numbers of service inserts involved, universal applicability, ease of renewal, and
substantial unit and total cost savings. Savings of 50 percent or more are commonly cited over conventional metal
pipe replacement.
Conventional Insertions
Typically, an insertion consists of:
1. Excavating each end of the job and all lateral connections,
2. Taking the old main out of service,
3. Cutting out lateral connections,
4. Inserting the main,
5. Reconnecting all laterals,
6. Backfilling all excavations.
Depending on the number of customers, the length of main that can be inserted as one job may be limited to one
or two city blocks. The advantage of insert main work is that it only requires an opening for each service and at
each end of the insert job. The disadvantages are that a number of customers are out of service at one time and they
cannot be served until the job is completed. Proper planning can reduce this downtime to an acceptable minimum.
“LIVE” Insertions
In some cases, the new main can be inserted prior to taking the old main out of service. For example, 2” medium
pressure main could possibly be inserted inside a 4” low pressure main provided the annular space is sufficient to
maintain service to existing customers. The insertion can be accomplished through the use of a special fitting on the
end of the old main. Precautions must be taken during pressure testing of the new main in case a leak occurs. Also,
specialty equipment such as foam is needed to control the flow of gas as lateral connections are made. Care must be
taken not to damage the new main, as holes are cut in the old main for lateral connections.
The advantages of live insertion includes shortened time that the customer is out of service and the need to only
open one hole at a time.
Other Factors
Other factors to be considered on any insertion include:
1. Economic analysis of insertion versus other replacement technique.
2. Adequacy of reduced size insert to provide capacity for existing and future loads.
3. Previous repair techniques, previous replacement repairs, offsets, and reliability of mapping or records.
4. Number of lateral and service connections required.
5. The existing main location (both in elevation and laterally) should be capable of supporting future service
connections.
6. Provision for alternate service for customers who cannot be shut off must be completed.
7. The condition of the interior of the existing main must permit proper preparation prior to relining.
8. Future locating of main/service.
88
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

CHAPTER V PERSONNEL TRAINING, FIELD INSPECTION, AND PRESSURE TESTING
CHAPTER V
PERSONNEL TRAINING, FIELD INSPECTION,
AND PRESSURE TESTING
PERSONNEL TRAINING
The joining of plastic pipe requires performance in accordance with qualified procedures, and personnel
performing these procedures must be qualified in their use.
Properly trained and qualified personnel, and a comprehensive inspection program, are necessary to ensure safe
and reliable plastic piping installations, consistent with the state of the art procedures and the minimum of pipeline
safety standards.
Areas For Training

Personnel training can be grouped into five general areas:
1. Joining of Plastic Pipe
a. Heat Fusion
i. Butt Fusion
ii. Socket Fusion
iii. Saddle Fusion
iv. Electrofusion
b. Mechanical Joining (thermoplastic and thermosetting)
c. Solvent cement
d. Adhesive (thermosetting)
2. Joining Equipment
a. Heat fusion tools and equipment
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
b. Mechanical and hydraulic tools and equipment
3. Installation Techniques
4. Repair Techniques
5. Inspection
Training of personnel to make “qualified” plastic pipe joints is required by 49 CFR 192.285, titled “Plastic Pipe;
Qualifying Persons to Make Joints.” Individuals must produce specimen joints that pass the applicable inspection
and testing requirements.
Training in the above mentioned general areas may be accomplished through a formal in-house training program
by “qualified” personnel or through programs offered by pipe and fitting manufacturers.
Typical Outline for Training

Training programs can be developed for any piping material. The form of training required will depend on the
particular needs of each company. Manufacturers and utilities with successful plastic piping programs can provide
additional help in developing a training program. In addition, the Gas Technology Institute offers a series of slides;
training aids and reports for joining, installing and repairing of polyethylene piping distribution systems. See
Appendix C, Other Sources of Information.
In all cases the manufacturer should be contacted for qualified joining procedures as a starting point for any training.
PPI, the Plastic Pipe Institute publishes generic joining procedures for heat fusion joining. The documents, are TR
33 “Generic Butt Fusion Joining Procedure for Polyethylene Gas Pipe” and TR-41 “Generic Saddle Fusion Joining
Procedure for Polyethylene Gas Piping”. Copies can be obtained by downloading from the PPI website at
http://www.plasticpipe.org. These documents contain specific manufacturer’s letters of compliance with CFR Title 49,
Part 192.283.
89
A typical outline for a polyethylene piping training program is as follows:
1. Heat fusion tools—Types and maintenance

2. Socket fusion techniques
a. Pipe preparation
b. Equipment motion sequence
c. Correct heating temperature and cycles
d. Handling during fusion
e. Cooling
f. Visual inspection
3. Saddle fusion techniques
a. Pipe and tee preparation
b. Roundness of pipe
c. Proper tools
d. Correct heater faces
e. Correct heat setting and control
f. Melt pattern
g. Equipment motion sequence
h. Alignment
i. Melt interface pressures
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
j. Visual inspection
k. Cooling
l. Tapping
4. Butt fusion techniques
a. Pipe end preparation
b. Pipe support
c. Joint Alignment
d. Heating temperature and cycles
e. Melt bead formation
f. Equipment motion sequence
g. Melt interface pressure
h. Cooling
i. Visual inspection
5. Electrofusion techniques
a. Pipe surface preparation
b. Roundness of pipe
c. Assembly and clamping
d. Alignment
e. Electrofusion operation
f. Visual inspection
g. Cooling
6. Tapping of tees and branch saddles
7. Mechanical Connections
a. Pipe preparation
b. Insert Stiffeners, verify that the pipe sizing ID marked on the stiffener matches the plastic pipe sizing.
c. Alignment
d. Assembly
e. Perform any required mechanical functions.
f. Tapping, in the case of saddle connections
g. Visual inspection
8. Installation techniques
a. Direct burial
b. Plow/Plant Installation
c. Insertion
90
d. Pipe bursting
e. Horizontal directional drilling
9. Documentation
a. Facility location
b. Pressure test record
c. Joining records
d. Inspection records
10. Repair techniques
a. Static electricity mitigation procedures
b. Pressure/Flow control techniques
c. Repair methods
d. Marking
e. Repair records
FIELD INSPECTION
49 CFR 192.287 requires inspectors to be qualified by appropriate training or experience in evaluating the
acceptability of plastic pipe joints made under the joining procedures being used. The inspector should be familiar
with the standards, specifications, equipment, written procedures, and the training undergone by the personnel.
Inspectors with less experience should have the opportunity to train and gain experience with more experienced
personnel.
Although written inspection procedures are not required, omission errors can be avoided if an inspector checklist
is used. An inspection checklist can be developed from the procedures covered in Chapter IV, as well as some or all
of the following items:
Field Inspection checklist:

1. Pre-Construction
a. Notifications made for Facility Locates
b. Company approved materials are being used
c. Pipe is properly marked and acceptably dated
d. Pipe is free of injurious defects.
e. Pipe is properly stored.
f. Proper and required work area protection equipment is present.
g. Qualified personnel are onsite.
2. Construction or Joining
a. Work area protection is in place on jobsite.
b. Installers have current qualifications.
c. Approved joining equipment is available.
d. Joining equipment is in proper working condition.
e. Pipe ends and surfaces are cleaned and prepared properly.
f. Pipe and/or fitting joints are properly aligned.
g. Heating tool surfaces are clean and properly coated (where coated tools are used).
h. Heating tool temperatures are correct.
i. Melt and rollback bead patterns are correct.
j. Curing/cooling and restraining cycles have been met.
k. A method to track each joint to the person making that joint is recommended. Marking immediately
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
adjacent to the joint is one method commonly used.

l. Some LDCs require a “first fusion of the day” be made and tested before making production joints on a job.
3. Installation
a. Pipe is handled properly.
b. Trench dimensions are in accordance with Company installation standards.
c. Trench surface is level, at required grade, is free of rocks, debris or other objects, which may damage the
piping, and provides continuous and stable support.
91
d. Facility locating device/material has been installed as required

e. Suitable backfill material is used.
f. Facility marking materials have been installed as required.
g. Proper pressure testing has been completed in compliance with 49 CFR 192, local codes, and Company
standards.
h. Construction, pressure testing and inspection records are complete.
i. Use of reinforcing sleeve on service line takeoff and/or firm backfill support to minimize settlement and
shear forces on connections.
j. Sleeve material shall be free of sharp edges.
k. In the case of insertion, pipe inserted in accordance with Company standards and procedures.
l. End protectors and/or bridging sleeves installed at end-bearing points to prevent minimize settlement and
shear forces.
m. Expansion and contraction of plastic materials with sleeve or casing has been accounted for.
INSPECTION OF FIELD JOINTS

The person inspecting joints in plastic pipelines must be qualified by appropriate training or experience in the
joining procedures being used. Please refer to 49 CFR 192.273 and 287 for specific details.
The best method to assure good fusion joints is to enforce the following of the company prescribed fusion
procedure. Visual inspection is the most commonly used nondestructive method of checking joints. Most pipe
manufacturers can provide photographic examples of their pipe properly fused. The ability to properly perform
visual inspection of joints can be developed by training and experience.
The entire circumference of adhesive (fiber reinforced thermoset piping only), solvent cemented (PVC only), or
heat-fused (PE or PA only) joints should be examined for uniform and nonporous beads. Other visual or appearance
guidelines can be developed and used for determining joint quality.
Heat-fusion problems usually result from: contamination, applying excessive force (or any force) while in contact
with the heating plate, the heating time being too long or short, the heating tool temperature being too high or low,
misalignment of the pipe ends, insufficient, or excessive force being exerted on the pipe ends, and insufficient cool
down time.
In addition to visual inspection, another method of nondestructive testing is the use of ultrasonic sound waves to
detect flaws or imperfections in the joints. This technique is fast and accurate, and very reliable when performed by
trained operators.
For supporting evidence in their inspection program, some companies consider it helpful to destructively test
joints, on a random sampling basis. 49 CFR 192.285 sets forth the specifics of the approved method of destructive
testing. If failure initiates in the joint area, the joint is disqualified. See Appendix F for a sample Plastic Pipe/Fusion
Inspection Checklist.
PRESSURE TESTING
49 CFR 192.513 requires that all plastic pipe installed for the distribution of gas must be pressure tested after
construction and before placing into service. This is done to ensure the discovery of all potentially hazardous
leaks in the piping system being tested.
The test pressure must be at least 150 percent of the maximum operating pressure but not less than 50 psig. This
test pressure must also be less than three times the design pressure of the pipe. Also, the temperature during testing
must not be more than 100 °F or the temperature at which the material’s long term hydrostatic strength has been
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
determined. PPI TN-18, “Policy for Determining Long-Term Strength (LTHS) by Temperature Interpolation”, may
aid the user in determining the pipe’s strength at elevated temperatures.
When it is not feasible to include tie-in joints in the test, the tie-in joints may be leak tested at the operating
pressure using a foaming agent or other acceptable methods.
Due consideration must be given to volumetric content, location, test medium, duration of test, and employee and
public safety when selecting the test method. These tests and data are usually recorded to form the basis of the
maximum allowable operating pressure of the segment or system.
92
Air, natural gas, inert gas, or water may be used as the test medium. Pressure gages, suitable for the pressure
fluid being used, should be checked to assure that they are in proper working order.
Air or gas would normally be used in testing plastic piping systems. Water is normally only considered for use
on large diameter piping, and piping runs of significant lengths, due to the high potential energy associated with air
testing. Due to potential freezing, water may be impractical during construction in cold climates. Check with the
piping manufacturer to assure that any oils and/or antifreeze reagents used are compatible with the plastic materials
involved. Care must be taken in pigging plastic pipelines to removing water, as internal diameter surface scratches
must be prevented or minimized whenever possible.
When using air compressors, consideration should be given to minimize the amount of contamination present in
the air used in testing. Also, when pressure testing using an air compressor, attention must be given to the air
temperature so as not to exceed maximum allowable test temperatures.
PRECAUTIONS IN TESTING
The following general precautions, in addition to those required by a specific situation, should be considered
during testing:
Pressure Tests
During pressure tests, especially with compressed gases, safety precautions should be instituted to protect the
public, employees and property in case of a pipeline failure. Precautions necessary will depend upon design of the
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
system tested, volumetric content, test medium, test pressure, test location and test duration.
End Connections
When using compression type couplings to cap off and test plastic piping, the longitudinal resistance to pullout of
the mechanical connectors must be considered.
Some mechanical couplings and end caps have built in end load restraint. Joints utilizing other couplings and end
caps must be provided with properly designed auxiliary restraint. Blocking, strapping or other anchoring methods
can be employed to prevent pullout at the pipe ends. ASTM D 2513 Category 1 fittings are recommended.
Consult with ASTM D2513 for the different types of mechanical fitting/joint designations. Under this standard
Category 1 fittings provide for both a seal and full restraint of the fitting to the pipe, by design. Such fittings are
marked “D2513 category 1” or “D2513 CAT 1”.
Joint Curing and Cooling

With solvent cement or adhesive joints, sufficient time must be allowed for curing before pressurization.
Required curing time varies depending on type of material, contact area, type and consistency of solvent cement or
adhesive, type of joint, ambient and material temperatures, relative humidity and wind, test pressure and other
factors. Refer to ASTM D 2855 “Standard Practice for Making Solvent-Cemented Joints with Poly(Vinyl Chloride)
(PVC) Pipe and Fittings.” for specific set and curing times.
Heat-fusion and electrofusion joints need time to properly cool. Manufacturers should be consulted for the
recommended cooling time of their products.
Leak Checks
When testing exposed joints a leak detection fluid, free of detergents is recommended. The chemical resistance
of the plastic to the fluid used should be considered.
Leak Tracer
On occasion it may be necessary to use a chemical tracer to locate leakage indicated by a pressure test. Both
liquid chemicals and gases are used for this purpose. An environmentally approved air mixture is suggested. As a
93
precautionary measure, the user should ascertain that tracers commonly used will not be detrimental to the plastic
pipe in question.
To minimize accidents or detrimental effects on a plastic pipe from the use of tracers for locating leaks, it is
recommended that the user:
• Select as a tracer the material known to have no adverse effect on the particular plastic material.
• Atomize or appreciably dilute liquid tracers prior to injection into the piping system. Do not introduce
liquid tracers, particularly odorants, directly into plastic piping.
Project Investigations for Defective Joints
In the event that a defective joint has failed or is discovered, and it is suspected that additional defective joints
may be found on the remainder of the given project, the following guidelines are offered for use in project
investigations:
1. Determine the extent of the original project; pipe sizes, lengths, who installed the facilities, how long the
facilities have been in service, and the approximate number of customers involved.
2. Determine the approximate total number of joints involved, and attempt to determine the approximate joint
locations.
3. Determine where the failed or defective joint is in relation to the rest of the project, and the approximate
number of joints on either side.
4. Excavate and inspect the adjacent joints on either side of the failed or defective joint. (1 on each side.)
5. If either of the adjacent joints is visually defective, or is visually marginal (as determined by a qualified
Company employee) further joint excavations are recommended. If neither adjacent joint is visually
defective, or is visually marginal (as determined by a qualified Company employee), further joint
excavation decisions are discretionary.
6. If further excavations and inspections are deemed necessary, excavate and inspect a joint at the
approximate midpoint of the remaining joints, on either side of the failed or defective joint. (2 more joints,
1 at the midpoint of each side.)
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
7. If either of the additional joints are visually defective, or are visually marginal (as determined by a
qualified Company employee), further joint excavations are not recommended. At this point the quality
of workmanship on the entire project should be considered suspect, and repair/replace options
should be evaluated.
Ultimately, the operator is responsible to ensure the safety and reliability of the local gas distribution facilities
and system. Prudent operating practices warrant random jobsite inspection for the purpose of checking the
quality of construction.
94
CHAPTER VI MAINTENANCE, OPERATION, AND EMERGENCY CONTROL PROCEDURES
CHAPTER VI
MAINTENANCE, OPERATION, AND
EMERGENCY CONTROL PROCEDURES
Before entering into a program of plastic pipe utilization, the user should carefully assess the requirements and
practices for operating and maintaining distribution facilities in compliance with applicable codes. Pipe, fitting and tool
manufacturers should be consulted for information concerning recommendations or limitations on product use where
there are questions or unique requirements.
PERFORMANCE OF PLASTIC PIPING SYSTEMS

Surveys of the gas industry’s experience with plastic systems have shown that the performance of plastic pipe in
service compares very favorably with that of metallic systems. Results of a 1993 survey indicated that leaks per mile of
plastic main and service were significantly lower than for other materials, when third party damage is excluded. Overall
the leaks per mile of plastic pipe and the newer wrapped steel pipe were about the same. A 1996 AGA Benchmarking
study confirms the 1993 study. The 1996 study found that utilities, whose systems have the highest plastic to steel ratio,
reported the lowest leakage rate. For instance, the top quarter utilities (those where plastic main makes up at least 49% of
the total mileage) had a leakage rate that was, on average, 46% lower than the average rate of all utilities. Even the top
half had an average that was 35% lower than the average for all utilities.
Poor installation practices were identified as one of the major causes of field failure in the surveys up to 1972. In the
past two decades, plastic materials, mechanical fittings, fusion tools and fusion techniques have improved greatly. Also,
users have placed increased emphasis on training for plastic installers. Together these improvements alleviate the
problem of field failures caused by installation practices. The 1993 survey indicates that leaks per mile caused by
construction defects on plastic systems are 1/6 to 1/3 less than on non-plastic systems.
Recent surveys have identified mechanical damages by outside forces or third parties as the major cause of field
failure. When evaluating the susceptibility of plastic to third party damage, it is important to remember several factors.
Plastic is often being installed in new subdivisions where exposure to excavation damage is great; plastic hits are more
promptly reported and repaired than hidden hits on steel systems that show up later as corrosion problems; installation of
plastic eliminates future corrosion control costs and corrosion problems.
Mechanical damage of plastic piping is generally limited to the immediate area affected. Incidents involving power
excavators usually result in the rupture of the plastic at the point of contact. Most users consider this type of localized
damage to be an advantage of plastic because the break is readily identified, reported and subsequently corrected. In the
case of metal pipe, excavators’ hits can cause damage to the pipe or coating and could result in delayed failures or pullout
from a mechanical coupling some distance from the point of contact. Too frequently, the seriousness of the damage to
steel pipe is not immediately discovered or reported by the excavator. The user cannot achieve effective control of these
hits until a leak with associated problems of underground gas migration is discovered.
A recent survey shows that over 95% of the mains and services installed by the reporting companies were
polyethylenes. Respondents have found that plastic pipe performs equal to or better than steel pipe and has lower
installation and maintenance costs.
With the progress of plastic gas piping technology in the gas industry, current installations should result in even
lower maintenance requirements than plastic installations made in the 1950s, 1960s and early 1970s. To achieve the
maximum potential benefit of future reductions in maintenance, plastic users must continue to stress all facets of the
installation process from initial material selections to final backfill techniques as described in the preceding chapters of
this manual. To achieve reductions in hits by outside excavators, support of “one call” notification systems should assist
users in encouraging excavators to call for a locate prior to digging.
COLLECTION OF PLASTIC PIPE FAILURE DATA

To achieve optimum performance of the plastic pipe system, it is important that the users accurately monitor and
characterize the types and causes of field failures. This can be achieved by collecting as much information as possible
about the failure. A Plastic Failure Report form (Appendix E) developed by AGA Plastic Materials Committee is
provided for recording the necessary information. Not all the information on this form is applicable to all utilities.
95 --``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

Therefore, each utility can customize it for their specific needs by deleting the non-applicable items. The information
collected should be reviewed along with the visual examination of the actual failure in determining the type and cause of
the failure. In some instances, a laboratory analysis can be very useful in characterizing the field failure.
COLLECTION OF PLASTIC PIPE FAILURE DATA FOR THE VOLUNTARY PPDC COMMITTEE
The government-industry Plastic Pipe Database Committee (PPDC) was formed to develop and maintain a voluntary
data collection process that supports the analysis of the frequency and causes of in-service plastic piping material
failures.
The PPDC is composed of six stakeholders that include the American Gas Association (AGA), the American Public
Gas Association (APGA), the U.S. Department of Transportation’s Office of Pipeline Safety (OPS), the National
Association of Pipeline Safety Representatives (NAPSR), the National Association of Regulatory Utility Commissioners
(NARUC), and the Plastics Pipe Institute (PPI). Each stakeholder has two representatives.
The purpose of the PPDC is to improve the knowledge base of gas utility operators and regulators, and to address the
recommendation of the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) to monitor and determine if any failure trends exist
in the performance of older plastic piping.
The data collection process will maintain the confidentiality of all participating gas utilities. All data will be
submitted into a repository that ensures confidentiality. The AGA will undertake the role as the repository for the data.
The data will be collected and placed into a plastic pipe failure database (PPFDB) by the PPDC.
PPDC volunteer forms may be obtained from AGA as the following address:
American Gas Association
400 N. Capitol Street, N.W.
Washington, DC 20001
Attn: PPDC Coordinator
Fax: 202-824-7082
U.S. DOT’s Transportation Safety Institute (TSI) has posted a PowerPoint presentation on their website showing
Data collection forms and information on their use. To view Data Collection Form Details, access their link at the
following location: http://www.tsi.dot.gov/divisions/pipeline/pip_PEPG.htm.
The AGA website at www.aga.org contains the data project background information. Selecting the “AGA Plastic
Pipe Database Committee (PPDC)” from the TSI menu links directly to the AGA website.
To access the PPDC window from the AGA website, click on the “Operations and Engineering” button then select
“Plastic Piping Data Project” from the menu on the left side of the window. This will display the plastic piping data
collection project information.
PLASTIC PIPING SYSTEM SURVEILLANCE

The primary method of surveillance for LDCs is the leakage surveys required by the Regulations. The information
collected from plastic pipe failures data can be analyzed to: (1) identify problem lots of pipe and fittings; (2) identify
geographical areas with higher failure rates; (3) identify potential research areas; (4) forecast maintenance costs; and (5)
forecast economical time for pipe replacement. This information, coupled with pipe inspection, leak survey and leak
repair information, constitutes the base data needed for an effective plastic piping surveillance program. The performance
of any piping system may vary according to age, type of material, method of construction, site conditions, etc.
A utility’s surveillance program, in accordance with 49 CFR 192.613, should evaluate the relative performance of its
piping systems and take appropriate action to correct or eliminate unacceptably performing systems. As an example,
earlier generations of PE resins have lower resistance to slow crack growth than today’s PE resins. Therefore, an
effective piping surveillance program should include evaluating the performance of pipe made from earlier PE resins.
OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE CODE REQUIREMENTS

Requirements for operation and maintenance of gas distribution pipelines, including plastic pipelines, are specified
in 49 CFR 192. Minimum requirements for operations are contained in 49 CFR 192 Subpart L. Minimum requirements
for maintenance are contained in CFR 192 Subpart M.
49 CFR 192 requires each operator of pipeline facilities to establish a written operating and maintenance plan and to
keep records necessary to administer the plan. Essentials of the plan include instruction for employees covering operating
96 --``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

and maintenance procedures during normal operations and repairs. Additional items required to be included by
provisions of 49 CFR 192.605 are: specific programs relating to facilities presenting the greatest hazard to public safety
either in an emergency or because of extraordinary construction or maintenance requirements; a program for conversion
procedures, if conversion of a low pressure system distribution system to higher pressure is contemplated; and a
provision for periodic inspection to ensure that operating pressures are appropriate for the class location.
Each operator of a buried pipeline shall carry out in accordance with 49 CFR 192.614 a written program to prevent
damage to the pipeline by excavation activities.
The Gas Piping Technology Committee “Guide for Gas Transmission and Distribution Piping Systems,”
(ANSI/GPTC Z380.1, provides guide material for many of the associated Federal gas Safety code sections.
Minimum requirements of the damage prevention program are covered in 49 CFR 192.614(b). An operator may
perform any of the duties required through participation in a public service program such as a “one call” system, but such
participation does not relieve the operator of responsibility of compliance with the full requirements of the damage
prevention programs specified by 49 CFR 192.614.
EMERGENCY ISOLATION
Valves or gas control by squeeze-off may be used in plastic systems for sectionalizing or isolating to facilitate
emergency or routine maintenance shutdowns. The installation of valves will depend on the system design, the number of
main connections, customers involved and accessibility of the gas facilities. Plastic valves for use as shutoffs are
available from a number of manufacturers. Small diameter plastic valves are available with compression or fusion ends.
Large diameter valves are generally available with fusion ends. In addition, pressure control; main stopping and bag-off
fittings are available for use in gas control during installation or emergencies.
The more flexible thermoplastics may be squeezed-off to obtain an emergency shutoff (see ASTM F 1041, “Guide
for Squeeze-Off of Polyolefin Gas Pressure Pipe and Tubing”*). Tests conducted for the Gas Research Institute show that
there is no long-term detrimental damage to polyethylene pipe from squeeze-off when proper procedures and equipment
are used. Squeeze tools must have proper diameter squeeze bars. Clamps or other locking devices should be used to lock
the tool in the squeezed position while work is performed down stream. Most polyethylene and PA-11 pipes can be
safely squeezed off while other plastic materials cannot be without risk of damage. When a squeeze-off is performed,
tools designed to minimize material damage must be used. Thickness shims (stops), flat bars (ends slightly rounded) or
other travel limiting devices may be used with squeeze-off tools to limit the squeeze-off to that recommended by the
manufacturer for a specific pipe diameter and wall thickness.
Static discharge is a function of pipe in conjunction with static charge built up by the dielectric properties of plastic
and the high velocity of rust, scale or dirt particles within the pipe. The likelihood of a static discharge is increased by the
squeezing operation whereby the velocity is increased and a ground point, i.e. the squeeze-off tool, is provided. Also lack
of moisture in the surrounding soil increases the likelihood of static discharge. For this reason the squeeze-off point
should be remote from any open ends, and where possible, in a separate bell hole. In cases where this is not possible
because of physical constraints, safety provisions such as methods of dissipating static electric charge, preventing a static
electric charge accumulation, venting the gas outside of the trench and flame-resistant clothing should be used.
Where plastic pipe is squeezed, it is recommended that the squeeze area be identified with a clamp or tape prior to
backfill. Even though squeeze-off procedures can be utilized without damaging most current polyethylene pipe, the pipe
should not be subjected to this operation more than once in the same place.
Two additional references for squeeze tools and procedures are:
ASTM F 1563 “Tools to Squeeze-Off Polyethylene (PE) Gas Pipe or Tubing”.
ASTM F 1734 “Qualification of a Combination of Squeeze Tool, Pipe and Squeeze-off Procedure to Avoid Long-
term Damage in Polyethylene (PE) Gas Pipes”.
Squeeze Off
Closing and opening rate are key elements to squeezing-off without damaging the pipe. It is necessary to close
slowly and release slowly, with slow release being more important. The pipe must be allowed sufficient time to adjust to
the high compressive and tensile stresses applied to the pipe’s inside wall during squeeze-off. Research work performed
by the Gas Research Institute indicates that the greatest potential for damage from squeeze-off occurs during release.
This is especially true when squeezing heavier wall pipes, and at lower temperatures.
*
It is recommended that a squeeze off rate of less than 2” per minute be used.
97
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

PHOTO VI-1. Squeeze Off Flow Control in PE Pipe

Photo credit: Transportation Safety Institute
Flattening during squeeze-off places high compressive stress on the inside wall at the outer edges of the squeeze.
Releasing and opening the tool results in high tensile stress to the same area. The material must be given ample time to
accommodate these stresses. Opening too fast may cause excessive strain, and tear the inside wall. Procedures that meet
ASTM F 1041 should be used. Lower temperatures will reduce material flexibility and ductility. In colder weather,
closing and opening time must be slowed further.
STATIC ELECTRICITY
A potential safety hazard that gas utility construction and maintenance crews face is static electricity, built up on the
inside and outside of plastic pipe.
When purging, repairing, replacing or extending plastic pipe, the conditions conducive to the generation and
accumulation of static electric charges should be recognized. A charge may be generated by:
1. Friction during the physical handling of plastic pipe during storage, shipping, installation and repairing.
2. Gas containing particulate matter (scale, rust or dirt) flowing in highly turbulent conditions such as those created
at a restriction in the pipe, such as an outlet of a saddle fitting, at bends or elbows, metal stiffeners, tee cutters, at
squeeze-off points, at leaks in the piping, at the impingement point of a leak into dry soil backfill or on an
isolated metal fitting.
3. Geometrical change in the pipe diameter, creating increased velocities while squeezing-off.
A charge can accumulate on both the inner and outer surface of the plastic piping as well as on metal if the metal (a
metal fitting or a squeeze-off tool on plastic pipe) is electrically isolated by an insulating material. Static charges
normally exist on the surface of isolated or nonconductor materials. These charges are significant when they become
large enough to produce an arc strong enough to ignite gas/air mixtures. Conditions conducive to greater charge
accumulation include isolation from grounded conductors, low humidity and a generation rate higher than the bleed-off
rate.
Static charges can slowly bleed off by conduction through air or by conduction to neighboring materials. A swift
bleed-off or static discharge may be evidenced by a spark when an individual approaches a charged surface. The
electrical magnitude of the spark is usually not enough to cause injury, but may be sufficient to ignite a gas/air mixture.
In a laboratory, a static electric charge is evidenced by the attraction of a particulate matter to a surface, luminescence of
a fluorescent bulb, arcing and may be measured with a special static electric meter. Under field conditions few, if any of
these, may be noticeable.
In plastic pipeline operations it is essential to avoid the accumulation of a flammable gas-air mixture and the arcing of a
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
static electric discharge. Potential arcing on the interior pipe wall is usually not a serious problem. However there have
been cases where static discharges have occurred through pipe walls while squeezing pipe as large as 4 inch, SDR 11.
Similarly under a no leak situation, static charge build up on the exterior pipe wall is usually not a serious hazard though
many operators will utilize procedures to dissipate the charge accumulation prior to working on the pipe. When conditions
exist that a flammable gas-air mixture may be encountered and static charges may be present, such as when repairing a
leak, squeezing off an open pipe, purging, making a connection, etc., arc preventing safety precautions are necessary.
Additional precautions: Recommended additional precautions when working with gas filled plastic pipe are:
1. Wrap the entire circumferential area of exposed piping with wet, soapy rags made out of burlap or other non-
synthetic material such as a wet tape. The material needs to go from ground to the pipe to the ground. Do not
permit the material to dry out.
98
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
PHOTO VI-2. Use of a Wet Tape to Dissipate Static.

Photo credit: Arkema, Inc.
2. If gas is already present, the pipe should be wet with anti-static spray or a very dilute solution of liquid soap
suitable for use (within manufacturer’s recommendations) with plastic starting from the ground end. The tape
should then be applied immediately and left in place.
3. The tape should be kept wet by occasional applications of solution. Where ambient temperatures below 0ºC
(32ºF) are encountered, glycol may be added to the water to prevent freezing. The tape should be grounded with
a metal pin driven into the ground.
4. Do not vent gas using ungrounded plastic pipe or tubing. Even with grounded metal piping, venting gas with
high scale or dust content could generate a charge in the gas itself and could result in an arc from the dusty gas
cloud back to the pipe and ignition. Venting should be done at a downwind location remote from personnel or
flammable material.
5. Do not vent gas or purge using ungrounded plastic pipe or tubing. Ground all tools and remove potential
sources of ignition.
6. In all cases, appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE), such as flame-resistant clothing treated to avoid
static buildup, and respiratory equipment should be used. Do not don or doff PPE when gas is present owing to
potential static build-up.].
7. Commercially available electrostatic discharger systems may be considered as a means of eliminating static
electricity from both the inside and outside of PE pipe.
In general, the suitability of the above precautions must be established by the operator, given the actual conditions
that exist in and around the pipe. Additional information on electrostatic discharge products and technology can be found
in GRI publication GRI-94/0240, “Guide on the Developed Electrostatic Discharge Products and Technology for
Polyethylene Pipes in Gas Distribution Phase II”.
LEAKAGE SURVEYS
Leakage surveys such as infrared or hydrogen flame ionization techniques are most suitable with plastic pipe. Extra
attention must be directed to correctly locating pipes installed using directional boring before beginning the leak survey.
Probe holes made by drilling or impacting above plastic piping should be avoided whenever possible. Where necessary
for leak pinpointing, probe holes should be offset to one side of the piping or limited to a depth of at least six inches less
than the cover over the main.
PIPE LOCATING
Mapping with sufficient details to accurately locate plastic piping is obviously very important. Use of an effective
tracer system utilizing electronic pipe locators is also required. There are two tracer systems commonly in use today.
One is metallic wire and the second is plastic coated metallic tape. Although both systems can be detected inductively,
most companies have experienced greater success by conductive detection (physical contact between tracer and locator).
99
There is a third method currently being used called an EMS (Electronic Marker System). The EMS uses passive
antennas. The markers are encased in polyethylene housings that can withstand temperature extremes and are impervious
to underground minerals and chemicals. Markers, with housings color-coded per the standards of the APWA, are
available for underground gas and electric facilities. The gas markers are yellow, and the electric markers are red. Both
are electronically configured to match these color designations.
The markers remain in a passive mode until they are activated by a locating instrument operating at a frequency
compatible with that of the markers’ antennas. The locating instrument transmits a signal to a buried marker. The marker
“reflects” the signal back up to the locating instrument, and both an LED meter reading and an audible tone indicate the
location and approximate depth of the marked facility.
CRITERIA FOR USE
Where existing plastic gas facilities are found to not have a locating wire, or where the locating wire is bare, an
appropriate electronic marking system device shall be placed in the excavation if other EMS devices do not adequately
define this facility. In the course of excavation work by the operator or others, use this as an opportunity to install EMS
devices. EMS devices should be installed in incidental excavations at angle points, laterals, main dead ends, and at
approximately 50’ intervals over the main, where existing plastic gas facilities are found to not have a locating wire or
where the locating wire is bare. These marker units shall be documented with dimensions and appropriately mapped on
gas distribution plat maps.
Plastic main dead ends and service stubs should have an appropriate EMS marker installed to indicate the end of the
facility. Based on the anticipated schedule of construction and completion of construction, several methods of marking
the end of the facility can be used. Stubs are often marked by using scrap plastic pipe, economy grade 2” x 4” lumber, or
EMS devices. EMS devices are recommended where the construction schedule and/or completion dates are tenuous or
extended. Plastic main dead ends should normally be marked with an appropriate EMS device. These EMS devices
should be documented with dimensions and appropriately mapped on the gas plat maps and/or service records
In a 1992 survey by AGA’s Plastic Materials Committee, 98 percent of respondents reported using insulated tracer
wire to locate plastic facilities. In a 1996 survey, 80% of respondents reported using tracer wire when installing facilities
in a joint trench. Size #12 or #14 wire was predominantly installed as tracer wire. The tracer wire is generally accessible
to the locator at the riser, but not electrically connected to the riser. The tracer wire on the service line is connected to the
main tracer wire on plastic mains. Some users reported that they installed a warning tape in addition to the tracer wire.
Companies have reported that lightning strikes have followed the tracer causing physical damage to plastic pipe.
Where practical, a separation of wire and pipe may be beneficial. However, separation may lead to difficulty in precise
location of the plastic pipe. The engineer must consider the relative importance of locating the pipe versus the possibility
of damage caused by lightning.
CHEMICAL ENVIRONMENTS
Plastics offer excellent resistance to inorganic chemicals. Plastics may be less resistant to certain organic materials
that may be present in or added to natural gas. Thus, it is important that the pipe material be characterized for the
conditions expected in the intended service. Internal exposure to fogging oils, odorants, compressor lubricants, antifreeze
agents and the natural gas constituents, particularly light hydrocarbon condensates, must be considered. Potential
external hydrocarbon exposure in the vicinity of gasoline stations caused by underground tank leakage is a factor to be
considered by users.
The general acceptability of approved plastic materials in natural gas service has been confirmed by laboratory data
and years of successful service in both gas gathering and distribution systems. However, it is important to know the
effects and the proper precautionary measures needed when pinpointing leaks with odorants and when using antifreeze
agents such as alcohol and glycol to thaw frozen facilities.
RODENT DAMAGE
While rodent attacks on plastic are rare, several companies have reported damage. The damage appears to be a
byproduct of burrowing activity and not directly related to the search for food. Treatment of backfill with certain rodent
repellents is reported to be successful in controlling these hits.
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
100
REPAIRS
Only those persons qualified pursuant to a Company’s OQ program shall make repairs.
Plastic piping systems may be damaged during installation or through mechanical damage by others once in service.
The repair or replacement must be made in accordance with requirements of 49 CFR 192.311. All imperfections or
damaged sites that would impair the serviceability of the plastic pipe (significant scratches, gouges or flaws) must be
removed or repaired.
Mechanical or electrofusion couplings appropriate for plastic gas piping systems are frequently used for economical
and convenient replacement of damaged plastic pipe segments. The gas flow is stopped; the damaged section cut out and
replaced with a mechanical repair fitting or a new segment using either two couplings or a fusion joint and a coupling.
Joints fabricated from mechanical fittings used in replacement must be designed to restrain the pipe against pullout forces
and, if metallic fittings are utilized, be protected against corrosion. 49 CFR 192.451 (f) excludes electrically isolated,
metal alloy fittings, that the operator can demonstrate by tests or experience that adequate corrosion control is provided
by the alloyage and the fitting is designed to prevent leakage caused by localized corrosion pitting.
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Where repairs are feasible, a bonded patch or full encirclement sleeve may be used with a wall thickness at least
equal to that of the pipe. It is essential the repair patch or sleeve be of the same grade and material as the pipe wall if
applied by solvent cement and preferable if applied by fusion. All repairs should be made using qualified procedures.
Full encirclement type band clamps have been successfully used with plastic pipe to make repairs. ASTM F 1025
“Standard Guide for Selection and Use of Full Encirclement Type band clamps for Reinforcement or Repairs of
Punctures or Holes in Polyethylene Gas Pressure Pipe” provides guidance regarding use of this fitting for repair and
reinforcement of polyethylene pipe. The important consideration is that the clamp permanently exerts limited unit-
bearing pressure on the plastic pipe since it is not possible to install metal stiffeners inside the plastic pipe. A soft gasket
formulation with waffle-type inner surface would thus generally be preferred for this application. In all cases the method
used should follow procedures that have been established and qualified by test.
Full encirclement type band clamps in compliance with the guidelines of ASTM F 1025 are acceptable for temporary
repairs of polyethylene pipe.
Before placing in service, test segments of plastic pipe that are installed to replace damaged sections of mains and
services according to the operator’s procedures. Leak test all tie-in joints and the squeeze –off area at system pressure
after repair is compete. If recommended by the manufacturer any anti-static fluid should be rinsed from the piping using
water. If, in a dig-in situation on a plastic service other than a low-pressure service, it appears that the pipe or casing was
pulled or moved, and that damage could have occurred at locations along the service other than those inspected or
repaired, leak-test the entire service at 100 psig for a minimum of 5 minutes per the operator’s procedures. Leak-test low-
pressure services at 10 psig for a minimum of 5 minutes per the operator’s procedures. If additional damage is found,
replace the service.
EXCESS FLOW VALVES

As mentioned in Chapter IV, excess flow valves may be installed in service lines. 49 CFR 192.383 requires
operators to install excess flow valves on newly installed or replaced service lines serving single customers under certain
conditions. The operator may notify the customer of this option or may install them voluntarily. The presence of an
excess flow valve should be indicated by tagging the service riser, mapping its location, and/or recording it in the
customer information system so that gas service personnel may take appropriate action when repairing or purging the gas
service, and when responding to customer service requests.
IMPORTANT OPERATING PRECAUTIONS

1. Do not squeeze off plastic pipe or use repair techniques unless approved procedures verified by test are available
for the application.
2. Escaping gas should always be handled with caution. Static charges can be generated and accumulate on plastic
pipe and isolated fittings. Ignition during repair operations is possible.
3. Whenever possible, work should be done upwind of a repair and remote from blowing gas.
4. Do not pour liquid odorants into plastic piping systems to find leaks.
5. Do not use induction type electric heaters to thaw frozen plastic services.
6. Proper safety procedures are always necessary. Keep an approved fire extinguisher available when making
repairs and installations where gas is or may become present.
101
7. When working in areas where a hazardous gaseous atmosphere is present, or is anticipated, wear an approved
flame resistant suit for protection against accidental ignition.
8. Use personal protective equipment including full-length sleeves, gloves, sturdy shoes, toe guards, eye protection
and ear protection as appropriate.
9. Do not carry beeper/pager or cell phone or other electronic devices that could be a source of ignition when
working in areas where hazardous gaseous atmosphere is present or is anticipated
10. Always use a grounded tool while squeezing or cutting a plastic pipe.
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
102
APPENDIX A SPECIFICATIONS, TEST METHODS, AND PRACTICES FOR PLASTIC PIPES
APPENDIX A
SPECIFICATIONS, TEST METHODS AND PRACTICES FOR PLASTIC PIPES
The American Gas Association (AGA) has prepared the following descriptions of pertinent ASTM Standards (Annual
Book of ASTM Standards, Volume 8.01- 8.04 ASTM). Copies of the complete ASTM standards may be purchased from
ASTM, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, West Conshohocken, PA 19248, tel: 610.832.9585, fax: 610.832.9555, e-mail:
service@astm.org, website: www.astm.org.
TEST METHODS and qualitative characterization purposes in research and

FOR PLASTIC PIPES development. Tensile properties may vary with specimen
preparation, speed and environment of testing.
Consequently, where precise comparative results are
ASTM D 543⎯RESISTANCE OF PLASTICS TO desired, these factors must be carefully controlled.
CHEMICAL REAGENTS Tensile properties obtained using this method may be
This method is intended for testing of all plastic useful for pipe design purposes provided they are
materials including cast, hot molded, cold molded, reduced by a satisfactory derating factor. Due to the high
laminated resinous products, extruded, and sheet degree of sensitivity exhibited by many plastics to the
materials for resistance to chemical reagents. This rate of straining and environmental conditions, data
method includes provisions for reporting changes in obtained by this method cannot be considered valid for
weight, dimensions, appearance, and strength properties. applications involving load-time scales or environments
Limitations of the results obtained from this test substantially different from those of this method. In cases
should be recognized. The choice of types and of such dissimilarity, no reliable estimation of the limited
concentrations of reagents, duration of immersion, usefulness can be made for most plastics. This sensitivity
temperature of test, and properties to be reported is to rate of straining and environment necessitates testing
necessarily arbitrary. Evaluation of plastics for special over a broad load-time scale and range of environmental
applications involving potentially detrimental conditions conditions if tensile properties are to be used in
should be based on particular reagents and engineering design.
concentrations to be encountered. The selection of test
conditions should take into account the manner and
duration of contact with reagents, temperature of the ASTM D 1598—TIME TO FAILURE OF PLASTIC
system, and other performance factors involved in the PIPE UNDER CONSTANT INTERNAL PRESSURE
particular application. This method covers the determination of the time-to-
The effect of stress on different kinds of plastics in failure of both thermoplastic and reinforced
contact with environmental agents is known to vary thermosetting pipes under constant internal pressure. In
significantly and where stress is important in the use of a this test method, the hoop stress is calculated using an
product, such as pipe, the effect of environment must be equation developed for thin-walled cylinders. This
considered. equation gives relatively accurate results for the
maximum hoop stress acting in a pipe for which the ratio
of the outside diameter to wall thickness is equal to or
ASTM D 638⎯TENSILE PROPERTIES OF greater than five to one. This method provides a way of
PLASTICS characterizing plastic pipes under the conditions
This method is intended for determining the tensile prescribed. Pipes used in field applications must sustain
properties of plastics by conducting tests on standard stresses due to internal pressure as well as those due to
specimens under defined conditions of pretreatment, tensile and compressive axial loads and torsional and
temperature, humidity, and testing machine speed. bending moments. Different pipe producers offer
This method is intended to produce tensile property products having different resistance to such loading
data for the control and specification of plastic materials. conditions. As a result, it is important that the purchaser
These data may also be useful for material specification and the seller both have a clear understanding and
103
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

agreement on the significance of the results of this test short-time test is yet to be established. Until such a
relative to the intended use. correlation is established for each type of plastic resin,
The method consists of exposing specimens of pipe to extrapolations using this test method should be made
a constant internal pressure while in a controlled with caution and the extrapolated failure stresses should
environment. Such a controlled environment may be not be interpreted as working stresses.
accomplished by, but is not limited to, immersing the
specimens in a controlled temperature water or air bath.
The time-to-failure is measured. Dimensional changes ASTM D 1599—SHORT-TIME HYDRAULIC
should be measured on specimens undergoing long-term FAILURE PRESSURE OF PLASTIC PIPE,
strength tests. Measurements using circumferential tapes, TUBING, AND FITTINGS
strain gages, or mechanical extensometers provide useful
information. This method covers the determination of the short-
The data obtained by this method are useful for time rupture hydraulic failure pressure of thermoplastic
establishing stress versus failure time relationships under and reinforced thermosetting pipe, tubing, and fittings. It
is suitable for establishing laboratory-testing
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
controlled environment from which the hydrostatic

design basis for plastic pipe materials can be estimated. requirements for quality control purposes or for
(Refer to Method D 2837 and Method D 2992.) To procurement specifications. Procurement specifications
characterize plastic pipes, it is necessary to establish the utilizing this method should include a maximum time for
stress-failure time relationships over two or more failure when stressed under continually increasing
logarithmic decades of time (hours) in a controlled pressure. The requirement may specify either the internal
environment. Because of the nature of the test, test hydraulic pressure or hoop stress, or both. The method
specimens and scatter in test results, no single line can be consists of loading a specimen to failure in a short-time
drawn to adequately represent the data, and therefore interval by means of essentially continuously increasing
confidence limits should be established. Some materials internal hydraulic pressure while immersed in a
may exhibit a nonlinear relationship between log-stress controlled temperature environment.
and log-failure time, usually at short failure times. In This method establishes the short-time hydraulic
such cases, the 101 hour stress value computed on the failure pressure of thermoplastic and reinforced
basis of short-term test data may be significantly thermosetting pipe, tubing and fittings. Data obtained by
different from the value obtained when a distribution of this method are of use only in predicting the behavior of
data points in accordance with Method D 2837 (5.1.3) is pipe, tubing and fittings under conditions of temperature,
evaluated. However, these data may still be useful for time method of loading, and hoop stress similar to those
quality control or other applications, provided correlation used in the actual test. They are generally not indicative
with long-term data has been established. of the long-term strength of thermoplastic or reinforced
The factors that affect creep and long-term strength pipe, tubing and fittings.
behavior of plastic pipe are not completely known at this Many thermoplastics give significantly different burst
time. This method takes into account those factors that strengths depending on the time to failure. For instance,
are known to have important influences and provides a significant differences in strengths have been observed
tool for investigating others. Creep or nonrecoverable between failure times of 65 and 85 seconds.
deformation for pipe made of some plastics is as
important as actual leakage in deciding whether or not a
pipe has failed. Specimens that exhibit localized ASTM D 2122—DETERMINING DIMENSIONS OF
ballooning, however, may lead to erroneous THERMOPLASTIC PIPE AND FITTINGS
interpretation of the creep results unless a method of This method covers a procedure for determining
determining creep is established that precludes such a diameter, wall thickness, and length dimensions of
possibility. thermoplastic pipe. Included are procedures for
Circumferential measurements at two or three selected measurement of inside diameter of pipe intended to be
positions on a specimen may not be adequate. Great care joined by internal fittings, average outside diameter of
must be used to ensure that specimens are representative roundable pipe where out-of-roundness is not of primary
of the pipe under evaluation. Departure from this concern, out-of-roundness, and average outside diameter
assumption may introduce discrepancies as great as, if of nonroundable pipe, and for determining length and
not greater than, those due to departure from details or straightness. This method also includes procedures for
procedure outlined in this method. measuring molded thermoplastic pipe fittings.
A method for accurate estimation of failure stresses,
corresponding to a life of one year or more, based on a
104
ASTM D 2290—APPARENT TENSILE STRENGTH hydrostatic design basis for thermoplastic pipe material,
OF RING OR TUBULAR PLASTICS AND by evaluating stress rupture test data derived from testing
REINFORCED PLASTICS BY SPLIT DISK pipe made from the subject material. The method is
METHOD applicable to all known types of thermoplastic pipe and
for any practical temperature and medium.
This method covers the determination of the
comparative apparent tensile strength of most tubular
plastic products utilizing a split disk test fixture, when ASTM F 1248—STANDARD TEST METHOD FOR
tested under defined conditions of pretreatment, DETERMINATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL
temperature, humidity, and test machine speed. The STRESS CRACK RESISTANCE (ESCR) OF
method is applicable to many types of tubular ring- POLYETHYLENE PIPE
shaped specimens, either parallel fiber reinforced, This test method covers the determination of a
extruded, or molded. The method is also applicable to polyethylene pipe specimen's resistance to stress
thermoplastic pipes. cracking when subjected to compression to deformation
The test specimen is loaded using the suggested self- in the presence of a surface-active agent at elevated
aligning split disk test fixtures that apply tensile stress to temperature.
the test ring. An apparent tensile strength, rather than a
uniaxial tensile strength, is obtained in this test due to a
ASTM F 1473⎯NOTCH TENSILE TEST TO
bending moment imposed during test at the split between
MEASURE THE RESISTANCE TO SLOW CRACK
the split disk test fixtures. This moment is induced by the
GROWTH OF POLYETHYLENE PIPES AND
change in contour of the ring between the two disk
RESINS
sections as they separate. The test fixture is designed to
This is a method to determine the relative slow crack
minimize the effect of this bending moment.
growth resistance of polyethylene resins used primarily
Split disk tension tests, properly interpreted, provide
in the manufacture of pressure pipe and fittings. The
reasonably accurate information with regard to the
preferred method is to compression mold plaques, cut
apparent tensile strength of plastics when employed
into specimens, cut the notch, and test. The notch is cut
under conditions approximating those under which the
with a razor blade in a notching machine. The test is
tests are made. Tension tests may provide data for
generally performed at 80°C and at 2.4 MPa. The
research and development, engineering design, quality
method has shown mixed results when specimens are cut
control, acceptance or rejection under specifications, and
from actual pipe specimens due to orientation of the
for special purposes. The test cannot be considered
polyethylene during extrusion. This method is also
significant for applications differing widely from the
known as the PENT test.
load-time scale of the standard test. Such applications
may require other suitable tests such as impact, creep,
and fatigue. ASTM F 1474⎯SLOW CRACK GROWTH
RESISTANCE OF NOTCHED POLYETHYLENE
ASTM D 2444—IMPACT RESISTANCE OF PLASTIC PIPE
THERMOPLASTIC PIPE AND FITTINGS BY This method determines the relative slow crack
growth resistance of polyethylene pressure pipe. It is
MEANS OF A TUP (FALLING WEIGHT)
This method covers the determination of the energy performed by machining axial notches in a hydrostatic
required to produce failure in thermoplastic pipe or stress rupture pipe specimen, and pressurizing the
fittings, under specified conditions of impact by means specimen at 80°C until failure. The length of the
of a tup (falling weight). machined notch is one pipe diameter at full length. This
The conditions of test in this method cover a range of method was developed by British Gas and is known as
impact energies and tup geometries that may be used to the ISO 80°C notch test.
characterize specific types, grade, and sizes of plastic
pipes. The method has been used for quality control up to ASTM F 1588⎯CONSTANT TENSILE LOAD
this time. Higher impact values are desirable as they JOINT TEST (CTLJT)
indicate better resistance to handling during construction. This method is designed to demonstrate that a joint in
a plastic piping system is resistant to the effect of long
ASTM D 2837—OBTAINING HYDROSTATIC term creep. It has been shown that mechanical joints on
DESIGN BASIS FOR THERMOPLASTIC PIPE polyethylene pipe can pull out if not designed to
MATERIALS accommodate the creep or stress relaxation property
This test method describes a procedure for obtaining a inherent in polyethylene piping under constant tensile
105
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

stress. Most of today’s mechanical fittings designed for

use on ASTM D2513 polyethylene pipe and tubing are
designed to restrain the pipe to the destruction of the pipe ASTM F 1041⎯STANDARD GUIDE FOR
itself under very high, short term, tensile load testing. SQUEEZE-OFF OF POLYOLEFIN GAS
These full restraint mechanical fittings are designated PRESSURE PIPE AND TUBING
“Category 1” under ASTM D 2513 and are required to This guide describes general procedures for squeeze-
be so marked. The CTLJT is an additional assurance of off of polyolefin gas pressure pipe and tubing. Pipe and
the pullout resistance of a mechanical joint on squeeze tool manufacturers can supply the user with
polyethylene piping. recommendations for squeeze-off with their materials or
products.
ASTM F 1563⎯TOOLS TO SQUEEZE-OFF

PRACTICES FOR PLASTIC PIPE POLYETHYLENE (PE) GAS PIPE OR TUBING
This specification covers the physical requirements
ASTM D 1898—SAMPLING OF PLASTICS for tools used to squeeze-off polyethylene (PE) pipe and
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
This recommended practice is primarily a statement tubing. It is limited to squeeze-off procedures set forth
of principles to guide purchasers of plastic materials by the pipe manufacturer as referred to in Specification
D 2513 for gas pressure pipe systems.
purchased under specifications to prepare sampling plans
that will describe sampling procedures and that will
ASTM F 1734⎯QUALIFICATION OF A
make it possible to determine within practical limits
COMBINATION OF SQUEEZE TOOL, PIPE, AND
whether or not the products meet the specifications.
SQUEEZE-OFF PROCEDURE TO AVOID LONG-
The same principles may be used to guide preparation
TERM DAMAGE IN POLYETHYLENE (PE) GAS
of specifications and determine actual quality of a
PIPE
product.
This practice covers the qualification of a squeeze
process consisting of combination of squeeze tool, pipe,
ASTM D 2657—HEAT JOINING OF and squeeze-off procedures to avoid long-term damage
THERMOPLASTIC PIPE AND FITTINGS in polyethylene gas pipe. This practice examines the
inside and outside surfaces of the pipe near the squeeze
This practice covers general procedures for making to determine the existence of features indicative of long-
joints with thermoplastic pipe and fittings by means of term cracking.
thermal techniques, commonly called heat joining and
sometimes called thermal bonding or thermal fusion.
These procedures are general ones. The techniques ASTM F 1804—DETERMINING ALLOWABLE
covered are applicable to joining thermoplastic pipe and TENSILE LOAD FOR POLYETHYLENE (PE) GAS
fittings of similar chemical structure, such as PE to PE, PIPE DURING PULL-IN INSTALLATION
and PB to PB. More specific procedures may need to be
used with specific commercial products. Manufacturers This recommended practice provides a means to
should be contacted for such details. determine an allowable tensile load value for
polyethylene gas pipe that is to be installed underground
using methods that pull the pipe into a trench (cut or
plowed), bore hole, casing pipe, or the like.
ASTM D 2774—UNDERGROUND INSTALLATION
OF THERMOPLASTIC PRESSURE PIPING
This recommended practice covers procedures and
references ASTM specifications for underground SPECIFICATIONS FOR PLASTIC PIPE
installations of thermoplastic pressure piping, 6 inches AND FITTINGS
nominal size and smaller. Trenching, bedding,
backfilling and general precautions are described. It
recognizes that significant differences exist in kind and ASTM D 2513⎯SPECIFICATION FOR
type of pipe material, pipe size and wall thickness, THERMOPLASTIC GAS PRESSURE PIPE,
soil conditions and the specific end use. The procedures TUBING AND FITTINGS
given are, therefore, quite general in nature. Specific pipe This specification covers requirements and test methods
characteristics and end use requirements may dictate for material, dimensions and tolerances, hydrostatic burst
modification.
106
strength, chemical resistance, and impact resistance of ASTM F 1924⎯ STANDARD SPECIFICATION
plastic pipe, tubing, and fittings for use in fuel gas mains FOR PLASTIC MECHANICAL FITTINGS FOR
and services for direct burial and reliner applications. USE ON OUTSIDE DIAMETER CONTROLLED
POLYETHYLENE
This specification describes requirements and test
ASTM D 2683⎯SOCKET-TYPE POLYETHYLENE methods for the qualification of plastic bodied
FITTINGS FOR OUTSIDE DIAMETER mechanical fittings for use with outside diameter
CONTROLLED POLYETHYLENE PIPE AND controlled polyethylene (PE) gas distribution pipe,
TUBING nominal 2 pipe size (IPS) and smaller complying with
This specification covers polyethylene socket-type Specification D 2513. In addition, it specifies general
fittings for use with outside diameter-controlled requirements of the material from which these fittings
polyethylene pipe as specified by Specifications D 3035 are made.
and D 2513. Requirements for materials, workmanship,
dimensions, and pressure performance are included.
ASTM F 1948⎯METALLIC MECHANICAL
FITTINGS FOR USE ON OUTSIDE DIAMETER
ASTM D 3261⎯BUTT HEAT FUSION CONTROLLED THERMOPLASTIC GAS
POLYETHYLENE (PE) PLASTIC FITTINGS FOR DISTRIBUTION PIPE AND TUBING
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
POLYETHYLENE (PE) PLASTIC PIPE AND
This standard specification describes requirements
TUBING
and test methods for the qualification of metallic
This specifications covers polyethylene (PE) butt mechanical fittings for use with outside diameter
fusion fittings for use with polyethylene pipe (IPS and controlled thermoplastic gas distribution pipe and tubing
ISO) and tubing (CTS). Included are requirements for as specified in ASTM D 2513.
materials, workmanship, dimensions, marking, sustained
pressure, and burst pressure.
ASTM F 1973⎯FACTORY ASSEMBLED
ANODELESS RISERS AND TRANSITION
ASTM F 1802⎯STANDARD TEST METHOD FOR FITTINGS IN POLYETHYLENE (PE) FUEL GAS
PERFORMANCE TESTING OF EXCESS FLOW DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
VALVES
This specification covers requirements and test
This test method covers a standardized method to methods for the qualification of factory assembled
determine the performance of excess flow valves (EFVs) anodeless risers and transition fittings, in sizes through
designed to limit flow or stop flow in thermoplastic NPS 8, for use in polyethylene (PE) gas distribution
natural gas service lines. systems.
107
APPENDIX B GLOSSARY
APPENDIX B
GLOSSARY
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
In the discussion of the use of plastic materials in gas Amorphous⎯devoid of crystallinity. Most plastics are
distribution, certain terms are used which are common in the amorphous state at processing temperatures;
only to either the gas industry or the plastics industry. In many retain this state under normal conditions.
the hope that it may remove some of the confusion
between the two industries, this glossary is included as ANS preferred number⎯series of numbers
part of the handbook prepared by the AGA Task preferentially selected for standardization purposes.
Committee on Plastic Pipe Standards. It does not They are defined in “American National Standard
pretend to be complete but does attempt to define some Preferred Numbers, ANSI Z17.11958.”
of those terms used elsewhere in this handbook. For
more complete set of definitions, see ASTM D883 and F Antioxidant⎯a compounding ingredient added to a
412. plastic composition to retard possible degradation
from contact with oxygen (air), particularly in
Acceptance test⎯an investigation performed on an processing at, or exposures to, high temperatures.
individual lot of a previously qualified product by, or
under the observation of, the purchaser to establish Aromatic⎯a term for any hydrocarbon containing a
conformity with a purchase agreement stipulating benzene ring or similar structure.
specified requirements.
Beam loading⎯the application of a load to a pipe
Acetone test⎯a process control test for PVC pipe, between two points of support.
which indicates how well the rigid vinyl compound,
has been fused together in the extruder. Improperly Binder⎯in a reinforced plastic, the continuous phase
fused pipe will tend to flake when placed in which holds together the reinforcement.
anhydrous acetone. NOTE: During fabrication, the binder, which may be
either thermoplastic or thermoset, usually undergoes a
Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) pipe and fitting change in state.
plastics⎯plastics containing polymers and/or blends of
polymers in which the minimum butadiene content is 6 Burst strength⎯the internal pressure required to cause
percent, the minimum acrylonitrile content is 15 percent, a pipe or fitting to fail.
the minimum styrene and/or substituted styrene content NOTE: This pressure will vary with the rate of
is 15 percent, and the maximum content of all other buildup of the pressure and the time during which the
monomers is not more than 5 percent, and lubricants, pressure is held.
stabilizers and colorants.
Burst test⎯method of hydrostatic testing plastic pipe by
Adhesive⎯a substance capable of holding materials a uniformly increasing internal pressure so that the
together by surface attachment. pipe fails in 60 to 70 seconds. See ASTM D 1599.
Also called quick burst test.
Adhesive, solvent⎯an adhesive having a volatile
organic liquid as a vehicle. See Solvent cement. Butane⎯a low-boiling paraffin hydrocarbon (C4H10), a
component of LPG.
Aging⎯effect on materials in service of exposure to an Butylene plastics⎯plastics based on resins made by the
environment for an interval of time. polymerization of butene or copolymerization of
butene with one or more unsaturated compounds, the
Aliphatic⎯hydrocarbon that does not contain an butene being in greatest amount by weight.
aromatic ring structure.
Cellulose acetate butyrate plastics (CAB)⎯plastics
Allowable working stress⎯the maximum hoop stress made by compounding a cellulose, acetate, butyrate
permitted by code for the design of a piping system. ester with plasticizers and other ingredients. Cellulose
acetate butyrate ester is a derivative of cellulose
108
APPENDIX B GLOSSARY
(obtained from cotton and/or wood pulp) made by design factors.

converting some of the hydroxyl groups in cellulose Dielectric constant⎯the ratio of the capacity of a
to acetate and butyrate groups with chemicals. condenser with given dielectric and the capacity of the
same condenser with a vacuum as a dielectric.
Chemical resistance⎯(1) the effect of specific
chemicals on the properties of plastic piping with Dielectric strength⎯the voltage that will rupture or
respect to concentration, temperature and time of puncture the material when placed between electrodes
exposure. (2) the ability of a specific plastic pipe to of a given size.
render service for a useful period in the transport of a
specific chemical at a specified concentration and Diffusion⎯the movement of a material, such as a gas or
temperature. (3) the ability to resist chemical attack. liquid, in the body of a plastic. If the gas or liquid is
absorbed on one side of a piece of plastic and given
Cold flow⎯the dimensional change with time of a off on the other side, the phenomenon is called
plastic under load, following the instantaneous elastic permeability. Diffusion and permeability are not due
or rapid deformation. (Also referred to as Creep) to holes or pores in the plastic but are caused and
controlled by chemical mechanisms.
Compatible⎯a condition wherein components of a
piping system and/or different specific materials can Dimension ratio (DR)⎯the average specified diameter
be joined together to form satisfactory joints. of a pipe divided by the minimum specified wall
thickness.
Compressive strength⎯the ratio of crushing load at NOTE: Each pipe can have two dimension ratios
failure to area of minimum original cross-section of a depending on whether the outside or inside diameter
specimen. is used. In practice, the outside diameter is used if the
standards requirement and manufacturing control are
Creep⎯the time-dependent part of strain due to a based on this diameter. The inside diameter is used
constant stress (also referred to as cold flow). when this measure is the controlling one.
Crystallinity⎯a state of molecular structure in some Drip Oil⎯the light oil or hydrocarbon liquids condensed in a
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
resins, which denotes uniformity, and compactness in piping system when the gas is cooled. Both natural and
the molecular chains forming the polymers. manufactured gas can be sources of condensates.
Deflection temperature⎯the temperature at which a Elastomer⎯a material that at room temperature can be
specimen will deflect a given distance at a given load stretched repeatedly to at least twice its original length
under prescribed conditions of test. See ASTM D and upon immediate release of the stress will return to
648. Formerly called heat distortion. its approximate original length and shape.
Degradation⎯a deleterious change in the chemical Environmental stress cracking (ESC)⎯cracks that
structure, physical properties or appearance of a develop when the material is subjected to stress or
plastic. strain in the presence of specific chemicals.
Density-bulk⎯the weight per unit volume of a material Epoxy resins⎯resins made by the reaction of epoxides
including voids inherent in the material as tested or oxiranes with other materials such as amines,
alcohols, phenols, carboxylic acids, acid anhydrides,
Design Factor⎯A standardized derating factor or factors, and unsaturated compounds.
less than 1, which are multiplied by the HDB to obtain
the pressure rating of the specified piping system. Extrusion⎯the process whereby heated or unheated
Design factors are specific for the installation factors and plastic forced through a shaping orifice becomes one
medium transported (liquid or gas), the anticipated continuously formed piece.
service temperature, and other conditions of use, which
may affect the piping system’s performance. Failure, adhesive⎯rupture of an adhesive bond, such
that the plane of separation appears to be at the
Design pressure⎯the maximum operating pressure adhesive-adhered interface.
permitted by 49 CFR Part 192 as determined by the
design procedures applicable to the material and Fiber stress⎯the stress acting on a fiber or a strand of
location involved. It is the HDB multiplied by any fibers in a piece of material that is subjected to an
109
APPENDIX B GLOSSARY
applied load. 2S
P =
Flexural strength⎯the stress, usually in pounds per (R − 1)
square inch (PSI), a specimen will withstand when where:
subjected to a bending moment. S =hoop stress
P =pressure
High-density polyethylene⎯see Polyethylene. R =dimension ratio
Hoop stress⎯the tensile stress, usually in pounds per Joint⎯the location at which two pieces of pipe or a pipe
square inch (psi), acting on the pipe along the and a fitting are connected together.
circumferential direction of the pipe wall when the NOTE: The joint may be made by an adhesive, a
pipe contains gas or liquid under pressure. solvent-cement, heat joining, or a mechanical device
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
such as threads or a ring seal.

Hydrostatic Design Basis (HDB)⎯One of a series of
strength values for specific conditions of environment Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)⎯petroleum
and temperature which has been established by hydrocarbons of the paraffin series, normally gaseous,
forecasting and categorizing a piping material’s long- but which can be liquefied at atmospheric
term strength in accordance with ASTM D2837, temperatures. Main components are propane, butane,
“Standard Test Method for Obtaining Hydrostatic or a mixture of both.
Design Basis for Thermoplastic Pipe Materials”, or
ASTM D 2992, “Standard Practice for Obtaining Long-term hydrostatic strength⎯the estimated tensile
Hydrostatic or Pressure Design Basis for Fiberglass hoop stress in the wall of the pipe along the
(Glass-Fiber Reinforced Thermosetting-Resin) Pipe circumferential direction that when applied
and Fittings”. continuously will cause failure of the pipe, at 100,000
hours (11.43 years). This strength value is usually
Hydrostatic Design Basis Category (HDBC)⎯See obtained by extrapolation of log-log regression
Hydrostatic Design Basis. equations or plots. See ASTM D 1598.
Hydrostatic design stress⎯the estimated maximum L.P.-air⎯a mixture of LPG and air distributed as a fuel
tensile stress that can act in the wall of the pipe along gas or used as an extender for natural gas during peak
the circumferential direction due to internal demands.
hydrostatic pressure, with a high degree of certainty
that failure of the pipe will not occur. See Pressure Maximum allowable operating pressure
rating. (MAOP)⎯the highest pressure that a gas distribution
system can be operated under 49 CFR Part 192.
Impact, Izod⎯specific type of impact test made with a
pendulum-type machine. The specimens are molded Melt flow rate⎯The rate of extrusion of molten resins
or extruded with a machine notch. See ASTM D 256. through a die of specified dimensions under the
prescribed conditions, such as temperature and load,
Impact resistance⎯energy required to break a by a referenced test method (e.g. ASTM D 1238,
specimen by a sudden blow. "Standard Test Method for Flow Rates of
Thermoplastics by Extrusion Plastometer").
Impact, Tup⎯a falling weight (tup) impact test
developed specifically for pipe and fittings. There are Melt Index⎯The melt flow rate of a polyethylene
several variables that can be selected. See ASTM D plastic when measured at Condition B (at 190°C and
2444. 2,160 grams force load) of ASTM D 1238, "Standard
Test Method for Flow Rates of Thermoplastics by
Injection molding⎯the process of forming a material Extrusion Plastomer". Melt index also gives a general
by forcing it, under pressure, from a heated cylinder indication of fusion compatibility of different
through a sprue (runner, gate) into the cavity of a polyethylene piping system materials. (See also melt
closed mold. Fittings are usually made by this flow rate.)
process.
Mercaptans⎯a group of organic chemical compounds
ISO equation⎯an equation showing the interrelations containing a SH group having distinctive odors in
between stress, pressure and dimensions in pipe, small concentrations, added to natural or LP-gases to
namely warn of leaks.
110
APPENDIX B GLOSSARY
Methane⎯the first of the paraffin series of Pipeline condensates⎯liquid containing lower boiling
hydrocarbons (CH4). The chief constituent of natural aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons which may be
gas. found in natural gas production, transmission and
distribution pipelines. The higher pressure and lower
Methyl ethyl ketone (MEK)⎯an organic solvent temperature conditions in the pipeline induce
widely used for preparing solvent cements, formula condensation to a liquid phase.
C2H5COCH3.
Plastic(s)⎯a material that contains as an essential
Mixed gas⎯fuel gas in which natural or LP gas is mixed ingredient one or more organic polymeric substances
with manufactured gas. of large molecular weight, is solid in its finished state,
and, at some stage in its manufacture or processing
Molecular weight⎯the sum of the atomic masses of the into finished articles, can be shaped by flow.
elements forming the molecule. In high polymers the NOTE 1: Rubber, textiles, adhesives and paint, which
molecular weights vary so widely they must be may in some cases meet this definition, are not
expressed as averages. considered plastics. See ASTM definitions of these
terms.
Molecular weight distribution⎯the ratio of the weight NOTE 2: The above definition may be used as a
average molecular weight (Mw) to the number average separate meaning to the definitions contained in the
molecular weight (Mn) gives an indication of the dictionary for the adjective “plastic”.
distribution. NOTE 3: The plural form may be used as an adjective
to refer to two or more plastic materials, for example,
Molecular weight, number average (abbreviation plastics industry. However, when the intent is to
Mn)⎯the total weight of all molecules divided by the distinguish “plastic products” from “wood products”
number of molecules. or “glass products”, the singular form should be used.
As a general rule, if the adjective is to restrict the
Molecular weight, weight average (abbreviation noun modified with respect to the type of material,
Mw)⎯the sum of the total weight of molecules of “plastic” should be used, if the adjective is to indicate
each size multiplied by their respective weights that more than one type of plastic material is or may
divided by the total weight of all molecules. be involved, “plastics” is permissible.
Nylon plastics⎯plastics based on resins composed Plastic pipe⎯a hollow cylinder of a plastic material in
principally of a long-chain synthetic polymeric amide which the wall thicknesses are usually small when
which has recurring amide groups as an integral part compared to the diameter and in which the inside and
of the main polymer chain. outside walls are essentially concentric.
Odorant⎯any material added to natural or LP gas in Plastic tubing⎯same as plastic pipe except that it is
small concentrations to impart a distinctive odor. usually of small diameter and sized on the same
Odorants in common use include various mercaptans, system commonly used for copper tubing.
organic sulfides, and blends of these.
Plasticizer⎯a material incorporated in a plastic to
Oil gas⎯a fuel gas produced by the thermal increase its workability, flexibility or distensibility.
decomposition or cracking of petroleum oils. It is
composed mainly of volatile hydrocarbons and Polyamide⎯a plastic or resin prepared by the
hydrogen. polymerization from one of three types of
commercially available monomers.
Peak shaving⎯supplying fuel gas for distribution
systems from an auxiliary source during periods of Polybutylene⎯a plastic or resin prepared by the
maximum demand, when the primary source is not polymerization of butylene as essentially the sole
adequate. monomer.
PENT⎯The common name given for a test to determine Polyethylene⎯a plastic or resin prepared by the
stress-crack resistance of polyethylene pipe polymerization of ethylene as essentially the sole
compounds by performing a tensile test on a notched
specimen at 80°C. See ASTM Test Method F 1473.
111
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

APPENDIX B GLOSSARY
Polymer⎯a substance consisting of molecules at the request of the supplier seeking inclusion of his
characterized by the repetition (neglecting ends, branch product on a qualified products list.
junctions and other minor irregularities) of one or more
types of monomeric units. Polymerization (addition Quick burst⎯the internal pressure required to cause
polymer) or polycondensation (condensation polymer) failure of a pipe or fitting due to an internal pressure
may form polymers. When two or more monomers are buildup, usually within 60 to 70 seconds. See ASTM
involved, the product is called a copolymer. D 1599.
Polymerization⎯a chemical reaction in which the Reinforced plastic⎯a plastic with high strength fillers
molecules of a monomer are linked together to form imbedded in the composition, in some mechanical
polymers. When two or more different monomers are properties superior to those of the base resin. The
involved, the process is called copolymerization. reinforcing fillers are usually fibers, fabrics, or mats
made of fibers.
Polyolefin⎯a plastic or resin prepared by the
polymerization (copolymerization) of olefin(s) (e.g. Resin⎯a solid, semisolid, or pseudosolid organic
ethylene, propylene, butylene) as essentially the sole material, often of high molecular weight, which
monomer(s). exhibits a tendency to flow when subjected to stress,
usually has a softening or melting range, and usually
Polypropylene⎯a polymer prepared by the fractures conchoidally.
polymerization of propylene as the sole monomer.
Ring-specimen⎯a very short length of pipe cut for
Polypropylene plastics⎯plastics based on polymers testing purposes, such as for the ring-tensile test.
made with propylene as essentially the sole monomer.
Ring-tensile test⎯method of determining apparent
Poly (vinyl chloride) (PVC)⎯a polymer prepared by tensile strength of plastic pipe for applying tensile
the polymerization of vinyl chloride with or without forces in the hoop direction to a ring-specimen cut
small amounts of other monomers. from pipe. See ASTM D 2290.
Poly (vinyl chloride) (PVC) plastics⎯plastics made by Schedule⎯a pipe size system (outside diameters and
combining poly (vinyl chloride) with colorants, fillers, wall thicknesses) originated by the iron pipe industry
plasticizers, stabilizers, lubricants, other polymers, (e.g. Schedule 40 pipe).
and other compounding ingredients. Not all of these
modifiers are used in pipe compounds. Seepage or weeping⎯failure that occurs through
essentially microscopic breaks in the pipe wall,
Potlife (working life)⎯the period of time during which frequently only at, or near, the test pressure.
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
a reacting thermosetting composition remains suitable
for its intended processing after mixing with reaction- Service factor⎯a design factor which is used to reduce
initiating agents. a strength value to obtain an engineering design
stress. The factor may vary depending on the service
Pressure⎯when expressed with reference to pipe, the conditions, the hazard, the length of service desired,
force per unit area exerted by the medium in the pipe. the uncertainties, and the properties of the pipe.
Pressure rating⎯the estimated maximum pressure that Solvent cement⎯an adhesive made by dissolving a
the medium in the pipe can exert continuously with a plastic resin or compound in a suitable solvent or
high degree of certainty that failure of the pipe will mixture of solvents. The solvent cement dissolves the
not occur. surfaces of the pipe and fittings to form a bond
between the mating surfaces provided the proper
Qualification test⎯an investigation, independent of a cement is used for the particular materials and proper
procurement action, performed on a product to techniques are followed.
determine whether or not the product conforms to all
requirements of the applicable specification. Stabilizer⎯an ingredient used in the formulation of
some plastics, to assist in maintaining the physical
NOTE: The examination is usually conducted by the and chemical properties of the compounded materials
agency responsible for the specification, the at their initial values throughout the processing and
purchaser, or by a facility approved by the purchaser, service life of the material.
112
APPENDIX B GLOSSARY
Standard dimension ratio (SDR)⎯the dimension ratio Thermoplastic (noun)⎯a plastic that repeatedly can be
(DR) as standardized by stating it as a series of softened by heating and hardened by cooling through
preferred numbers as partially shown below. Adding a temperature range characteristic of the plastic, and
1 to each of the numbers in the ANSI Preferred that in the softened state can be shaped by flow into
Number Series 10 list derives the below SDR articles by molding or extrusion.
numbers list.
Thermoplastic (adjective)⎯capable of being repeatedly
SDR SDR softened by heating and hardened by cooling through
6.0 13.5 a temperature range characteristic of the plastic, and
7.3 17.0 that in the softened state can be shaped by flow into
9.0 21.0 articles by molding or extrusion.
11.0 26.0
Thermoset (noun)⎯a plastic that, after having been
Strain⎯the ratio of the elongation to the gauge length of cured by heat or other means, is substantially infusible
the test specimen, that is, the change per unit of and insoluble.
original length. It is expressed as a dimensionless
ratio. Thermoset (adjective)⎯pertaining to the state of a
plastic in which it is substantially infusible.
Strength⎯the stress required to break, rupture or cause
a failure. Thermosetting⎯capable of being changed into a
substantially infusible or insoluble product when
Stress crack⎯an internal or external crack in a plastic cured by heat or other means.
caused by tensile or shear stresses less than that
normally required for mechanical failure in air. The Viscoelasticity⎯the tendency of plastics to respond to
development of such cracks is frequently related to stress as if they were a combination of viscous liquids
and accelerated by the environment to which the and elastic solids.
material is exposed. More often than not, the
environment does not visibly attack, soften or dissolve Yield point⎯the stress at which a material exceeds its
the surface. The stresses may be internal, external, or elastic limit. Below this stress, the material will
a combination of both. recover its original size and shape on removal of the
stress. Above this stress, it will not.
Stress relaxation⎯the decrease of stress with respect to
time in a piece of plastic that is subject to an external ABBREVIATIONS
load at constant deformation.
ABS: Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Stress⎯rupture test method of testing plastic pipe to AGA: American Gas Association
determine the hydrostatic strength by applying a ANSI: American National Standards Institute,
constant internal pressure and observing the time-to- (formerly USASI, formerly ASA)
failure. See ASTM D 1598 and D 2837. ASA: American Standards Association (see
ANSI)
Sulfides (organic)⎯a group of organic compounds ASME American Society of Mechanical
containing a sulfur atom that is directly bonded Engineers
between two carbon atoms. Some of the organic ASTM: American Society for Testing and
sulfides, such as dimethyl sulfide and thiophane, are Materials; now just ASTM.
considered to be suitable odorants. CAB: Cellulose Acetate Butyrate
CPVC: Chlorinated Poly (Vinyl Chloride), Also
Sustained pressure test⎯a constant internal pressure known as PVC 41. At one time called
test for an extended period of time. 1000 hours is a PVDC.
commonly used period. See ASTM D 1598. CTS: Copper Tubing Size
DOT. Department of Transportation, a bureau
Tensile strength⎯the tensile stress necessary to cause of the Federal Government
failure in a short-time test. It is performed by pulling DR Dimension Ratio
a specimen of specified dimension at a specified rate. ESC: Environmental Stress Cracking
See ASTM D 638. ESCR: Environmental Stress Cracking
Resistance
113
APPENDIX B GLOSSARY
GPTC: Gas Piping Technology Committee OPS: Office of Pipeline Safety, a branch of
HDB: Hydrostatic Design Basis the U.S. Department of Transportation
HDBC: Hydrostatic Design Basis Category PA Polyamide (nylon)
IPS: Iron Pipe Size PB: Polybutylene
ISO International Standards Association PE: Polyethylene
LPG: Liquefied Petroleum Gas PPI: Plastics Pipe Institute
LTHS Long-Term Hydrostatic Strength PVC: Poly (Vinyl Chloride)
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
MEK: Methyl Ethyl Ketone RCP Rapid Crack Propagation
MSS Manufacturers Standardization Society RTRP: Reinforced Thermosetting Resin Pipe
of the Valve and Fitting Industry SCG Slow crack growth
NFPA National Fire Protection Association SDR: Standard Dimension Ratio
NPGA National Propane Gas Association SPE: Society of Plastic Engineers
NSF: National Sanitation Foundation SPI: Society of the Plastics Industry, Inc.
NTSB National Transportation Safety Board
TRADE NAMES
Current lists of trade names for plastic pipe compounds can be obtained from the Plastics Pipe Institute, or from the annual
issue of the Modern Plastics Encyclopedia.
114
APPENDIX C OTHER SOURCES OF INFORMATION
APPENDIX C
OTHER SOURCES OF INFORMATION
AGA⎯The American Gas Association offers many

resources for the natural gas industry professional. TN-13, “General Guidelines for the Heat Fusion of
Available references include the “GPTC Guide for Gas Unlike Polyethylene Pipes and Fittings”
Transmission and Distribution Piping Systems”, bound MS-2/2000, “Model Specification for Polyethylene
proceedings & CDs of papers given at recent AGA Plastic Pipe, Tubing and Fittings for Fuel Gas
Operating Section meetings, and the Plastic Fuel Gas Pipe Distribution Systems”
Symposiums. Resource contact: Techstreet, 777 East
Eisenhower Parkway, Ann Arbor, MI 48108 USA. In addition, PPI offers a series of slide presentations
(800)699-9277; E-Mail: techstreet.service@thomson.com. for use in training operators and inspectors in the
AGA Internet address http://www.aga.org/publications. fundamentals of proper joining and installation of
polyethylene gas piping, including the review of
PPI⎯The Plastics Pipe Institute has issued a number of applicable standards and federal code requirements.
brochures, reports, and statements on various technical
aspects of plastics piping. Among those that relate to gas For a complete literature list please contact the Plastics
distribution piping are: Pipe Institute, at 1-888-314-6774. The Internet address
for the Plastics Pipe Institute is
TR-3/2000, “Policies and Procedures for http://www.plasticpipe.org/.
Developing Hydrostatic Design Bases (HDB),
Pressure Design Bases, (PDB) and Minimum Another useful publication developed by the PPI in
Required Strengths (MRS) Ratings for conjunction with Global Engineering Documents is the
Thermoplastic Piping Materials or Pipe” “Plastics Piping Standards Compilation”. This is a
loose-leaf binder containing all the ASTM standards
TR-4/2000b, “PPI Listing of Hydrostatic Design that relate to plastic piping including terminology,
Bases (HDB), Pressure Design Bases (PDB) and sample preparation, test methods, resins, pipe
Minimum Required Strength (MRS) Ratings for specifications, fitting specifications and
Thermoplastic Piping Materials or Pipe” installation/joining techniques. It is available from
Global Engineering Documents, 15 Inverness Way
TR-9. “Recommended Service (Design) Factors for East, Englewood, CO 80112, & Phone 303-397-7956,
Pressure Application of Thermoplastic Pipe Internet address http://global.ihs.com.
Material”
GPTC ⎯The Gas Piping Technology Committee, also
TR-18, “Weatherability of Thermoplastic Piping known as ANSI/GPTC Z380 publishes the GPTC
Systems” Guide for Gas Transmission and Distribution Piping
Systems, which includes information on design,
TR-19, “Thermoplastic Piping for Transport of installation, operation, and maintenance of gas
Chemicals” transmission and distribution piping systems. It
includes Parts 191 and 192 of the Federal Pipeline
TR-22, “Polyethylene Plastic Piping Distribution Safety Regulations, plus guide material and provides at
Systems for Components of Liquid Petroleum least one means of compliance with the intent of the
Gases” Federal Regulations. Copies of the Guide, both hard
copy and on CD-ROM, may be purchased from AGA.
TR-30, “Thermoplastic Fuel Gas Piping, See AGA above.
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Investigation of Maximum Temperatures Attained

by Plastic Pipe Inside Service Risers” GTI ⎯The Gas Technology Institute (GTI)1 has
developed extensive data and information in its
TR-33, “Generic Butt Fusion Joining Procedures for research projects on plastic piping materials and
Polyethylene Gas Pipe” systems used for gas distribution. The references
115
include user’s guidelines, videotapes, PC software, Video Tapes

technical reports, and other documents on testing, life 1. Guidelines on Saddle Heat-Fusion Joining of
prediction, and modeling, field aging and failure Polyethylene Gas Pipe, GRI-92/0052
mechanisms, heat fusion, and various other properties 2. Guideline on Socket Heat-Fusion Joining of
and performance mechanisms of plastic gas pipes. Polyethylene Gas Pipe, GRI-91/0195
Some of the information available from the GTI1 on 3. Guidelines on Butt Heat-Fusion Joining of
plastic gas pipes is as follows: Polyethylene Gas Pipe, GRI-91/0040
4. Plastic Pipe Research Results: Field Failure
Publications Reference Catalog, Constant Tensile Load Test,
1. Volume 1: Brief Guide for the Use of the Slow and Aging of Plastic Pipe. 1990
Crack Growth Test for Modeling and 5. Improved Field Procedures for Squeeze-Off of PE
Predicting the Long-Term Performance of Gas Pipes, GRI-91/0387
Polyethylene Gas Pipes, GRI-93/0105.
2. User’s Guide on Squeeze-Off of Polyethylene For more information on GTI1 research programs and
Gas Pipes, GRI-92/0147.1. publications, contact: Michael M. Mamoun, Gas
3. User’s Guide on Saddle Heat Fusion Joining of Technology Institute, 1700 South Mount Prospect Road,
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Polyethylene Gas Pipe, GRI-92/0013.1. Des Plaines, IL 60018-1804, internet address

4. Volume 3: User’s Manual for the Slow Crack http://www.gastechnology.org/.
Growth Test Method for Polyethylene Gas
Pipes, GRI-92/0481.
5. User’s Guide on Bending Limits for Manufacturers⎯The manufacturers of products used in
Polyethylene Gas Pipe, GRI-92/0061.1 plastic piping systems have a wealth of information
6. User’s Guide on Socket Heat Fusion Joining of and training material for end users. Installation
Polyethylene Gas Pipe, GRI-91/0038.1. procedures as well as test data are available from most
7. User’s Guide on Butt Heat-Fusion Joining of suppliers to the industry. The April edition of
Polyethylene Gas Pipe, GRI-88/0276.1. American Gas magazine each year is a “Buyers Guide”
8. Life Prediction of Butt Heat Fusion Joints in and lists contact information on manufacturers of gas
Polyethylene Gas Pipe Materials, GRI-91/0360. industry related products, including plastic pipe.
9. Field Failure Reference Catalog for
Polyethylene Gas Piping, GRI-84/0235.1.
10. Plastic Pipe Field Failure Catalog (CD-ROM), Publications⎯The following publications frequently
GRI-98/0202. carry articles:
11. Horizontal Directional Drilling Guidelines for
Installing Polyethylene Gas Distribution Pipeline & Gas Journal
Pipes, GRI-97/0033. 14515 Briar Hills Parkway, #208
12. Guide on the Developed Electrostatic Discharge Houston, TX 77077
Products and Technology for Polyethylene Phone: 651-686-7824
Pipes in Gas Distribution Phase II, GRI- http://www.undergroundinfo.com/
94/0240.
. Gas Industries
PC Programs and Software P.O. Box 558
1. DFusion PC Program on Saddle Heat-Fusion Park Ridge, IL 60068
Joining of Polyethylene Gas Pipe, GRI-92/0154 Phone: 847-391-9060
2. SFusion PC Program on Socket Heat-Fusion http://www.gasindustries.com
Joining of Polyethylene Gas Pipe, GRI-92/0053
3. BFusion PC Program on Butt Heat-Fusion American Gas Association
Joining of Polyethylene Gas Pipe, GRI-91/0031 400 N. Capitol St., N.W.
4. BPrint PC Program on Butt Heat-Fusion: Washington, DC 20001
Supplement to BFusion PC Program, GRI- Phone: 202-824-7201
91/0031.1 http://www.aga.org
116
Pipeline & Gas Industry

P.O. Box 2608 Information can also be obtained from the following:
Houston, TX 77252
Phone: 713-529-4301 API
http://www.pipe-line.com American Petroleum Institute
1220 L Street N.W.,
Modern Plastics Washington D.C. 20005.
2 Penn Plaza, 5th Floor http://www.api.org/
New York, N.Y. 10121 ANSI/API Spec 15HR, High Pressure Fiberglass Line
Phone: 212-904-6245 Pipe
http://www.modplas.com/
ANSI/API Spec 15LR, Low Pressure Fiberglass Line Pipe
1
GRI
Gas Technology Institute ANSI
1700 South Mount Prospect Road American National Standards Institute
Des Plaines, IL 60018-1804 25 West 43rd St.
http://www.gastechnology.org/ New York, NY 10036
http://www.ansi.org
Institute of Gas Technology1
gasLine® OnLine Database NTIS
http://www.gastechnology.org/ National Technical Information Service, U.S
Department of Commerce
In addition to the AGA, regional and state associations 5285 Port Royal Road
sponsor meetings and roundtables where papers Springfield, VA 22161
relevant to plastic are presented. The major/regional http://www.ntis.gov
associations are: Technical reports, released under the sponsorship of Gas
Technology Institute (GTI)1 are generally available
Midwest Energy Association (MEA), 6012 Blue through the National Technical Information Service
Circle Dr., Minnetonka, MN 55343 (NTIS).
Southern Gas Association, 3030 LBJ Freeway, GTI1

Suite 1300,LB60, Dallas, TX 752347703 Gas Technology Institute1
1700 South Mount Prospect Road
Western Energy Institute (WEI), 827 NE Oregon St. Des Plaines, IL 60018-1804
Portland, OR 97232-2172 http://www.gastechnology.org/
Northeast Gas Association (NGA), 75 Second Ave, Battelle

Suite 510, Needham, MA 02194 Battelle Columbus Division
505 King Avenue
Southeastern Gas Association, P.O. Box 247, Columbus, OH 43201
Willow Springs, NC 27592 http://www.battelle.org
Rocky Mountain Gas Association, P.O. Box 8466, ASTM

Denver, CO 80201 American Society for Testing and Materials
100 Barr harbor Drive
American Public Gas Association, 201 West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959
Massachusetts Ave, NE, Suite C-4, Washington http://www.astm.org
DC, 20002 Annual Book of Standards
Volume 08.04 Plastic Pipe and Building Products
Regulatory Agencies: State and Federal Regulatory Includes Standards of Committee F17 on Plastic
Agencies often have information and expertise on Piping Systems and Committee D20 on Plastics
compliance with the code relative to plastics. The local ASTM No. 0108048319
fuel piping code is a reference for permissible practices
in your area.
117 --``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

CSA
ASME Canadian Standards Association
American Society of Mechanical Engineers 178 Rexdale Boulevard
Three Park Avenue Rexdale, Ontario
New York, NY 10016-5990 Canada M9W IR3
http://www.asme.org B137.4: Polyethylene Piping Systems for Gas Service
ASME B31.8: Standard Code for Gas Transmission B137.14: Recommended Practice for the Installation
and Distribution Piping Systems of Thermoplastic Piping for Gas Service
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
ASME B16.40: Manually Operated Thermoplastic
Gas Shutoffs and Valves in Gas Distribution
Systems Training Programs:
Many manufacturers offer training programs either at
IAPMO their facilities or at yours. There is also a program put on
International Association of Plumbing and Mechanical periodically by DOT/RSPA, Transportation Safety
Officials Institute, Pipeline Safety Division, 6500 South MacArthur
20001 E. Walnut Drive South Blvd., Oklahoma City, OK 73125. Internet site
Walnut, CA 91789-2825 http://www.tsi.dot.gov
http://www.iapmo.org
NFPA Endnote
National Fire Protection Association
1 Batterymarch Park 1. During 2000-2001 the Gas Research Institute (GRI)
Quincy, MA 02269-9101 and the Institute of Gas Technology (IGT) combined
http://www.nfpa.org to form the Gas Technology Institute (GTI). The
catalog numbers for the GRI items referenced in this
NFPA 54: National Fuel Gas Code manual remain the same.
NFPA 58: Standards for the Storage and Handling of
Liquefied Petroleum Gases
118
APPENDIX D PLASTICS PIPE INSTITUTE’S MODEL SPECIFICATION MS-2/2000
APPENDIX D
PLASTICS PIPE INSTITUTE

Model Specification MS-2/2000
Used by permission of the Copyright holder – The Plastics Pipe Institute.
MODEL SPECIFICATION FOR INTRODUCTION

POLYETHYLENE PLASTIC PIPE, This Model Specification for Polyethylene Plastic
TUBING AND FITTING FOR FUEL GAS Pipe, Tubing and Fittings for Fuel Gas Distribution
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS Systems has been developed by the Plastics Pipe Institute
(PPI) to assist the utility user in developing his own
FOREWORD specifications which will help to ensure that the products
purchased will perform satisfactorily in the intended end-
The Plastics Pipe Institute (PPI) has prepared this use.
model specification as a service to its members and the It is incumbent upon the utility user to have a working
industry. familiarity with the following regulations, standard
It is offered for use as a starting point and guide in specifications, and recommendations:
developing appropriate final specifications suited to a A. US Department of Transportation Pipeline Safety
particular project’s needs. Regulations, Code of Federal Regulations (CFR)
This report has been prepared by PPI as a service of Title 49, Part 192, “Transportation of Natural or
the industry. The information in this report is offered in Other Gases by Pipeline: Minimum Federal Safety
good faith and believed to be accurate at the time of its Standards”.
preparation, but is offered without any warranty, B. Fittings.
expressed or implied, including WARRANTIES OF C. ASTM D2683 - Standard Specification for Socket-
MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A Type Polyethylene Fittings for Outside Diameter-
PARTICULAR PURPOSE. Any reference to or testing Controlled Polyethylene Pipe and Tubing.
of a particular proprietary product should not be D. ASTM D2837 - Standard Test Method for Obtaining
construed as an endorsement by PPI, which does not Hydrostatic Design Basis for Thermoplastic Pipe
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
endorse the proprietary products or processes of any Materials.
manufacturer. Industry members in fulfilling their own E. ASTM D3261 - Standard Specification for Butt Heat
compliance responsibilities offer the information in this Fusion Polyethylene (PE) Plastic Fittings for
report for consideration. PPI assumes no responsibility Polyethylene (PE) Plastic Pipe and Tubing.
for compliance with applicable laws and regulations. F. ASTM D3350 - Standard Specification for
PPI intends to revise this report from time to time, in Polyethylene Plastics Pipe and Fittings Materials.
response to comments and suggestions from users of the G. ASTM F1055 - Standard Specification for
report. Please send suggestions of improvements to PPI. Electrofusion Type Polyethylene Fittings for
Information on other publications can be obtained by Outside Diameter Controlled Polyethylene Pipe and
contacting PPI directly or visiting the web site. Tubing.
H. ASTM F1924 - Standard Specification for Plastic
The Plastics Pipe Institute, Inc. Mechanical Fittings for Use on Outside Diameter
Toll Free: (888) 314-6774 Controlled Polyethylene Gas Distribution Pipe and
http://www.plasticpipe.org Tubing.
May, 2000 I. PPI TR-3 - Policies and Procedures for Developing
Hydrostatic Design Bases (HDB), Pressure Design
Bases (PDB) and Minimum Required Strengths
(MRS) for Thermoplastic Piping Materials or Pipe.
J. PPI TR-4 - PPI Listing of Hydrostatic Design Bases
(HDB), Pressure Design Bases (PDB) and Minimum
119
Required Strengths (MRS) for Thermoplastic Piping requirements, such as those contained in ASTM D2513.
Materials. In the event local standards are more stringent,
K. PPI TR-33 - Generic Butt Fusion Joining Procedures appropriate modifications should be made to this model
for Polyethylene (PE) Gas Pipe. specification.
L. NFPA 58 - National Fire Protection Association, For liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) applications, a
Storage and Handling Liquefied Petroleum Gas maximum operating pressure of 30 psig (206 kPa) is
In addition, it is recommended the user review the recommended in NFPA 58 by the members of the
American Gas Association publication, AGA Plastic National Fire Protection Association. LPG has higher
Pipe Manual for Gas Service. condensation temperature than does natural gas; this
Although it is difficult to incorporate in a maximum pressure is recommended to ensure that plastic
specification, one of the most important considerations in pipe is not subjected to excessive exposure to LPG
purchasing quality materials for a polyethylene fuel gas liquids.
distribution system is the selection of a quality vendor.
Such a vendor will have an understanding of the
necessary quality control tests and the capabilities to MODEL SPECIFICATION FOR POLYETHYLENE
perform them, and will also be able to provide records
PLASTIC PIPE, TUBING AND FITTINGS FOR
showing that a quality control/quality assurance program
is in effect that utilizes these testing facilities. FUEL GAS DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
Using both the appropriate Annex for In-Plant Quality
Control of ASTM D2513 and this document as guides General
the user or purchaser should evaluate an intended
supplier through an on-site visit and inspection. All polyethylene pipe, tubing and fittings furnished
Adequate records should be available for the user’s under this specification shall conform to all applicable
review to demonstrate that the supplier’s production of provisions and requirements of the latest revision of the
gas piping products meets the requirements of the US Department of Transportation Pipeline Safety
specification. Regulations (CFR) Title 49, Part 192, “Transportation of
In qualifying a supplier, the user should consider: Natural or Other Gases by Pipeline: Minimum Federal
A. A demonstrated commitment to the market as Safety Standards, and, by inclusion, all appropriate
evidenced by facilities investment and products standards referenced therein.
offered;
B. A good reputation for product quality and service Materials
based on other user comments;
C. Adequate in-plant inspection and quality Polyethylene compounds utilized in the manufacture
control/quality assurance testing, either in the of products furnished under this specification shall have
supplier’s own facilities or in a qualified a grade of PE24 or PE34, and minimum cell
independent laboratory. Registration under a classification of PE213363 or PE334464, as defined in
recognized quality assurance program such as ISO ASTM D3350. In conformance with ASTM D2513, they
9000 is a means to ensure proper /quality shall have a PPI recommended hydrostatic design basis
control/quality assurance procedures are in place. (HDB) of 1250 psi (PE2406) or 1600 psi (PE3408) at a
D. Evidence that the supplier has a qualified joining temperature of 73.4°F (23°C). In addition, this HDB
procedure in accordance with the requirements of shall be substantiated by showing that extrapolation of
the US Department of Transportation Pipeline the stress regression curve is linear to the 438,000 hour
Safety Regulations (CFR) Title 49, Part 192, intercept in accordance with ASTM D2837.
When any plastic material is used for transportation of liquefied
“Transportation of Natural or Other Gases by petroleum gas (LPG), it must qualify for use through testing with
Pipeline: Minimum Federal Safety Standards”. LPG as the test medium, and have a hydrostatic design basis
E. The ability to provide sound technical support for its category of at least 1,000-psi (6.9 MPa) at 73.4°F (23°C), as
products. determined by ASTM D2837. Materials that qualify for natural
gas service and that carry a recommended HDB at 140°F in
accordance with ASTM D2513 also qualify for LPG service
The user should ensure that, in addition to clearly without the need for further testing.
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
defined material purchase specifications; the

manufacturer has also established procedures for both Clean rework material of the same type and grade,
qualification testing and acceptance testing of PE pipe, generated from the manufacturer’s own pipe and fitting
tubing and fittings, and certification requirements for the production, may be used by the same manufacturer as
materials purchased for use in their systems. long as the pipe, tubing or fitting produced meet all the
The following model specification is furnished to requirements of ASTM D2513.
assist the user of polyethylene gas pipe in the
procurement of materials meeting the minimum federal
standards as well as some additional recommended
120
Pipe and Tubing will not provide leakage channels when approved
elastomeric gasket compression fittings are used to make
Pipe and Tubing furnished under this specification joints.
shall be manufactured using compounds complying with Fusion fittings shall be marked on the body or hub.
the requirements of Section II, above, and all appropriate Marking shall be in accordance with ASTM D2513 or
requirements of Part 192 of the Minimum Federal Safety the standard to which the fitting is manufactured.
Standards. Dimensional characteristics (including outside Mechanical fittings shall be marked in accordance with
diameter, wall thickness, toe-in, ovality and length) and the fitting standard to which it is manufactured or Part
performance characteristics (including chemical 192 of the Minimum Federal Safety Standard Section
resistance, sustained pressure, elevated temperature 192.63.
service, burst pressure/apparent tensile strength, joining,
squeeze-off and outdoor storage stability) shall conform Workmanship
to the requirements of ASTM D2513 including
applicable annexes. Pipe and Tubing may be supplied in Pipe, tubing and fittings shall be homogeneous
either coils or straight lengths. throughout and free of visible cracks, holes, foreign
inclusions, blisters, dents, or other injurious defects. The
pipe, tubing, and fittings shall be as uniform as
Fittings commercially practicable in color, opacity, density, and
Polyethylene fittings furnished under this other physical properties.
specification shall be manufactured using compounds
complying with the requirements of Section II, above Quality Control
and all appropriate requirements of Part 192 of the Quality Control shall be in accordance with the
Minimum Federal Safety Standards. Socket type fittings requirements given in ASTM D2513 including
shall comply with ASTM D2683. Butt fusion fittings applicable annexes.
shall comply with ASTM D3261. Electrofusion fittings
shall comply with ASTM F1055. Plastic mechanical Fusion Qualification
fittings shall comply with ASTM F1924. Mechanical
fittings produced from metallic or materials other than The manufacturer of pipe, tubing and or fittings
plastics listed in Section II shall be approved only after supplied under this specification shall establish and
submission of appropriate test data and service histories certify heat fusion procedures for the joining of the
indicating their acceptability for the intended service. In materials supplied in accordance with the applicable
addition, all mechanical fittings shall be categorized for section of (CFR) Title 49, Part 192 “Transportation of
pullout resistance as stated in ASTM D2513 and Natural and or Other Gases by Pipeline: Minimum
identified as to the appropriate category. Plastic valves Federal Safety Standards” paragraph 192.283. Qualified
shall meet the requirements of ANSI Standard B16.40. In fusion procedures, with appropriate supporting data,
all cases, the specifications and requirements for the shall be furnished to the purchaser upon request. Suitable
fittings supplied shall comply with the appropriate generic fusion procedures are included in PPI TR-33,
sections of Part 192 of the Minimum Federal Safety Generic Butt Fusion Joining Procedure for Polyethylene
Standards or NFPA 58 LP Gas Code. (PE) Gas Pipe.
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Marking
Resolution of Conflicts
Pipe and tubing shall be marked in accordance with
ASTM D2513. Marking shall be legible and shall remain The use of ASTM standard specification references
legible under normal handling and installation practices. without a year designation implies the most current
Indent marking may be utilized provided (1) the marking applicable specification. In the event this specification
does not reduce the wall thickness to less than the conflicts with the specification referenced in (CFR) Title
minimum value for the pipe or tubing, (2) it has been 49, Part 192, the requirements of (CSR) Title 49, Part
demonstrated that these marks have no effect on the long 192 shall prevail.
term strength of the pipe or tubing and (3) the marking
121
APPENDIX E PLASTIC FAILURE REPORT
APPENDIX E
PLASTIC FAILURE REPORT
PPDC DATA COLLECTION INITIATIVE
MATERIALS FAILURE ANALYSIS

SECTION SECTION
PLASTIC PIPE OR FITTING FAILURE
1 IDENTIFICATION (Check one for Type of Material) 7a LOCATION
TYPE OF MATERIAL OTHER SPECIFICATIONS: PIPE
ABS MANUFACTURER: FITTING (Complete 7b)
CAB JOINT (Complete 7c)
HDPE - 3306 PRINT FAILURE IN
HDPE - 3406 LINE: 7b FITTING (Check as applies)
HDPE - 3408 TRANSITION
MDPE - 2306 (Circle one and enter value below) VALVE (PLASTIC)
MDPE - 2406 SDR, DR, SCHEDULE or METER RISER
PB WALL THICKNESS: MECHANICAL FITTING
PVC HEAT FUSION FITTING
OTHER(Describe): NOMINAL ELECTROFUSION FITTING
SIZE: OTHER(Describe):
2 DATE OF
MANUFACTURE FAILURE IN
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
7c JOINT (Check as applies)
INSTALLATION AND OPERATIONS MECHANICAL
SECTION ELECTROFUSION
METHOD OF TYPE of SOIL IN BUTT FUSION
3 INSTALLATION (Check One) CONTACT W/ PIPE SOCKET FUSION
OPEN TRENCH 4 (Check One) SADDLE FUSION
BORED SAND SOLVENT
PLOWED IN LOAM OTHER(Describe):
INSERTION CLAY
JOINT TRENCH ROCKY
PLANTED SLURRY FAILURE
UNKNOWN OTHER(Describe): 8 CAUSE (Check all that apply)
OTHER(Describe): SQUEEZE OFF
POINT LOADING
EXCESSIVE EXPANSION
OPERATING /CONTRACTION
5 PRESSURE EXCESS EXTERNAL
A. AT TIME OF FAILURE: EARTH LOADING
psig INSTALLATION ERROR
B. NORMAL RANGE (IF KNOWN) PREVIOUS IMPACT
psig UNKNOWN
OTHER(Describe):
DATE OF
6 INSTALLATION
(mo/day/yr) DATE OF
9 FAILURE
(mo/day/yr)
NOTICE OF FORM SUBMITTAL:

This form should be submitted even if not all data elements
are available.
CONTACT NAME PHONE NUMBER
122
DOT PLASTIC PIPE DATA-SHARING INITIATIVE

Data to Be Collected
(As tentatively determined by the GICT)
1) Plastic pipe or fitting material identification of installation is not known factually, the investigator
may record an educated guess if that guess is supported
This is the plastic material that the pipe or fitting is made by additional written assumptions.
from. Typical materials are Polyethylene (PE), Poly
(Vinyl Chloride) (PVC), or Polyamide (PA). A 2 or 3 a) Open trench
letter designation may be on the print line of the pipe or
This is where a trench is dug, the plastic is installed and
fitting or be available in company records.
the ditch is recovered with backfill according to accepted
a) Type of Material ______ practices.
The letter code indicating the material which the pipe is
b) Bored
made from such as PE, PVC, or PA
The plastic pipe is inserted into a bored hole produced by
b) SDR ______ (or schedule #) some type of drilling equipment according to accepted
practices. This is sometimes referred to as guided boring.
The standard dimension ratio (SDR) or dimensional ratio
(DR) is the pipe OD divided by pipe wall. The schedule
c) Plowed in
number of the pipe is an alternate identifier. These
numbers can be found on the print line or in the case of The plastic pipe is inserted through a chute or guide
DR and SDR, by measuring the wall thickness and behind a tractor or earth moving equipment with a
dividing it into the pipes outside diameter. plowing attachment and the pipe is installed as the plow
moves across the ground.
c) Size ______
d) Insertion
This is usually found on the print line as a number of
inches and a three-letter designation such as IPS (Iron The plastic pipe is installed by pushing or pulling into an
Pipe Size) or, CTS (Copper Tubing Size). This may be existing pipe that is usually metal.
marked on company records as well.
e) Joint or “Common” trench
d) Wall Thickness ____________
The plastic pipe is installed into the same trench as other
This is the measurement in inches between the inside utilities such as sewer, water, electricity and telephone.
wall and outside wall of the plastic pipe. It may be found
on the print line or can be measured using a caliper. f) Planted
The plastic pipe is on a reel that is a part of the trenching
e) Print line (if available) _________ equipment and is fed into the ground as the equipment
The printed line of information on the pipe OD moves along the ground. There is a reduced tensile stress
on the pipe as opposed to plowing.
that contains all the pertinent information
which relates to the traceability of the pipe. g) Unknown
Only use unknown when there are no records or other
2) Date of Manufacture indications of installation method. It is important to
identify the installation method where possible.
This is the date the pipe was manufactured. This is
typically found on the print line and may be coded. For h) Other
assistance in reading the code contact the Manufacturer
if they are still in business. Installation was done by a method not listed here and the
method of installation is known. Please note the method
on the blank line of the form.
3) Method of Installation
This is the method that was used to install the plastic

pipe into the ground. Different methods of installation
place different stresses on the plastic pipe. If the method
123
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

4) Type of soil in contact with pipe b) Point loading (e.g. rock impingement, tree
roots)
This is to determine the kind of soil that was in contact
with the plastic pipe. Was there evidence of a foreign object (e.g. rock, tree
root, etc.) pushing or rubbing against the pipe?
a) Sand
c) Excessive expansion/contraction (e.g. fitting
A sedimentary material, finer than a granule and courser
pull out)
than silt, with grains between 0.06 and 2.0 millimeters in
diameter. This will be uncovered upon leak repair. Examination of
the pipe and coupling will determine if the fault was due
b) Loam to poor installation or third party damage. If the failure is
ductile and in the pipe rather than the joint, the failure is
Soil that has no or few rocks or pebbles but has some
probably third party damage caused by a backhoe snag or
peat or peat like parts in the soil.
the like. If the plastic pipe has pulled out and shows
signs of scraping where it was inserted into the coupling,
c) Clay
the failure is likely to be poor installation especially if
Very fine soil that becomes slimy or plastic when mixed the coupling is a pullout-proof type. If the failure is slow
with water and compacts tightly and is hard to remove crack growth adjacent to the fitting, this could be due to
from the ditch and from your boots. fatigue or excessive bending caused by point loading at
the joint and/or a failure to properly sleeve or obtain
d) Rocky support through backfilling.
Are the rocks mostly smooth and rounded, such as at the d) Excessive external earth loading (e.g. due to
beach or in rivers, or are they sharp and angular such as
shallow depth, bending, subsidence)
those caused by excavation and/or blasting?
Examination of the failed section of pipe will reveal if
e) Slurry the pipe was excessively bent, kinked or mishandled. If
the failure is the slow crack brittle type, it will occur at
A mixture of water and clay or other soil materials. the area of maximum stress. If this is where a protective
sleeve should have been installed, or where a moving
f) Other _______ load was being applied such as a driveway and the pipe
None of the above, please describe. was installed shallow or poorly backfilled then the cause
is clear. Examination of the leak and the area of the leak
should provide the answer. This type of failure usually
5) Operating Pressure
occurs because of bending and stress loading where a
a) At time of failure or discovery pipe (more flexible) enters a fitting such as a socket
fusion fitting (less flexible).
The pressure at which the line was operating when the
failure occurred or was discovered.
e) Installation Error
b) Normal Range (If known) Leakage was caused by failure to follow proper
installation procedures or operating instructions.
The operating pressure range over a full year.
f) Unknown
6) Date of Installation
The sample was destroyed or an unusual event occurred
The date (typically found in Company Records) when so that the failure cause will never be able to be
the pipe was installed. determined.
7) Apparent cause of failure g) Other ________ (e.g. static electricity,

electrostatic discharge, pin holing, overpressure)
What caused the failure of the plastic pipe?
Did your examination reveal another cause of failure?
Please list it here.
a) Squeeze off
Is there an indication that the failure occurred at a current
or previously squeezed off location?
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`--- 124
8) Type of failure fusion joints, but would include failures in the bodies or
seams of molded of extruded body electrofusion fittings.
Where did the failure happen? This would not apply to failures in the joints between the
fittings and pipe.
a) Pipe failure
c) Joint failure
The failure was in the plastic pipe.
The failure was at the joint between the pipe and the
b) Fitting fitting.
The failure was in the fitting, not at the joint between the
i) Mechanical
pipe and the fitting.
The failure was at a mechanical joint. This would include
i) Transition (e.g. plastic-steel) all types as described above in section b) iv.
The failure was at a plastic-to–steel transition fitting.
ii) Electrofusion
This includes both mechanical pullout-proof metal and
plastic couplings and factory produced weld-in and fuse- The failure was at the electrofusion joint. This would
in transition fittings. include couplers, eels, tees, saddle tees, branch saddles,
and patching saddles.
ii) Valve (plastic)
iii) Butt fusion
The failure was at a plastic valve - either fusion or
mechanically joined types. The failure occurred at a hot plate fused butt fusion joint.
iii) Meter riser iv) Socket fusion

There are two basic types of meter risers: the first is the The failure occurred at a hot plate fused socket fusion
anodeless riser in which the plastic is the gas carrier up joint.
inside the steel riser casing to a point above grade: the
second is the all steel riser in which the plastic is fitted to v) Saddle fusion
a steel compression fitting, below ground, at the end of
the horizontal leg of the riser. Almost all risers installed The failure occurred on a hot plate fused saddle fusion
today are the “anodeless” type. joint. This would not include either electrofusion saddles
or mechanical saddles.
iv) Mechanical fitting
vi) Other __________
The failure occurred within the body of a mechanical
fitting. This includes stab type, screw on, bolt on, and The failure was at a joint not listed, please provide
mechanical tapping tees made of metal and plastic. This details here.
will include both pullout-proof and seal only types but
does not include plastic-to-steel couplings, they are 9) Date of Failure
considered transition fittings. This would only apply to The date the failure occurred or was discovered.
failures in the bodies of mechanical fittings and not
failures in the joints between the fittings and pipe.
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
v) Conventional or “Hot Plate” Fusion fitting
The failure occurred in a hot plate fusion fitting. This
would include conventional plastic fusion fittings such as
socket fusion couplings, ells and tees and saddle fusion
tees. This would not include butt fusion joints but would
include failures in the mold seams of molded plastic
fittings. This would only apply to failures in the bodies
of fusion fittings and not failures in the joints between
the fittings and pipe.
vi) Electrofusion Fittings

The failure occurred in an electrofusion fitting. This
would include electrofusion saddles, patching saddles
and couplings, ells, and tees. This would not include butt
125
APPENDIX F FUSION MACHINE QUALITY ASSURANCE CHECKLIST
APPENDIX F
FUSION MACHINE QUALITY ASSURANCE CHECKLIST
Machine
All Machines
Machine is clean
All pins and snap rings are in place
All nuts and bolts are tight
All placards and handles are in place
All clamp knob bearings are lubricated and turn freely
Guide rods are not damaged
Clamping jaws and inserts grooves are clean and aligned
Inserts fit and pin properly
Hydraulic Machines
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Cords and plugs are in good condition
Oil reservoir is filled to the proper level
Machine is free of hydraulic leaks
Hydraulic gauges read correctly
Brake function properly
Tire pressure is correct
Facer pivot operates properly
Primary pump pressure can be adjusted above fusion pressure
Input voltage to the machine is in the proper range
Manifold block assembly operates properly
Manual Machines
Movable jaw is lubricated and moves freely

Locking cam works properly
Lever handles are with the machine
126
APPENDIX F FUSION MACHINE QUALITY ASSURANCE CHECKLIST
Facer
Facer operates smoothly

Face-off is square
Check for play in the blade holder
Blades are in good condition
Latch handle locks onto guide rod freely
Facer moves on guide rod without excessive force
Facer is clean and free of grease on blade holder surface
Facer does not wobble when trapped between jaws
Heater

Heater surface is clean and in good condition
Thermometer is in good working order
Surface temperature checked with pyrometer
Check receptacles for damage
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
127
APPENDIX G NEW PLASTIC MATERIAL/PRODUCT EVALUATION CHECKLIST
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
APPENDIX G
NEW PLASTIC MATERIAL/PRODUCT EVALUATION CHECKLIST

By: AGA Plastic Materials Committee
A) INTRODUCTION
The following items may be considered when evaluating new products. The intent of this list is to assist
utility companies in the evaluation of new products for plastic pipeline systems. There may be issues listed
which do not apply to every new product evaluation and/or there may be additional considerations which
have not been listed here. Some manufacturer information is intended to be kept confidential by the user.
Product Name:_____________________________________ Date Evaluation Initiated:_________________________
Short Description of Intended Use: _______________________________________________________________________
Manufacturer: _______________________________________________________________________________________
B) GENERAL
1) What are the benefits of using this product? ________________________________________________________
2) Why should a utility consider using it? _____________________________________________________________
3) Are there any restrictions for use?_________________________________________________________________
4) Are there similar products that this item may be compared to? __________________________________________
5) Is drawing or catalog information available? ________________________________________________________
6) What are the inventory/delivery/shipping/packaging requirements? ______________________________________
7) Does your utility company have an approval process for this type of product? ______________________________
8) Are there any risks associated with the use of this product? _____________________________________________
9) Are subcontractors required for use or installation? ___________________________________________________
10) Has utility company contacted other users for their feedback? ___________________________________________
11) Are there separate tracking requirements? (e.g. Marking excess flow valves on maps so they can
be found later) ________________________________________________________________________________
C) MATERIAL
1) What are the materials of construction, including actual material specifications? (e.g. PE, Rilsan)_______________
2) If materials new to the gas distribution industry are used, what are the limitations of these new
materials? ___________________________________________________________________________________
Considering new plastic materials, what are their shortcomings compared to other plastics?
Describe characteristics of toughness and chemical resistance. (slow crack growth; brittle fracture
mode at low temperatures; high/low pH soil environments effect)
3) By whom, how, and where is the plastic material manufactured? _________________________________________
128
4) Are there other sources of material supply from other manufacturers? ____________________________________
5) Are there any material compatibility issues? (e.g., with existing sub-components, material, or
components) _________________________________________________________________________________
6) What is the availability of spare parts? _____________________________________________________________

7) What percentage of material: _____ used, ______virgin, _________ rework (regrind)
_____________________________ Other?______
8) List any UV inhibitors. _________________________________________________________________________
9) What is the exposed and unexposed shelf life? _______________________________________________________
D) SPECIFICATIONS
1) What code specifications are applicable? (e.g. ASTM - plastic material) __________________________________
a. Does the product comply with all specs listed above?
b. Will the vendor supply a certificate of compliance?
c. If plastic materials, what is the “cell classification”?
d. What are the recognized qualification test methods associated with the product?
e. Will the vendor supply actual test data demonstrating compliance?
f. Does the product have Third Party Certification (e.g., testing by an independent company)?
g. Will the vendor supply third party testing results for compliance?
2) Are there any special safety or environmental issues to be considered? (use/installation) _____________________
3) What is the effect of ambient conditions on the product? _______________________________________________
4) Has your utility installed this in actual conditions to determine the environmental effects on the
product? (ground conditions, temperatures, etc.) _____________________________________________________
5) What is the predicted usage life of the product? ______________________________________________________

6) What is the basis for the lifetime prediction? ________________________________________________________
7) What MSDSs are applicable? (including any solvents) ________________________________________________
E) DESIGN - GENERAL
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
1) Are there any corrosion issues? (coatings, connections, etc) ____________________________________________

2) List pressure ratings available. ___________________________________________________________________
3) Are installation procedures compatible with existing materials? _________________________________________
4) Does the new product’s specs comply with current system? (sizes, tolerance, etc) ___________________________
5) Can the vendor provide a technical data package? ____________________________________________________
6) Will the manufacturer notify you of changes (design or material that affect form, fit or function)
prior to implementation? ________________________________________________________________________
7) Has the design changed over the years? ____________________________________________________________
a. How many times? _________ Why?
b. What is the model/part number of this new generation product?
c. How does the new part differentiate from the old part?
8) Other: ______________________________________________________________________________________
129
F) DESIGN – SPECIFIC
1) Valves
a. Type & Description:
b. Describe sealing mechanism (e.g. primary & secondary).
c. How is valve actuated?_
d. Number of turns:
2) Fitting - tee, ell, wyes
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
a. Is that fitting sized to match the piping size and wall thickness being used?
b. How are sizes on the fitting labeled and insert stiffeners (if required) matched?
3) Mechanical couplings or other in-line connectors
a. Are insert stiffeners (inserted into the ends of the pipe for support) used?
b. Is the stiffener positioned to support the pipe in the area(s) of grip (restraint) and seal?
c. What is the pull out resistance?
d. Describe the limitations of the seal.
4) Flange Adapters
a. What is the restraint?
b. Is a metal backup flange required? (e.g. flanged PE pipe) Yes No
c. Special gasket required? Yes No , Yes, Type:
5) Bell and Spigot Joints
a. Is an insert stiffener recommended/required?
b. How is pull out restraint provided?
6) Factory Assembled Transition Fittings
a. Describe available end connections.
b. How is pull out restraint provided?
c. Are there special joining considerations? (thread, weld, fusion)
7) Branch Tapping Connections
a. List special tooling.
b. List available main/branch sizes and the size of the opening.
8) Wrap Around Repair Sleeves for Localized Pipe Damage
a. What is the clamp length?
b. Is the clamp length at least 1-1/2 to 2 times the nominal pipe diameter?
c. What are the cleaning requirements?
d. Are there any special tools required?
9) Electrofusion Fittings
a. Can this fitting be used with a universal processor? Yes No
b. Is there a special processor for fusing? Yes No
c. What other fusing systems is the fitting compatible with?
d. What are the available sizes?
e. What are the available fittings and configurations?
f. Describe scraping requirements:
g. Describe required main/fitting cleaning processes:
h. Is manual fusion data entry able to be made? Yes No If yes, how, describe: ______________________
G) TESTING - QUALIFICATION
1) What are the installation testing and service requirements? _____________________________________________
2) What qualification testing was done? to which specs? available results? ___________________________________
3) Have there been field tests?______________________________________________________________________
a. Feedback:
130
4) Results:
a. Does the vendor offer free samples for testing and evaluation?_______________________________________
b. If additional pieces are added to the product (e.g., pup pieces), is any other testing required?
c. What is the compatibility with other materials or products training/standards, etc.?_______________________
d. Is the vendor willing to enter in to a field test program with shared costs? ______________________________
H) TRAINING - INSTALLATION
1) What training is needed for use? __________________________________________________________________
2) Does the vendor offer training classes and/or training materials (e.g., manuals, videos, etc.)? Is
there a charge for this service and/or materials? ______________________________________________________
3) Are installation procedures similar to other industry products? Which? ___________________________________
4) Does manufacturer have recommended installation procedures? _________________________________________
5) How do installation procedures differ from other current industry practices? _______________________________
6) Are there any installation limitations? (e.g., special backfill, sleeve on outlet of tap tee, support
requirements) ________________________________________________________________________________
7) Are there any special tools or equipment required for installation? _______________________________________
a. What is the cost of this equipment?
b. If torque wrench, what are the torque values?
c. What is the useful life of tooling under field conditions?
8) What maintenance is required? Time and material cost per activity and frequency?__________________________
9) Does the vendor supply a maintenance manual on request? Free?________________________________________
10) What is the impact on company procedure? _________________________________________________________
11) Are there additional reporting requirements? (e.g., CP, EFV, key valves, reports) ___________________________
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
I) COSTS - SAVINGS
1) What are the anticipated maintenance costs with product? ______________________________________________
2) What are the installation and administrative costs?____________________________________________________
3) Has utility company determined cost effectiveness on an installed basis? __________________________________
4) List any cost savings/benefits. (e.g., lower material price, increased competition, reduced
inventory, reduced man-hours for installation/use)____________________________________________________
5) What are maintenance costs? (and compare to current practice) _________________________________________

6) What is the estimated cost of the training? (e.g., manhours, materials, instructor hours, etc.) __________________
7) List any product storage, purchase, installation, maintenance, and usage differences from today’s
practice? ____________________________________________________________________________________
131
J) VENDOR INFORMATION (Including Suppliers & Manufacturers)

1) Company Name_______________________________________________________________________________
2) Contact _____________________________________________________________________________________
3) Address _____________________________________________________________________________________
4) Phone Number __________________________ Closest Shipping Point to Customer: ___________________
5) Location of Manufacturer/Vendor (Country, State):___________________________________________________
6) ISO certified? Yes No, Designation 9001 9002 Other _______________________________
7) Is the vendor active in industry organizations? Which?________________________________________________
8) Is online support available? Yes No, If Yes, where: ____________________________________________
9) Does the company selling the product actually manufacture and support this product?________________________
10) What is the history of the manufacturing company in sales and service to the gas distribution
industry? ____________________________________________________________________________________
11) Does the vendor have history of use for this product? Users list? ________________________________________
12) Have other utilities accepted this product? May we ask who?___________________________________________
13) Vendor offers tractability (traceability)? ____________________________________________________________
14) What after-market support and vendor representation is available? _______________________________________
15) Discuss warranties and insurance issues (e.g., certificate of liability and insurability). ________________________
16) Is a manufacturer visit appropriate? ______ Has a utility company person visited the
manufacturer? _______________________
17) Does manufacturer have knowledge of past performance issues with this product? Yes No
18) Describe the evaluation of their quality control program._______________________________________________
19) Describe this manufacturer’s past track record. ______________________________________________________
20) Is the vendor willing to discuss problems it has had with this product at other companies? ____________________
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
132
APPENDIX H USE OF REWORK MATERIALS IN MANUFACTURING POLYETHYLENE GAS PIPE
APPENDIX H
Requirements for the Use of

Rework Materials in Manufacturing of
Polyethylene Gas Pipe
TN-30/2006
Used by permission of the Copyright holder – The Plastics Pipe Institute.

--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
133
FOREWORD
This technical note was developed and published with the technical help and financial support
of the members of the PPI (Plastics Pipe Institute, Inc.). The members have shown their
interest in quality products by assisting independent standards-making and user organizations
in the development of standards, and also by developing reports on an industry-wide basis to
help engineers, code officials, specifying groups, and users.
This note has been prepared by PPI as a service of the industry. The information in this note is
offered in good faith and believed to be accurate at the time of its preparation, but is offered
without any warranty, expressed or implied, including WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY
AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. Any reference to or testing of a particular
proprietary product shall not be construed as an endorsement by PPI, which does not endorse
the proprietary products or processes of any manufacturer. Industry members offer the
information in this note for consideration in fulfilling their own compliance responsibilities. PPI
assumes no responsibility for compliance with applicable laws and regulations.
PPI intends to revise this note from time to time, in response to comments and suggestions
from users of the note. Please send suggestions of improvements to the address below.
Information on other publications can be obtained by contacting PPI directly or visiting the
web site.
The Plastics Pipe Institute

202-462-9607
www.plasticpipe.org
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
134
January 2006
TN-30
Requirements for the use of Rework Materials in

Polyethylene Gas Pipe
Scope and Purpose
This technical note offers guidance and requirements for polyethylene gas pipe manufacturers
and provides criteria for evaluation of manufacturers by purchasers of polyethylene gas pipe,
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
with respect to the use of rework of polyethylene materials in the manufacture of ASTM D2513
polyethylene gas pipe. These requirements address the cleanliness of rework polyethylene
materials used in the manufacture of ASTM D 2513 polyethylene gas pipe to ensure that the
use of rework does not compromise pipe quality. The user should consult Title 49CFR Part
192 for the current referenced edition of ASTM D2513.
Introduction
The requirements in this technical note are designed to ensure the responsible use of rework
materials and to ensure compliance with ASTM D 2513. In general, the requirements contained
in this document reflect good rework inventory controls, good housekeeping, good
manufacturing practices and good record keeping procedures. This technical note addresses
only the extrusion process for pipe or tubing from polyethylene materials that are identified in
ASTM D 2513, Annex A1. It does not address rework for other piping materials that are
identified in ASTM D 2513.
These requirements shall be used to determine if polyethylene gas pipe is produced in facilities
that have appropriate procedures for controlling the use of rework materials. A manufacturer
shall be evaluated with respect to whether they comply with the rework material requirements
of this technical note, ASTM D 2513, product quality, and customer expectations.
What is Rework?
In meeting ASTM D 2513 requirements, rework, sometimes called regrind, shall have specific
characteristics:
• Rework shall be clean
A documentation system shall exist governing the use of rework materials. At a

minimum, the documentation system shall include written procedures and instructions
for the responsible use of rework in a manufacturer’s production process. Rework
processes and procedures shall be designed to maintain virgin material cleanliness,
avoid introducing contamination, and remove inadvertently
introduced contamination. Contaminated rework materials that cannot be
adequately cleaned shall not be used as rework in the manufacture of
polyethylene gas pipe.
135
• Rework shall be equal to or better than the material designation of the virgin
material
For polyethylene materials ASTM D 2513 Annex A1 specifies polyethylene materials by

material designation as specified by ASTM D 3350. Rework processes and procedures,
shall ensure that the source of rework material is from material with the same or higher
PPI listed Hydrostatic Design Basis (HDB) at both 73°F and the highest rated
temperature, usually 140°F, as the virgin material (e.g. PE4710 can be used in PE4708,
but PE4708 cannot be used in PE47 10).
• Rework shall be generated in the manufacturer’s own production
Rework materials must originate in the manufacturer’s own production facilities. A

manufacturer may transfer rework among its own facilities provided it is managed in
accordance with these requirements and is properly labeled and documented.
Materials from other outside sources are prohibited.
S o u r c e s o f r ew o r k
During the manufacturing process, there are several circumstances that result in the
generation of product that is not directly saleable but it is otherwise material that is suitable
for use as rework. Examples include:
• Startup
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
• Samples for quality control and quality assurance
• Production changeovers
• Service interruptions
• Unintentional errors and damaged goods
T h e R ew o r k P r o c e s s
The rework procedure shall be designed to assure that contamination is not introduced during
the generation of rework material. For example, rework materials must be moved from production,
to initial size reduction, to final size reduction to grinding and storage and then to the extruder.
In-process rework material may need to be temporarily stored several times during the process.
Contamination can be avoided by keeping in-process
rework materials in clean, closed containers, by storage in specially designated areas, and by
processing rework material in clean, well maintained equipment.
Good housekeeping and cleanliness in production, rework handling and storage facilities helps
maintain the initial cleanliness of rework pipe.
136
Key elements of the rework process are maintaining correct material identification,
preventing contamination, and proper handling and storage. Once the material designation is
identified, that identification must be maintained as the rework material moves through the
rework process.
Pipe Identification
According to the requirements of ASTM D 2513, pipe acceptable as rework must be

generated in the manufacturer’s own pipe and fittings production, so its origin can be traced
to records that provide the material designation of the rework pipe.
Rework identification and tracking may take various forms appropriate for the manufacturer’s
production process. Identification by color alone may not be sufficient and supplemental
labeling may be required on the pipe intended for rework.
Pipe Storage
Pipe to be used as rework shall be stored in a segregated area and clearly marked that the
material is intended for use as rework in the manufacture of PE gas pipe. Non-black
polyethylene pipe stored outdoors for over two years from date of manufacture is not suitable
for use as a rework.
Cleaning Pipe Prior to Grinding
Soiled or otherwise contaminated rework pipe shall be cleaned before processing

through the size reduction equipment. Rework pipe that cannot be cleaned is not
acceptable as rework material for use in polyethylene gas pipe.
Cleaning must remove dirt, mud, water, stones, chips and shavings and other contamination
from the interior and the exterior of each piece of rework pipe. Depending on the type of
contamination, cleaning procedures may range from cleaning with clean cloths to washing.
Rework materials must be dry before processing through the size reduction equipment.
A written set of procedures and instructions for cleaning of pipe intended for rework are required.
Grinding of Pipe and Fittings for use as Rework
Initially, rework materials are mostly in the form of pipe. But for use in production, rework pipe
must be reduced to chips that can be fed into the extruder. Typically, this is a two-stage
process. Depending on the pipe size and configuration, coils or straight lengths of rework pipe
must initially be reduced to a size or length that can be fed into various pieces of equipment that
reduce rework pipe sections to chips of a manageable size.
Initial size reduction equipment typically includes various types of saws or mechanical splitters
that are used to cut coils or pipes into sections, which can be fed into grinding equipment. Final
size reduction typically uses grinding equipment where rotating blades chop the pipe sections
into chips.
Initial size-reduction equipment such as hand and powered saws will generate chips and
shavings. This equipment and the area around the equipment shall be kept clean, both for
safety and to prevent contamination. After use, initial size reduction equipment, including
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
137
handsaws, rotary saws, band saws and chainsaws shall be cleaned, and all chips and shavings
discarded as waste. Packaging materials such as plastic and steel strapping, strapping buckles
and seals, plastic wrap, pipe end caps, cardboard, and the like must be removed from rework
pipe and discarded. Care must be taken to ensure that packaging materials do not enter size
reduction equipment.
In the event that grinding and conveying equipment is not specifically dedicated to a unique
material (based on the material designation), written procedures and instructions for cleaning of
the grinding and conveying equipment are required to assure that cross contamination of
dissimilar materials does not occur.
Dust separators shall be used in the material delivery system to reduce any fine particles and/or
dust from the rework stream.
Storage of Rework
In order to prevent entry of foreign materials, ground rework material shall be stored in silos or
covered containers dedicated to gas pipe rework use. Gaylord boxes shall be fitted with
plastic bag liners. Plastic bag liners shall be deep enough to fold and close over the contents.
The liners shall not be reused for dissimilar materials. The rework container shall be clearly
labeled with traceability information as determined by the manufacturer.
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Documentation
Documentation of Rework Procedures
The manufacturer shall have written procedures for its entire rework process, capable of
demonstrating compliance with this document. The manufacturer shall be able to demonstrate
that appropriate operators within a facility are trained in the proper procedures and be able to
demonstrate compliance.
Production Records
ASTM D 2513 requires maintenance of permanent records that will enable the manufacturer to
identify the location of manufacture, pipe production and resin lots, and any additional
information which is agreed upon by the manufacturer and purchaser. This documentation
shall also include identification of the material designation and maximum percentage of
rework, if any, traceable to the print line.
Extrusion of Pipe Utilizing Rework
Amount
For the production of pipe used for natural gas distribution applications, the maximum rework
percentage levels shall be no more than 30%.
138
Removing Contamination During Extrusion.
Removal of ferrous particles
Magnets shall be used near the base of the material hopper. The purpose of the magnets is to
attract potential ferrous contaminants and remove them from the material stream.
Filter the melt before it enters the pipe die.
The extruder shall be equipped with a melt filtering system capable of filtering out particles of a
nominal size equal to or greater than 10% of the minimum wall thickness of the pipe. In no case
shall the melt filtering system be designed to allow particles larger than 0.017 inches.
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
139
INDEX AGA PLASTIC PIPE MANUAL FOR GAS SERVICE
INDEX
Page numbers followed by an f or t indicate figures and tables.
A Brittle failure, 27, 28

Burst strength, 108
Abbreviations, list of, 113–114 Burst, quick
ABS. See Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene definition of, 112
Absorption, of chemicals, 25–26 test of, 53–54, 53f, 108
Acceptance plan, 50f Butane, 108
Acceptance testing, 49, 52–57, 108 Butt fusion joining, 64–66, 65f, 107
Acetone test, 108 Butt fusion machine, hydraulic, 64f
Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS), 3, 108 Butt/saddle fusion machine, hydraulic, 63f
Adapters Butylene plastics, 108
flange, 76
service head, 79 C
Additives
examples of, 1 CAB. See Cellulose acetate butyrate
functions of, 1, 27 Cellulose acetate butyrate (CAB), 3, 108–109
Adhesive, 108 Certification, manufacturer, 51f, 57–58
Adhesive failure, 109 Chemical absorption, 25–26
Adhesive joints, 71–72, 92 Chemical aging, 27
AGA. See American Gas Association Chemical resistance, 25–26, 100, 103, 109
Aging Clamps, full encirclement type band, 101
chemical, 27 Classification
definition of, 108 of poly vinyl chloride, 11–12
of PVC, 11 of polyamide, 9
resistance to, 27 of polyethylene, 6, 10t
Aliphatic hydrocarbon, 108 Coil(s)
Allowable operating pressure, maximum, 19, 110 shipment of, 59
Allowable working stress, 108 standards for, 45
American Gas Association (AGA), 115 Coiling, 2
American Society for Testing and Materials. See Cold flow, 109. See also Creep
ASTM Color, standards for, 45
Amorphous substance, 108 Compatible components, 109
Anodeless risers, 79, 79f, 107 Compliance, Declaration of, 49
ANS preferred number, 108 Compressive strength, 109
Antioxidant, 108 Condensates
Aromatic hydrocarbon, 108 hydrocarbon, 1
Arrhenius plot, 21, 22f pipeline, 111
ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials) Connections
standards of, 1–6–107, 44–48 main, 77–78
tests of, 48, 103–106 service, 77
Constant tensile load joint test (CTLJT), 105–106
B Contraction, thermal, 81–82, 87
Corrosion resistance, 1
Backfilling, 82 Cost, of plastic piping, 2
Band clamps, full encirclement type, 101 Couplings, electrofusion, 70
Beam loading, 108 Cracks
Bend back test, 53, 53f environmental stress, 1, 26, 105, 109
Bend(s), 81 rapid propagation, 27
Binder, 108 slow growth, 24, 56, 105
Branches, 81 stress, 113
140
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

Creep Elastomer, 109

and performance of materials, 17, 18f Electrofusion joints, 69–70, 71f
definition of, 109 cooling of, 93
effective, 17 couplings, 70
in failure, 104 saddles, 71
tests for, 17, 105–106 Elevated temperature sustained pressure test, 56, 56f
Creep rupture, 17 EMC. See Extrapolation Methods Committee
Crystallinity, 109 Emergency isolation, 97
CTLJT. See Constant tensile load joint test Engineering design, 30–43
Cutting, 60 Engineering properties, of plastics, 15–23
Environmental stress cracking (ESC), 26
D agents of, 1, 26
definition of, 109
Damage prevention, 95 Environmental stress cracking resistance (ESCR), 26
Data collection, on failure, 95–96 test method for, 105
Declaration of Compliance, 49 Epoxy resins, 109
Deflection temperature, 109 reinforced, 4t, 12–13
Degradation, 109 ESC. See Environmental stress cracking
Density ESCR. See Environmental stress cracking resistance
and polyethylene properties, 6 Evaluation, of performance of materials, 13–14, 14t
definition of, 109 Excess flow valve (EFV), 80–81, 81f, 101, 107
test method for, 55, 55f Expansion, thermal, 81–82, 87
Department of Transportation (DOT) regulations, 32, Exposure, to liquid hydrocarbons, 26, 26t
33t External loading, 27
Design factor, 35, 109 Extrapolation Methods Committee (EMC), 22
Design pressure Extrusion, 109
calculation of, 32–34
definition of, 109 F
Design, considerations in, 30–43
Dielectric constant, 109 Failure
Dielectric strength, 109 adhesive, 109
Diffusion, 109 analysis of, 96
Digging, trenchless, 84–85 brittle, 27, 28
Dimension causes of, 94
design requirements for, 39–40 data collection on, 95–96
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
determination of, 52, 52f, 104 ductile, 28

standards for, 45 notification of, 94
Dimension ratio (DR), 37f, 39, 109 poor installation and, 94
standard, 113 report form for, 95
Direct-burial requirements, 85–86 temperature changes and, 82
DOT. See Department of Transportation time to, under constant internal pressure, 103–104
DR. See Dimension ratio Failure pressure, short-time hydraulic, 104
Drip oil, 109 Federal Department of Transportation (DOT)
Ductile failure, 28 regulations, 32, 33t
Ductile-to-slit transition, 21 Fiber stress, 109
Durability Field inspection checklist, 91–92
in performance evaluation, 13–14, 14t Field performance, monitoring of, 57
limitations on, 15 Fittings
ASTM specifications for, 106–107
E dimensions of, 40
long-term strength of, 23
Economy of operation, in performance evaluation, mechanical, 73–75, 73f, 106–107
14t, 15 service, 77
Effective creep, 17 transition, 76–77, 76f, 107
Effective stress relaxation modulus, 17 Flange, 76
Efficiency, in performance evaluation, 14t, 15 Flange adapters, 76
EFV. See Excess flow valve
141
Flexibility, 28 test method for, 105

Flexural strength, 110 Hydrostatic design basis category (HDBC). See
Flow, 41–43, 42t Hydrostatic design basis
fully turbulent, 41, 42, 43f Hydrostatic design stress, 110
partially turbulent, 41, 43f Hydrostatic strength, long-term, 30, 33, 110
test method for, 54–55
Flow limiter (excess flow valve), 80–81, 81f, 101, I
107
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Flow valves, 81f Immersion tests, 26

Friction, soil, 37 Impact resistance
Frictional resistance, 41 and material performance, 28
Full encirclement band clamps, 101 definition of, 110
Fusion. See Heat-fusion test methods for, 54, 105, 110
Injection molding, 110
G Inorganic chemicals, resistance to, 25, 100
Insert service risers, 79, 79f
Gas Piping Technology Committee (GPTC), 115 Insertion, in mains and services, 86–88
Gas Technology Institute (GTI), 115–116 conventional, 88
Glossary, 108–113 live, 88
GPTC. See Gas Piping Technology Committee Inspection, field, 91–92
GTI. See Gas Technology Institute Installation, 59–88
cutting for, 60
H direct-burial requirements in, 85–86
ease of, 2
Handling, before installation, 59
external stresses in, 81
HDB. See Hydrostatic design basis
federal requirements for, 59
HDBC (hydrostatic design basis category). See
guidance on, 106–107
Hydrostatic design basis
in mains and services, 86–88
Heat joining, guidance on, 106, 107
in performance evaluation, 14–15, 14t
Heat-fusion joints, 63–71
joining in, 61–62
cooling of, 93
of bends and branches, 81
specifications for, 107
of valves, 80
types of, 63–71
plowing techniques in, 83–84
with different resins, 71
poor, failure caused by, 95
High-density polyethylene. See Polyethylene
preparing materials for, 59
Hoop stress, 103, 110
thermal expansion/contraction in, 81–82
Hot-plate heat-fusion joints, 64–66
training for, 62
Hydraulic butt fusion machine, 64f
trenching and backfilling in, 82
Hydraulic butt/saddle fusion machine, 63f
trenchless digging in, 84–85
Hydraulic failure pressure, short-time, 104
ISO equation, 110
Hydrocarbon(s)
Isolation, emergency, 97
aliphatic, 108
Izod impact, 110
aromatic, 108
condensates, 1
J
liquid, exposure to, 26, 26t
Hydrogen, permeation rate of, 29 Joining, 61–62
Hydrostatic design basis (HDB), 31f curing and cooling in, 93
calculation of, 19–20, 30 ease of, 2
definition of, 30, 110 equipment for, 62, 63f–66f
in design pressure calculation, 30 field inspection in, 60, 92
in MAOP calculation, 19 guidance on, 40, 106–107
long-term strength and, 19–20, 30 requirements for, 62
of polyethylene, 33–34, 36t techniques for, 61, 62t, 63–74
temperature and, 34 training for, 62
142
Joints Maximum allowable operating pressure (MAOP), 19,

definition of, 110 110
design requirements for, 40 Mechanical fittings, 73–75, 73f, 106–107
inspection of, 60, 92 MEK. See Methyl ethyl ketone
long-term strength of, 23 Melt flow rate, 34, 36t, 110
test for creep resistance in, 105–106 Melt index
definition of, 110
K measurement of, 54–55, 55f
Mercaptans, 110
Knee, 21, 22 Methane
definition of, 111
L permeation rate of, 28
Methyl ethyl ketone (MEK), 111
L.P.-air, 110
Mixed gas, 111
Leak tracers, 93–94
Model specification, 44, 119–121
Leakage
Molding, injection, 110
rates of, 95
Molecular weight
surveys of, 99
definition of, 111
Length, standards for, 45
number average, 111
Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), 110
weight average, 111
Loading
Molecular weight distribution, 111
beam, 108
external, 27
N
Location, of piping, identification of, 99–100
Long-term hydrostatic strength (LTHS) Notch tests, 48f, 105
definition of, 33, 110 80ºC, 24
determination of, 30 Pennsylvania, 25, 105, 111
Long-term strength (LTS), 19–20 Number, ANS preferred, 108
of polyethylene, validation of, 21–23 Nylon plastics. See also Polyamide
LPG. See Liquefied petroleum gas definition of, 111
LTHS. See Long-term hydrostatic strength
LTS. See Long-term strength O
M Odorant, 111
Oil gas, 111
Main(s) Oil, drip, 109
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
connections with, 77–78 Operation
installation of, 85–86 code requirements for, 96–97
plastic insertion in, 86–88 precautions for, 101–102
Maintenance Organic chemicals, resistance to, 26, 100
code requirements for, 96–97
in performance evaluation, 14–15, 14t P
Manufacturer certification, 51f, 57–58
MAOP. See Maximum allowable operating pressure PE. See Polyethylene
Mapping, techniques for, 99–100 Peak shaving, 111
Marking, standards for, 47 Pennsylvania Notch Test (PENT), 25, 105, 111
Materials Performance
characteristics of, 1 evaluation of, 13–15, 14t
description of, 5–13 factors affecting, 15
new, 13–14 monitoring of, 57
performance of overview of, 95
evaluation of, 13–15, 14t Permeability, 28–29
factors affecting, 15 definition of, 40
selection of, criteria for, 30–31 of polyethylene, 40–41
standards for, 44 Pipe(s), plastic
types of, 2–3 definition of, 111
history of use, ix–x
143
Pipeline condensates, 111 design

Plant-in method, 84 calculation of, 32–34
Plastic Failure Report form, 95 definition of, 109
Plastic pipes operating
definition of, 111 maximum allowable, 19, 110
history of use, ix–x wall thickness and, 35–36, 37t
Plastic tubing, 40, 111 Pressure rating, 112
Plastic(s), definition of, 111 Pressure testing, 92–93, 103–104
Plasticizer, 111 elevated temperature sustained, 56, 56f
Plastics Pipe Institute (PPI), 115 sustained, 103–104, 113
Plastics Pipe Institute Extrapolation Methods Prevention, damage, 95
Committee, 22 Probe holes, 99
Plastification, 26 Process capability study, 58
Plowing techniques, 83–84 Procurement control, 48–49
Poly vinyl chloride (PVC), 11–12 Publications, 116–117
classification of, 11–12 Pull-in method, 84
definition of, 112 PVC. See Poly vinyl chloride
properties of, 4t, 11
Polyamide (nylon), 8–9 Q
classification of, 9
definition of, 111 Qualification testing, 49, 112
properties of, 4t, 9, 12t Quick burst, 112
Polyamide 11, properties of, 9, 12t Quick burst test, 53–54, 53f, 108
Polybutylene, 111
Polyethylene (PE), 3 R
classification of, 6, 10t Rapid crack propagation (RCP), 27
crosslinked (PEX), 13 Rate process method, and long-term strength of
definition of, 111 polyethylene, 21–23
environmental stress crack resistance of, 26 RCP. See Rapid crack propagation
fittings, 23, 107 Reinforced epoxy resin pipe, 12–13
guidance on, 106, 107 Reinforced epoxy thermoset pipe, 4t
history of use, ix–x Reinforced plastic, 112
hydrostatic design basis of, 33–34, 36t Relaxation, stress, 17–18, 18f, 113
installation of, 106 Repairs, 101
long-term strength of Resin, definition of, 112
forecasting of, 23 Resistance
validation of, 21–23 aging, 27
permeability of, 40–41 chemical, 25–26, 100, 103, 109
properties of, 4t, 6 corrosion, 1
reworked material, use of, 3, 133 environmental stress cracking, 26, 105
slow crack growth in, tests for, 24, 105 frictional, 41
specifications for, 107 impact, 28, 54
squeeze-off with, 106 temperature, 25
stress-rupture line for, 30, 31f weather, 27
Polymer(s) Response, strain, 30
definition of, 112 Ring tensile test, 54, 54f, 112
history of use, ix–x Ring-specimen, 112
Polymerization, 112 Rodent damage, 100
Polyolefin, 112 Rough-pipe flow law, 41, 43f
Polypropylene, 112 Rupture
Polypropylene plastics, 112 creep, 17
Potlife, 112 stress
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
PPI. See Plastics Pipe Institute curve of, 21, 21f, 30, 31f
Practices, ASTM, 106 tests for, 19–20
Pressure
definition of, 112
144
S Strength
burst, 108
Saddle fusion machine, hydraulic butt, 63f compressive, 109
Saddle-fusion joining, 66–68, 67f definition of, 113
Saddle(s), electrofusion, 71 dielectric, 109
Safety, in performance evaluation, 14–15, 14t flexural, 110
Sampling, standards for, 106 in performance evaluation, 13–14, 14t
SCG. See Slow crack growth long-term, 19–20
Schedule, definition of, 112 long-term hydrostatic, 30, 34, 110
SDR. See Standard dimension ratio temperature and, 30, 31f
Seepage, 112 tensile, 113
Selection, of materials, criteria for, 30–31 Stress cracking
Service factor, 112 definition of, 113
Service fittings, 79 environmental, 1, 26, 105, 109
Service head adapters, 79 Stress levels, 30
Service risers, insert, 79, 79f Stress relaxation, 17–18, 18f, 113
Service(s) Stress relaxation modulus, effective, 17
connections with, 77 Stress rupture curve, 21, 21f
installation of, 86 for polyethylene, 30, 31f
plastic insertion in, 86–88 Stress rupture tests, 19–20
Shipping, 59 Stress-failure time relationships, 103–104
Slit failure mode, 21, 22 Stress(es)
Slow crack growth (SCG), test methods for, 24–25, allowable working, 108
56, 105 definition of, 113
Smooth-pipe flow law, 41, 43f external, 81
Socket-fusion joining, 68–69, 68f fiber, 109
Socket-type polyethylene fittings, 107 hoop, 103, 110
Software, 116 hydrostatic design, 110
Soil friction, 37 thermal, 37–38
Solvation, 26 Sulfides, 113
Solvent adhesive, 108 Surveillance, 96
Solvent cementing Sustained pressure test, 103–104, 113
curing after, 93 Swelling, organic chemicals and, 26
definition of, 112
use of, 26, 72 T
Sources, list of, 115–118
Specifications Temperature
ASTM, 106–107 and hydrostatic design basis, 34
model, 44, 119–121 and strength, 30, 31f
Squeeze-off, 97–98, 106 and thermoplastics, 34
Stabilizer, 112 changes in, 82
Stacking, of materials, 59 deflection, 109
Standard dimension ratio (SDR), 113 influence of, 37–38
Standard(s) wall thickness and, 35–36, 37t
ASTM, 44–48, 106–107 Temperature resistance, 25
in performance evaluation, 15 test method for, 56
Static electricity Temperature sustained pressure test, elevated, 56, 56f
accumulation of, 98 Tensile load, guidance on, 106
discharge during squeeze-off, 97 Tensile strength, 113
generation of, 98 Tensile tests, 17, 103
safety precautions for, 98–99 by split disk method, 105
Storage, 59 constant tensile load joint, 105–106
Strain, 113 notch, 105
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Strain response, 30 ring, 54, 54f, 112
145
Tests U
acceptance, 52–57, 108
acetone, 108 Ultrasonic sound waves, joint inspection with, 92
ASTM, 48, 103–106 User acceptance plan, 50f, 52–57
burst, 53–54, 53f, 108 User qualification testing, 49, 112
for chemical resistance, 103
for creep, 17, 105–106 V
for environmental stress cracking resistance, 105 Valves
for excess flow valves, 107 excess flow, 80–81, 81f, 101, 107
for hydrostatic design basis, 105 isolation in emergency, 97
for impact resistance, 54, 105, 110 provision for, 79
for slow crack growth, 24–25, 56, 105 Vendor selection, 44
immersion, 26 Venting, static discharge during, 99
notch, 24, 48f, 105, 111 Video tapes, 116
precautions for, 93–94 Vinyl chloride. See Poly vinyl chloride
pressure, 56, 56f, 92–93, 103–104, 113 Viscoelasticity, 15, 16f, 30, 113
stress rupture, 19–20 Visual inspection, 52, 92
tensile, 17, 54, 54f, 103, 105, 112
user qualification, 49 W
Thermal expansion and contraction
allowance for, 81–82 Wall thickness
in pipe insertion, 87 minimum, 39f, 40
Thermal stress, 37–38 temperature and, 35–36, 37t
Thermoplastic, 113 Weather resistance, 27
Thermoplastic pipes, 2–3 Weeping, 112
definition of, 113 Weight
properties of, 3 molecular, 111
temperature and, 34 of plastic pipes, 1
Thermoset, 113 Workmanship, standards for, 45
Thermosetting plastics, 3
definition of, 113 Y
properties of, 3
Tolerances, standards for, 45 Yield point, 113
Torque, avoiding excessive, 80
Tracer systems, for locating pipes, 99–100
Tracer, leak, 93–94
Trade names, 114
Training
areas for, 89
outline for, 89–91
requirements for, 62, 89
Transition fittings, 76–77, 76f, 107
Transportation, 59
Trench(es), pipe placement in, 82–83
Trenching, 82
Trenchless digging, 84–85
Tubing, plastic
definition of, 111
dimensions of, 39–40
Tup impact, 105, 110
146
--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

FORM FOR SUGGESTION TO CHANGE IN THE AGA PLASTIC PIPE MANUAL FOR GAS SERVICE
Send to: Operations & Engineering Section

400 North Capitol St., NW 4th Floor
U.S.A.
Fax: (202) 824-7082
Name: __________________________________________________________________
Company: _______________________________________________________________
Address: _________________________________________________________________
Phone: ___________________ Fax:____________________E-mail:_________________
Please Indicate Organization Represented (if any): ______________________________
1. Section/Paragraph :_______________________________________________________
2. Proposal Recommends: (check one): new text revised text deleted text
3. Proposal (include proposed new or revised wording, or identification of wording to be deleted,

use separate sheet if needed): [Proposed text should be in legislative format; i.e., use underscore to
denote wording to be inserted (inserted wording) and strike-through to denote wording to be deleted
(deleted wording).]
4. Statement of Problem and Substantiation for Proposal (use separate sheet if needed): (State the
problem that will be resolved by your recommendation; give the specific reason for your proposal
including copies of tests, research papers, etc.)
5. This proposal is original material. (Note: Original material is considered to be the submitter’s
own idea based on or as a result of his/her own experience, thought or research and, to the best of his/her
knowledge, is not copied from another source.)
This proposal is not original material; its source (if known) is as follows:
Type or print legibly. If supplementary material (photographs, diagrams, reports, etc.) is included,
you may be required to submit sufficient copies for all members of reviewing committees or task
forces.
I hereby grant the American Gas Association the non-exclusive, royalty-free rights, including non-exclusive, royalty-
free rights in copyright, in this proposal and I understand that I acquire no rights in any publication of the American Gas
Association in which this proposal in this or another similar or analogous form is used.
Date: ___________________ Signature (Required) ____________________________ FOR OFFICE USE ONLY
Log # __________________________
Date Rec’d _____________________
147--``,,,,,````,`,``,,`,`,,,,,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

Operations and Engineering
400 N. Capitol Street, N.W., 4TH Floor
U.S.A.
202/824-7000
Catalog No. XR0603

October 2006
www.aga.org
© 2006 American Gas Association.

All rights reserved.

AGA Plastic Pipe Manual

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

AGA Plastic Pipe Manual

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

PLASTIC PIPE MANUAL

FOR GAS SERVICE

Copyright American Gas Association

FOR GAS SERVICE

Catalog No. XR0603

Copyrights © 2006, American Gas Association, All Rights Reserved.

Chapter I. Plastic Piping Materials

Chapter II. Engineering Considerations for Plastic Pipe Utilization

Chapter IV. Installation of Plastic Pipe

Chapter V. Personnel Training, Field Inspection, and Pressure Testing

Chapter VI. Maintenance, Operation, and Emergency Control Procedures

Added new Appendix H

CHAPTER I. PLASTIC PIPING MATERIALS.................................................................... 1

PHOTO I-6. PENT Test Equipment ................................................................................ 24

CHAPTER II. ENGINEERING CONSIDERATIONS FOR

CHAPTER III. PROCUREMENT CONSIDERATIONS, ACCEPTANCE TESTS AND

CHAPTER IV. INSTALLATION OF PLASTIC PIPE ........................................................ 59

CHAPTER V. PERSONNEL TRAINING, FIELD INSPECTION, AND

CHAPTER VI. MAINTENANCE, OPERATION, AND EMERGENCY CONTROL

PHOTO VI-1. Squeeze Off Flow Control in PE Pipe ......................................................... 98

APPENDIX A. SPECIFICATIONS, TEST METHODS AND PRACTICES FOR

Index .......................................................................................................................................... 140

Change Suggestion Form ......................................................................................................... 147

Frank Volgstadt, chairman Volgstadt & Associates, Inc.

Joining and Installing

KINDS OF PLASTIC GAS PIPING MATERIALS

Properties of Thermoplastic and Thermosetting Plastics

TABLE I-1. Typical Physical Properties of Plastic Piping Compounds (a)

Hydrogen (h) 21x10-3 16x10-3 16x10-3 14x10-3 16x10-3 NA

DESCRIPTION OF PIPING MATERIALS

PHOTO I-3. PE Pellets - Natural and Color Concentrates

PHOTO I-4. PE Pellets - Salt & Pepper Blend

Copyright American Gas Association

CLASSIFICATION OF POLYETHYLENE MATERIALS

PE Pipe Material Designation Code

New Developments in PE Pipe Material Classifications

Hydrostatic Hydrostatic Design Stress (HDS)

Polyamide (PA) (a.k.a. Nylon)

Properties of Polyamide-11 (PA-11) Materials

CLASSIFICATION OF POLYAMIDE MATERIALS

Polyamide 11 piping requirements are contained in D 2513 Annex A5

Copyright American Gas Association

TABLE I-3. Classification of Polyethylene Materials

5 Slow Crack Growth

Code Letter Color and UV Stabilizer

Density (0.926 0.940 g/cm3)

Melt index (<0.4 – 0.15)

Flexural modulus (276 - <758 MPa)

Tensile strength at yield (21 - <24 MPa)

Slow Crack Growth Resistance

Hydrostatic design basis at 23oC

Color and UV stabilizer (colored)

POLY (VINYL CHLORIDE) (PVC)

Hydrostatic Quick Burst Stress ASTM D 1599 psi 7585

Flexural Modulus ASTM D 790 psi 211,000

Density ASTM D 792 1.03

Chemical Resistance ASTM D 543 as

Melting Point ASTM D 3418 ºF 371

Older System ASTM D 1784

REINFORCED EPOXY RESIN PIPE

CROSSLINKED POLYETHYLENE (PEX) PIPE

Joining of PEX Pipe and Tubing

Related to Strength, Durability, and Effects of Temperature and Environment:

1.7 Impact resistance (ASTM D 2444, Tup B on pipe at 0°C (32°F)).