CHAPTER 3:

WATER BASED MUD

ABINUMAN, MANUEL ADRIAN L.
DELA CRUZ, JOSEPH AARON B.
EVANGELISTA, GIANNE CHANEILLY D.
PALOGME, JASM D.
PEREZ, ANGELICA F.
PETE - 5202
 Water-Based Drilling Fluid (WBFs)
Water-based drilling fluids are the most commonly used of the mud systems.
They are generally less expensive and less difficult to maintain than oil muds.
If a water-based fluid is used, the water will tend to enter the formation and
change the mechanical properties of the rock. These changes may be enough to cause
formation damage and borehole instability. These damaging effects can be
minimized by using an inhibited water-based fluid.
The base fluid may be fresh water, seawater, brine, saturated brine, or a formate
brine.
Water-Based Drilling Fluid (WBFs)
Water is not viscous therefore the viscosity will be increased by adding clay or polymers.
Being the cheapest, clay material is almost always used and is responsible for two
beneficial effects:
1. Increase in viscosity which improves lifting capacity
2. Building a wall cake thus prevents fluid loss

Bentonite
2 types of solids present in a drilling fluid
1. Active Solids – solids which will react with water and can be
controlled by chemical treatment. (e.g., hydratable and
commercial clays)

2. Inactive or Inert Solids – solids which do not readily react

with water. (e.g., Barite, Limestone, and Sand)
 Clay Chemistry
Clay minerals can be divided into 2 main groups:
1. Expandable (hydrophilic) clays – these will readily absorb water (e.g.,
montmorillonite)
2. Non-expandable (hydrophobic) clays – these will not readily absorb water
(e.g., illite)
Clay minerals have a sandwich-like structure usually consists of three layers.
The alternate layers are of silica and alumina. A clay particle usually consists of
several sandwiches stacked together like a pack of cards.
Hydration of Clay Minerals
 Expandable and Non-expandable clays in water
The most commonly used clay in drilling fluids is Wyoming Bentonite (Sodium
Montmorillonite).
In fresh water, the clay layers absorb water and the chemical bonds holding them
are weakened and the stack layer disintegrates. This process is known as dispersion.
This causes the fluid to viscosify because of increase of particles in suspension.
Positively charged cations separate from clay leaving the flat surface of the
particles negatively charged while the edges are positively charged. It is likely that
some plates will tend to form edge-to-face arrangements. This process is known as
flocculation.
 In a Bingham plastic fluid, Plastic viscosity can be thought of as that
part of the flow resistance caused by mechanical friction between the
particles present in the mud and will therefore be dependent on solids
content. Yield point is that component of resistance caused by
electro-chemical attraction within the mud while it is flowing.
ASSOCIATION OF
CLAY PARTICLES
AGGREGATION (FACE-TO-FACE)
• In this configuration there are a small number of particles in
suspension and therefore the plastic viscosity of the mud is low.
• If the mud has, at some time been dispersed, aggregation may be
achieved by introducing cations to bring the plates together.
• Lime or gypsum may be added to achieve this effect.
DISPERSION
• It occurs when the individual clay platelets are dispersed by some
mechanism.
• It increases the number of particles and causes an increase in plastic
viscosity.
• Clays will naturally disperse in the presence of freshwater but this
process will be enhanced by agitation of the mud.
• Bentonite does not usually completely disperse in water.
FLOCCULATION
• Is when a house of cards structure is formed because of the attraction
between the positive charges on the face of the particles and the negative
charges on the edge of the particles.
• It increases the viscosity and yield point of the mud.
• The severity of flocculation depends on the proximity of the charges
acting on the linked particles.
• Anything that shrinks the absorbed water film around the particles will
decrease the distance between the charges on the particles and increase
flocculation.
DE-FLOCCULATION
• Occurs when the house of cards structure is broken down and
something is introduced into the mud that reduces the
edge-to-face effect.
• Chemicals called “thinners” are added to the mud to achieve
this.
ADDITIVES TO
WBM’s
 a.) Viscosity Control Additives
• Commercial clays are used to control the viscosity of water based muds. These are graded
according to their yield.
• The yield of a clay is defined as the number of barrels of 15 centipoise viscosity mud which can be
obtained from 1 ton of dry clay.
• Wyoming bentonite has a yield of about 100 bbl/ton, whereas native clay would cause a higher
solids content and mud density than the Wyoming bentonite to build the same viscosity.
• The yield of a clay will be affected by the salt concentration in the mixwater. The hydration and
therefore dispersion of the clay are greatly reduced by the presence of Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions
To overcome this problem, various measures can be
taken:
• Chemical treatment
• Dilution with fresh water
• Attapulgite clay may be used
• First hydrate the clay in fresh water, then add the slurry to the salt water.
• Use organic polymers
To reduce the viscosity of the mud
• Lower the solids content.

• Reduce the number of particles per unit Volume.

• Neutralize attractive forces between the particles.

 b.) Density Control Additives
Barite is the primary weighting material used in muds. Calcium carbonate and
galena are also used as weighting material.

c.) Filtration control additives

Excessive filtration rates and thick wall cake lead to problems such as:
- Tight spots in the hole
- Differential pipe sticking
- Formation damage due to filtrate invasion
• Filter cake is greatest at static condition while dynamic filtration results in
thinner mud cake due to erosion. The aim is to deposit a thin and
impermeable filter cake.

Several types of material may be added to the mud to control

fluid loss:
1. Clays/ Bentonite- is an effective fluid loss agent because of its particle
size and shape, and also because it hydrates and compresses under pressure.
2. Starch- it is an organic chemical that rapidly swell and seal off the
permeable areas effectively.
3. CMC (sodium carboxyl methyl cellulose)- can be polymerized into 3
different grades of viscosity (High, Medium, Low). It controls filtration
by wedging long chain polymers into thr formation and plugging the
pores.
4. Polyacrylates- a long chain polymers wich become absorbed onto the
edge of the clay particles.
5. Lignosuphonates- similar in starch in reducing fluid loss.
6. Polynoinic cellulose- Organic compound that controls fluid loss in
high salt concentration.
Fluid loss control agents may also act as thinners, or viscousifiers under
certain circumstances and react unfavourably with other chemicals in
the mud
 d.) pH control additives
- caustic soda NaOH is the major additive used to keep pH of the mud high that commonly
ranges from 9.5 to 10.5. caustic potash, KOH and slaked lime,Ca(OH)2 may also be used.

e.) Removal of contaminants

- contaminants has an effect on the quality of mud. The main contaminants are as follow:
1. Calcium (Ca2+)- it reduces the viscosity building properties of the bentonite.
2. Carbon dioxide (CO2)- may cause adverse filtration and
gelation characteristics when entrained in the mud.
3. Hydrogen sulphide (H2S)- highly toxic gas which also
causes hydrogen embrittlement of steel.
4. Oxygen (O2)- cause corrosion and pitting of steel pipes.
Special Types of Water
Based Muds
 Inhibited Muds
It is defined as one where the ability of active clays to hydrate has been greatly reduced.
Advantage: Water is normally used in hydration is available to carry more solids.
Inhibitive muds are principally used to drill clay and shale formations and are characterized
by:
1. Low viscosity
2. Low gel strength
3. Greater solids tolerance
4. Greater resistance to contaminants
a. Calcium treated muds
When Ca2+ ions are added to a clay-water mud, the mud begins to
thicken due to flocculation. At the same time, the cation exchange
reaction begins whereby Ca2+ replaces Na2+ on the clay plates.
Calcium montmorillonite does not hydrate as extensively as
sodium montmorillonite, and the plates begin to aggregate. As the
reaction proceeds, the mud begins to thin and viscosity reduces.
Effect of Calcium Treatment on Viscosity
NOTE: The conversion of a fresh water mud to an inhibited mud
usually takes place in the wellbore. The conversion should not be
done at a shallow depth where large volumes of cuttings are being
lifted, as this might cause a viscous plastic mass around the bit.
• Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) or calcium chloride (CaCl2) can be used in
place of lime to supply Ca2+ ions.
b. Lignosulphanate treated muds
An inhibited mud can also be formed by adding large amounts
(12 lb/bbl) of lignosulphanate to a clay-water system.
Chrome lignosulphanate – commonly used since it’s cheap and
has high tolerance to calcium and salt.
 c. Saltwater muds
• Inhibited muds having a salt concentration (NaCl) in excess of 1% by weight.
• Often used in marine areas where fresh water is not readily available.
• After conversion, saltwater muds are not greatly affected by subsequent
contamination.
• However, the increased salt content may make it more difficult to maintain other
mud properties. (Filtration by adding bentonite)
• Corrosion may be a major problem unless alkalinity is controlled (by adding
NaOH).
• Commercial clays (e.g. bentonite) will not readily hydrate in water
containing salt concentration (i.e. bentonite behaves like an inert solid).
• To build viscosity, therefore, the clay must be pre-hydrated in fresh water,
then treated with deflocculant before increasing salinity.
• The Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions can be removed by adding NaOH to form
insoluble precipitates which can be removed before building viscosity.
 d. KCL – polymer system
• This mud system was specifically developed to combat the problem of water
sensitive, sloughing shales.
• The KCl concentration must be at least 3-5% by weight to prevent swelling of
shales containing illite and kaolinite.
• For shales containing bentonite, the KCl concentration must be raised to 10%.
• Polyacrylamide polymers are used to control the viscosity of the mud and are used
in concentrations of around 0.75 lb/bbl.
• Potassium hydroxide or caustic soda – used to control pH at around 10.
• This system allows good shale stabilization, hole cleaning and
flocculation of drilled solids.
• Stable up to 300 degrees F.
• Temp. above -> slow degradation of polymer.
 e. Polyol Drilling Muds
• A polyol is an organic compound containing multiple hydroxyl groups

• In a drilling mud they usually glycerol, polyglycerol and glycols such as propylene
glycol.

• Their shale inhibiting properties that attract most attention to be used.

• Addition of 3% to 5% by volume of polyglycol to a KCL- PHPA(Partially

Hydrolized Polyacrylamide) improves shale stabilization.
• Using polyol muds shows wellbore stability and yield cuttings
that are harder and drier.

• No complete explanation of how polyols inhibit shale

reactivity, but there are some clues that are considered
• Most polyols function best in combination with a specific inhibitive salt.
• Polyol is not depleted rapidly from the mud even when reactive shales are drilled.
• Many polyols work effectively at concentrations as low as 3%.
• Polyols that are insoluble in water are significantly less inhibitive than fully
soluble.
• No direct link exists between performance of polyol as shale inhibitor and its
ability to reduce fluid loss.
f. Mixed-Metal Hydroxide (MMH) Mud
• Low environmental impact

• Can be used in: horizontal and short radius wells, unconsolidated or depleted
sandstone,

• High temperature, unstable shales, and wells with severe lost circulation.

• Its benefit is excellent hole-cleaning properties.

• It is based on an insoluble, inorganic, crystalling compound containing
two or more metals in a hydroxide lattice, usually mixed
aluminum/magnesium hydroxide, which is oxygen deficient.

• Its working principle is when added to bentonite, the positively charged

MMH particles interact with the negatively charged clays forming a
strong complex that behaves like an elastic solid when at rest.
• Conventional mud with high gel strength requires high energy to circulate
generating pressure surges in the annulus.
• Although MMH has high gel strength the structure is easily broken, that
can be transformed into a low viscosity fluid that does not induce
significant friction losses during circulation and gives good hole cleaning
at low pump rates even in in high-angle wells.
• Even when pumps turned off, high gel strength develops, preventing
solids from settling.
g. Silicate Fluids
• It is used as a shale hydration suppressor

• Sodium Silicate precipitates a layer of silicate over the reactive

sites on the clay particle and over microfractures in the matrix
thus preventing hydration by water migration into the clay
Brine Drilling Fluid
• Polymers are added to brine to viscosify the water and provide
some filtration control.

• Certain polymers (XC or Duovis) are of particular value since

they possess low viscosity at high shear rate, and high viscosity
at low shear rates.