STUDENT'S SOLUTIONS MANUAL FOR

ELEMENTARY NUMBER
THEORY WITH
APPLICATIONS
Second Edition
Thomas Koshy
2

ELEMENTARY NUMBER
THEORY WITH
APPLICATIONS
Second Edition

THOMAS KOSHY
FRAMINGHAM STATE COLLEGE
Contents

Preface iii

How to Study Math v

How to prepare for an Exam in Math vii

How to Take an Exam in Math ix

1 Fundamentals 3

2 Divisibility 25

3 Greatest Common Divisors 45

4 Congruences 63

5 Congruence Applications 77

6 Systems of Linear Congruences 89

7 Three Classical Milestones 99

8 Multiplicative Functions 113

9 Cryptology 131

10 Primitive Roots and Indices 141

11 Quadratic Congruences 155

12 Continued Fractions 173

13 Miscellaneous Nonlinear Diophantine Equations 181

Appendix A.1 191

ii
CONTENTS
Preface

This manual contains detailed solutions of all even-numbered exercises in the author's Elementary Number
Theory with Applications, second edition. In addition, it includes some helpful suggestions on How to Study
Math, How to Prepare for an Exam in Math, and How to Take an Exam in Math.
I would like to thank Ward Heilman of Bridgewater State College, Roger W. Leezer of California State
University at Sacramento, and Don Redmond of Southern Illinois University at Carbondale for preparing
the solutions of all even-numbered exercises in the first edition. I am also grateful to Kevin Jackson-Mead
for combing through all solutions in the first edition, both even and odd, for inaccurate and incomplete
solutions, and typographical errors.
Although great care has been taken to ensure the accuracy of solutions and proofs, some errors may
remain. These are solely my own responsibilty. I would appreciate hearing from users concerning any errors,
as well as your thoughts and comments about the book. Finally, enjoy the book and have fun with this rich,
dynamic, and fascinating area of mathematics.

Thomas Koshy
tkoshy@frc.mass.edu

iii
iv PREFACE
How to Study Math

• Prepare a well-planned and well-balanced schedule for each day of the week.

• Read a few sections in advance before each class.

• Go to class well prepared. Be ready to ask and answer questions.

• Do not skip classes. The information is cumulative; so every step counts.

• Always take down notes (on the RHS of your notebook; use the LHS for solutions of corresponding
exercises from the book).

• Always have enough paper and pencils with you.

• Study the material taught in class again on the same day as the class.

• Pay close attention to symbols, notations, definitions, properties, and theorems.

• Develop a decent working vocabulary of the subject. (Math is a concise and precise language; so try
to speak the language of math fluently.)

• Keep practicing definitions, properties, as well as theorems and their proofs in your own words.

• Study the examples, proofs, and exercises done in class; close your notebook; try to do them on your
own. If you cannot do them without help, study them again and try again.

• Do the exercises at the end of a section, after studying the section; do not reverse the order.

• Do not skip steps until you have mastered the material.

• Do not write over previous steps in a solution or proof.

• If you cannot solve a problem because it involves a new theorem, formula, or some property, then
re-study the relevant portion of the section.

• Math can be learned in small quantities only. So, do math every day. Remember, practice is the best
way to succeed.

• Work with others whenever helpful.

• Seek help when in doubt or trouble. (e.g. teacher, fellow student, or tutor)

v
vi HOW TO STUDY MATH

• Make the best use of your professor's office hours. Go to him/her always well-prepared. Bring a list of
questions to ask the professor.

• Math is a cumulative subject. So, build a good foundation to do additional work.

• Always review earlier materials before each week. Things must be fresh in your mind for you to build
on them.

• Use your time wisely and carefully.

How to prepare for an Exam in Math

• Review notations, definitions, formulas, properties, and theorems. Practice by writing them down.

• Study every example worked out in class.

• Do a few typical problems from each section.

• On the night before the exam, go to bed early and get a good night's sleep. Otherwise, you won't be
able to concentrate during the exam, your mind will wander, and the material will look foggy.

• Do not stay up late to learn any new material. In fact, do not try to learn anything new the night
before the exam.

• The morning of the exam, glance over all materials to refresh your memory; focus on formulas, prop-
erties, and theorems.

• If a scientific calculator is allowed in the exam, make sure you know how to use the various keys and
functions.

vii
viii HOW TO PREPARE FOR AN EXAM IN MATH
How to Take an Exam in Math

o Taking an exam (in math) is an art. So, master the steps well.

• Take enough writing tools (and a good scientific calculator with extra batteries, if allowed for use in
the exam).

• Take a few minutes to quickly glance over every problem.

o Do the problems that are easiest for you and those that carry the most weight. The order in which
you answer the problems has no bearing on the score; what matters is the final output.

• Always write the formula, if a formula is involved.

• Save all your work on scrap paper for later varification.

o Then do the less easy problems.

• Whenever possible, save enough time to check your answers at the end.

o Always double-check the solutions that carry the most weight.

Good Luck

ix
X HOW TO TAKE AN EXAM IN MATH
 1

Solutions to Even-Numbered Exercises

2 HOW TO TAKE AN EXAM IN MATH
Chapter 1

Fundamentals

Exercises 1.1 (p. 1)

2. 1 or -1

4. 0 or 1

6. no

8. 1, 9, 45, 55, 99

10. 635, 318, 657 = 59 4 + 158 4 = 133 4 + 134 4

12. A number which is a square, cube, and fifth power must be of the form n 2 ·H = n 30 • So the desired
number is 230 = 1,073, 741,824.

14. Let n be an arbitrary positive integer such that n 2 can be displayed on a 15-digit calculator. Then
n2 ::; 999,999,999,999, 999; that is, n::; 3v'111, 111,111,111,111. Thus n::; 31,622, 776; that is, there
are 31,622,776 positive integers whose squares can be displayed on the calculator. Including 0, the final
answer is 31,622,777.

16. proof:
case 1 Suppose a, b ::> 0. Then ab ::> 0, so lab I = Ia I· lbl.
case 2 Suppose a ::> 0 and b < 0. Since a( -b) ::> 0, Ia( -b)l = a( -b) = Ia I · 1-bl = Ia I · lbl. But
a( -b)= -ab, so Ia( -b)l = 1-abl =lab I. Thus labl = lal· lbl-
case 3 The case a ::; 0 and b > 0 is similar to case 2.
case 4 Suppose a, b < 0. Then ab > 0 and labl = I( -a)( -b)l 1-al · 1-bl, by case 1. Thus
labl = lal · lbl.
18. proof: Let n = 2k + 1 for some integer k. Then ln/2J = lk + 1/2J = k = (n -1)/2.
20. proof: Let n = 2k + 1 for some integer k. Then ln 2 /4J = lk 2 + k + 1/4J = k2 + k = k(k + 1) =
(n- 1)/2 · (n + 1)/2 = (n 2
- 1)/4.

3
4 CHAPTER 1. FUNDAMENTALS

22. case 1 If n is even, then ln/2 J + rn/21 = n/2 + n/2 = n.

case 2 If n is odd, say, n = 2k + 1 for some integer k, then ln/2J + rn/21 = k + (k + 1) = 2k + 1 = n.

24. proof: Let X= k+x', where 0 <;x' < 1. Then -l-xJ = -l-k-x'J = -(-k-1) =k+1 = rx1.

26. proof: Let x = k + x', where 0 <; x 1 < 1.

Then
if x' < 1/2
otherwise

So

l2xj -lxJ l2k + 2x'J- k- lx'J = k + l2x'J- lx'J

k+O-O=k= lx+1/2J ifx' < 1/2
{ k + 1-0 = k + 1 = lx + 1/2J otherwise

Thus l2x J - l x J = lx + 1/2J.

28. proof: d(x, y) = IY- xl 2 0, since Ia I 2 0 for all a.

30. proof: Suppose d(x, y) = 0. Then IY- xl = 0, sox= y. Conversely, let x = y. Then y- x = 0 and
hence IY- xl = 0. Thus d(x, y) = 0.

32. d(x,y) IY-xl=l(y-z)+(z-x)l

< IY- zl + lz- xl
d(z, y) + d(x, z) = d(x, z) + d(z, y)
34. n ifnisodd
f(n) { n- 1 otherwise
ln- (-1N2J

Exercises 1.2 (p. 14)

4 4 4
2. L: (3 + k) = L: 3+ L: k =5° 3 + 4 5
2 = 25
k=O k=O k=O
4
4. L: 3 = 6. 3 = 18
k=-1

6. 2
L: j ( j - 2)
j=-2

8. 3
L: 3k 2
k=-2
 5

5 5 5 5 5
10. I: (3- 2k)k I: 3k - I: 2k 2 = 3 I: k- 2 I: k2
k=l k=l k=l k=l k=l
3. 5·6 -
2
2. 5·6·11 -
6 -
-65

10
12. I: 3'
i=l

5
14. I: i(i + 2)
i=l

16. yes

Proof:
n m
RHS = I: xn+m-i = I; xi, wherej = n + m - i
i=m j=n
n n
= I: xi= I: x'
j=m i=m
= LHS

n n
20. I:[(i+ 1) 3 - i3] I: [3i 2 + 3i + 1]
i=l i=l
n n n
(n+1) 3 -1 3I;i2 +3I;i+I:
i=l i=l i=l
(n + 1) 3 - 1 3S + 3n(n + 1)/2 + n, where S denotes the desired sum

3S n3 + 3n 2 + 3n- 3n(n+ 1)/2- n

n 3 + 3n 2 + 2n- 3n(n + 1)/2

n(n + 1)(n + 2)- 3n(n + 1)/2

n(n + 1)(2n + 1)/2

Therefore S n(n + 1)(2n + 1)/6

22. 5 6
i~ 2\I;, 1 + 3 j;;/
5 ( 6 6 ) 5
I: I: (2i + 3j)
i=l j=l
= i~ (2i. 6 + 3. 627)
5
I: (12i + 63)
i=l
5 5
12 I: i + 63 I: 1 = 12 . 2 + 63 = 495
56
i=l i=l

24. 5 6
I:I:(i 2 -j+1) 5 ( 26 6 5 )

i=l j=l
i~ i i;;l 1 - j~ j + i~ 1
5
I: (6i'- 627 + 6)
i=l
5 5
6 I: i 2 - 15 I: 1 = 6. 5
~ 11 - 15. 5 = 255
i=l i=l
6 CHAPTER 1. FUNDAMENTALS

3
26. IT (i + 1) = (o + 1)(1 + 1)(2 + 1)(3 + 1) = 24
i=O

k
28. IT (-1Jk = -1
k=O

30. I: p = 2 + 3 + 5 + 7 = 17
p:::;_lO

32. IT (3i- 1) = (3. 1 -1)(3. 2 -1)(3. 3 -1)(3. s -1) = 1120

iE/

34. I: (12/d) =
,, (12/1) + (12/2) + (12/3) + (12/4) + (12/6) + (12/12) = 28
d[12

36. I: 1 = 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 = 4
p$ 10

4
40. I: (31- 3}-l) = 34 - 3° = 81- 1 = 80
j=l
2 3 2
42.
I; I; a,J I; (a,,+ a21 + a3J)
j=l i=l j=l

(au+ a21 + a3!) + (a12 + a22 + a32)

44. a, + a2 + a3
1023 1023
46 · IT (1 + 1/n) -- IT !!±.!
n = 11 . ~2 . 1
3 ...
1024 -
1023 - 1o24
n=l n=l
n n
48. I; k · k! = I; [(k + 1)!- k!J = (n + 1)!- 1! = (n + 1)!- 1
k=l k=l

999
50. By Exercise 48, I; k · k' = 1000! - 1 = ... 999, so the hundreds digit is 9.
k=l

Exercises 1.3 (p. 24)

2. no; has no least element.

4. yes

6. proof (by contradiction): Assume there is an integer n' E S such that n' < no + l' - 1. Then
no + l* - 1 < l*. Since n' - no + 1 E S* and n' - no + 1 < l*, l* is not a least element of S*, a
contradiction.

8. Let A be a non-empty set of negative integers. Then B = {-ala E A} is a non-empty set of positive
integers and has a least element l in B, by the well-ordering principle. Thus -a 2: l for every a E A;
that is, a .::;_ l for every a in A. Since -l E A, -l is a largest element in A.
 7

10. z=12 . -
1.- 12·13
2 -- 78
i=l

12. Let s 1 + 2 + 3 + + (n -1) + n

Then s n + (n- 1) + (n- 2) + + 2 + 1
Adding, 25 (n + 1) + (n + 1) + + (n + 1) + (n + 1) + (n + 1)
n(n + 1)

s -,-
n(n+l)

14. Basis step: When n = 1, LHS = 12 = 1 = 1 · 2 · 3/6 = 1. Therefore, P(1) is true.

k
Induction step: Assume P(k): z= i 2 = k(k+ 1 ~( 2 k+ 1 l. Then:
i=l

k(k + 1)(2k + 1) (k 1)2

6 + +
i=l

= (k+1) [k(2k+1):6(k+1)] = (k+1)(2k~+7k+6)

(k + 1)(k + 2)(2k + 3) (k + 1)(k + 2)[2(k + 1) + 1)

=
6 6
Therefore, P(k + 1) is true. Thus P(n) is true for every n 2': 1.

16. basis step When n = 1, LHS = a= t.::-/) = RHS. Therefore, P(1) is true.
induction step Assume P(k) is true: z= ari- = a(~-~ ). Then:
k 1 ' 1

i=l

k
Lari-1 +ark
i=l
a(rk-1) k
--"--.,-'- + ar , by the inductive hypothesis
r-1
a(rk- 1) + ark(r -1) a(rk+ 1 - 1)
r-1 r-1
Thus, P(k) implies P(k + 1), so the result follows by induction.
50 50 50
18. z=(k 3 +2) =
k=l
z= k
k=l
3
+2 z=
k=l
1 =(50·51/2) 2 +2·50=1,625,725
n
20.
z= fi/21
i=l
fl/21 + [2/21 + [3/21 + ... + n/21 r
1 + 1 + 2 + 2 + · · · + (n/2) + (n/2) if n is even
1 + 1 + 2 + 2 + ... + (n - 1) /2 + (n - 1) /2 + (n + 1) /2 otherwise
2(1 + 2 + · · · + n/2) if n is even
2[1 + 2 + · · · + (n- 1)/2] + (n + 1)/2 otherwise
2(n/2)(n/2 + 1)/2 if n is even
2[(n -l)/2JI(n- 1)/2 + 1] + (n + 1)/2 otherwise
n(n + 2)/4 if n is even
(n + 1) 2 /4 otherwise
8 CHAPTER 1. FUNDAMENTALS
n n n
22. X l:i(i+1)= l:i 2 +l:i
i=l i=l i=l
n(n+1)(2n+l) + n(n+l)
6 2

n(n+1)(n+2)
3

n i n
'\'
24 · L '\' · _ '\' ·2 _ n(n+l)(2n+1)
.,L.,l-L.,l- 6
i=lj=l i=l

n ;
26.
2.: l:j2 Ln i(i+l)J2i+l)
i=l j=l i=l
n
i 2.:(2i
1
3
+ 3i 2 + i)
l [2 . n 2 (n+1) 2 + 3 . n(n+1)(2n+l) + n(n+l)l
6 4 6 2

n(~~1) [n(n + 1) + 2n + 1 + 1] = n(n+1{~(n+2)

2 '\'
n .)
n . L., t n(n+l)
28. IJ 22' = 2( •~• = 22· - , - = 2n(n+1)
i=l

n n n (2.:j) n
30. TI IJ ij = IJ i J~• = IJ ;n(n+1)/2 = (1, 2,,,,, n)n(n+1)/2 = (n!)n(n+1)/2
i=l j=l i=l i=l

32. Sum of the numbers in the magic square = 1 + 2 + · · · + n 2

· n k -_ n 2 (n 2 +1) n(n 2+1)
Th a t Is, 2 , so k -_ - -2- .

34. Total number of grains 1+2+4+···+2n'- 1

1·(2n2 -1) - 2n2- 1
2 1 -

n
'""" · _
36 · L n(n+l)
,'- 2
i=l

38.
n ;
2.: 2.: j
i=l j=l
f:: ;(;~1) = ~ f::
i=l i=l
(i2 + i)

~c~i 2 +.~i)
l [n(n+1)(2n+l) + n(n+l)l
2 6 2

n(n/1) ( 2ntl + l) = n(n+lci(n+2)

40. case 1 Let n be even. Then

an 0 + 1 + 1 + .. · + (n/2- 1) + (n/2- 1) + n/2

2[1+ 2 + ... + (n/2- 1)] + n/2 = 2(n/2- 1)(n/2 + 1) + '/!:
2 2

4
 9

case 2 Let n be odd. Then

an 0+1+1+···+(n-1)/2+(n-1)/2
2. n-1 . !d.l
2 2
2[1+2+···+(n-1)/2]=
2
n 2 -1
4

0 ifn =1
1 if n = 2
2 if 2 < n s; 22
42. rig nl =
3 if 22 < n s; 23

10 if 29 < n s; 210
Therefore,
1024

:L r1g nl 0 + 1 + 2(2 2 - 2) + 3(2 3 - 22 ) + 4(2 4 - 23 ) + ... + 10(2 10 - 29 )

»=1
1 + (2 . 22 - 22 ) + (3. 23 - 3. 22 ) + (4 . 24 - 4. 23 ) + ... + (10. 210 - 10. 29 )
1 - 22 - (2 3 + 24 + ... + 29 ) + 10. 210
9

-3 - :L 2' + 10. 210

i=3
9
(1 + 2 + 4)- 3- :L 2' + 10. 210
i=D

4 - (2 10 - 1) + 10. 210 = 5 + 9. 210

9221

44. Let P(n) be a statement such that 1) P(no) is true, and 2) P(k) implies P(k + 1), where k ::0> no.
To prove that P{n) is true for every n ::0> no: Let S denote the set of integers ::0> no such that P(n) is
false. If S = 0, then we are done. So, assumeS# 0. Since P(no) is true, no¢ S. By the well-ordering
principle, S has a least element l and P(l) is false. Since no ¢ S and l E S, l # no; so I > n 0 ; that is,
I;:, no+ 1, or 1-1;:, no. Since 1-1 < l, 1-1 ¢ S. So P(l-1) must be true. Therefore, by condition
(2), P(l) must be true, which is a contradiction. Consequently, S = 0; that is, P(n) is true for every
integer n 2: no.

Exercises 1.4 (p. 31)

2. 1, 2, 4, 7

4. 1, 2, 3, 5
10 CHAPTER 1. FUNDAMENTALS

6. 1, 2, 3, 6

8. a, 3
an an-1 + 5, n;::2

10. a, 1
an a;_ 1 +1, n;:: 2
12. an= an-1 + d = an-2 + 2d = an-3 +3d=···= a,+ (n -1)d =a+ (n- 1)d

14. a,
an

16. Sn a+ ar + ar 2 + · · . + arn-l
rSn ar + ar 2 + · · · + arn-l + arn
rSn- Sn arn- a; that is, (r- 1)Sn = a(r" -1)
a(rn-1)
So Sn r-1

18. an an-1 + (n- 1)

= an-2 + (n- 2) + (n -1)
an-3 + (n- 3) + (n- 2) + (n- 1)

a 1 +1+2+···+(n-1)
1 + [1+ 2 + · · · + (n- 1)]
n(n-1) + 1 n >_ 1
2 ,

20. n(n-1) +1 < 2076 < n(n+l)

2 - - 2

n(n-1) < 2076 < n(n+l)

2 - 2

n(n- 1) < 4152 :S n(n + 1)

Therefore, n = 64.

22. a1 1
an Gn-1 + n 2, n 2: 2

24. proof (by induction): Let P(n) : bn = 2n- 1, where n;:: 1.

basis step Since b1 = 1, the statement P(1) is true.
induction step Assume P(k) is true for an arbitrary integer k ;:: 1: bk = 2k - 1. Then bk+l =
2bk + 1 = 2(2k- 1) + 1 = 2k+l- 1, so the formula works with n = k + 1. Thus, by induction, the
formula works for every integer n .2: 1.

26. /(98) /(!(109) = /(99)

f(/(110) = /(100)
f(f(lll) = /(101)
91
 11

28. !(91) = !(!(102)) = !(101) = 91

So !(!(91)) = f(91) = 91.

30. !(90) = !(!(101)) = !(91)

!(!(102)) = !(92)
!(!(103)) = !(93)

!(!(109)) = !(99)
91, by Exercise 29

32. A(O, 7) = 7+1 = 8

34. Key steps:

A(2, 1) = 5
A(1, 2) = 4 A(1, 5) = 7 A(1, 8) = 11 A(1, 3) = 15
A(2, 5) 13 A(2, 13) = 29 A(3, 3) = 61
A(5, 0) A( 4, 1)
A(3, A(2, 5))
A(3, 13)
= A(2, A(2, ... 2, A(3, 3)) ... )
'----v----'
nine twos
A( (2, A(2, ... A(2, 61)) ... )
~
nine twos
65,533
36. Let P(n) denote the given statement.
basis step When n = 0,

LHS = A(1, 0) = A(O, 1), by definition.

= 1 + 1, by definition
2 =RHS

Therefore, P(O) is true.

induction step Assume P(k) is true: A(1, k) = k + 2. Then:

A(1,k+1) A(O, A(1, k)), by definition

= A(O, k + 2), by the inductive hypothesis
(k+2)+1=k+3

Thus P(k) implies P(k + 1), so the result holds for every integer n:::: 0.
38. A(3, 0) A(2, 1) A(1, A(2, 0)) A(1,A(1, 1)) A(1, A(O, A(1, 0)))
A(1, A(O, A(O, 1))) A(1, A(O, 2)) = A(1, 3)
A(O, A(1, 2)) A(0,4) = 5
A(3, 1) A(2, A(3, 0)) A(2, A(2, 1)) A(2, 5) = 13
12 CHAPTER 1. FUNDAMENTALS

Similarly, A(3, 2) = 29, A(3, 3) = 61, and A(3, 4) = 125.

Thus we have:

A(3, 0) 5=20+ 3 -3
A(3, 1) 13 = 21+ 3 - 3
3
A(3, 2) 29 = 22+ - 3
A(3, 3) 61 = 23+ 3 - 3
3
A(3, 4) 125 = 24+ - 3

Following this pattern, we conjecture that A(3, n) = 2n+ 3 - 3, n ;:> 0.

uo 4
u, /(4) = 5
U2 /(5) = 2
40. We have: U3 /(2) = 1
u4 /(1) = 4
us /(4) = 5
vdots
In general,
4 if n mod 4 0
5 if n mod 4 1
Un =
2 if n mod 4 2

1 1 otherwise

Since 9999 mod 4 = 3, it follows that Ugggg = 1.

Exercises 1.5 (p. 3s)

n
2. Total number of gifts sent by the nth day= L:; C(i + 1, 2) = C(n + 2, 3)
i=l

9
4. (2x- 3y) 9 = L:; C(9, r)(2x)'( -3y) 9 - r
r=O

Coefficient of x 4 y 5 C(9,r)2r(-3) 9 -r, where r = 4

C(9, 4)2 4 ( -3) 5 = -489,888

6
6. (x+2y)6 L:; C(6, r)xr(2y) 6 - r
r=O
x6 + 12x5 y + 60x 4 y 2 + 160x 3 y3 + 240x 2 y4 + 192xy5 + 64y6
 13

10
8. (x2 + 1/x2)9 I: C(lO, r)x2rx-20+2r
r=O
10
I: C(10,r)x4r-20
r=D
Middle coefficient C(lO, 5) = 252

6
10. (x + y) 6 = I: C(6, r)xryB-r
r=D

Largest binomial coefficient = C(6, 3) = 20

8
12. (x + y) 8 = I: C(S, r)xryBr
r=O
Largest binomial coefficient = C(8, 4) = 70
0
14. B, = I: C(O, i)B, = Bo = 1
i=O
1
B2 = I: C(1, i)B, = B0 + B1 = 2
i=O

2
16. B 3 = I: C(2, i)B, = B0 + 2B1 + B 2 = 1 +2·1+2= 5
i=O
3
Bz = I: C(3, i)B; = Bo + 3B, + 3Bz + B3 = 1 +3·1+3·2+5 = 15
i=O

20. 2nn) _ (n2_n ) (2n)! _ (2n)!

( 1 n!n! (n l)!(n+l)!
(2n)1(n+l n) _ ~ _ W
n!(n+l)! - n!(n+l)! - n+l
The LHS is the difference of two integers, so the LHS is an integer. Consequently, the RHS is an
integer. Therefore, (n + 1)W,;').
n
22. proof: (1 + x)n = I: G)xr. Let x = 2. Then
r=O

24. proof: (1 + x )2n = (x + 1)(1 + x)n. The coefficient of xn+l on the LHS is 2
(n ;
1
) and that on the RHS
n
is I: (.:' 1) (7). Hence the result.
i=l

26. Let
(1.1)

Reverse the sum on the RHS:

(1.2)
14 CHAPTER 1. FUNDAMENTALS

Adding equations (1.1) and (1.2),

25 ~(2a+nd)(~)=(2a+nd)~(~)
(2a + nd) · 2"
S (2a + nd)2n-l

28. proof: By Exercise 27,

(~) < (7) < · · · < (r:l) < (;), where r < !!.f. Therefore, G) is maximum when r is the largest
integer<~·

case 1 Let n be odd, say, n = 2k + 1. Then "'j:l = k + 1. So r must be k = "2 1 = ln/2J.

case 2 Let n be even, say, n = 2k. Then "'j:l = 2 k{' = k + ~. So r must be k = n/2 = ln/2 J . Thus,
by cases (1) and (2), C) is maximum when r = ln/2J.

30. proof (by induction): Let P(n) denote the given statement. When n = 1, LHS = n =RHS. Therefore,
P(1) is true. Assume P(k) is true, where k ~ 1:

~ i [C)+ C~ 1)], by Pascal's identity.

2: i(k). +"'
k+l
'l 6
i( .k1)
k+l
t-
i=l i=l

t;i (k)
k
i +(k+ 1) k+1
( k ) + t;(i- 1) i-1
k+l k ) + t; i-1
k)
( k+l (

tiC)+ t,i(~) +~C)

k. 2k-l + k. 2k-l + 2k, by the IH and Exercise 25
(k + 1)2k

Therefore, P(k + 1) is true. Thus, by induction, P(n) is true for every n ~ 1. Hence the result.
n n
32. proof: n(1 + x)n-l = L; C)rxr-l. Let x = 1. Then n · 2n-l = L; rC).
r=l r=l
2
34. 2:: Gl 1 =G)
i=2
3
L: Gl Gl+G)=1+3=4=(~)
i=2
4
L: Gl
i=2
Gl + m + (~) = 1 + 3 + 6 = 10 = m
Continuing this pattern, we conjecture that £: (;) = (n!
i=2
1
).
 15

n
36. As in Exercise 34, we conjecture that L: G)= (n! 1).
i=3

38. Using Exercises 34 and 36, we conjecture that f: (D = G!i).

i=k

Exercises 1.6 (p. 48)

2. Let tn = 666; that is, n(n + 1)/2 = 666. Then n 2 + n- 1332 = 0; that is, (n- 36)(n + 36) = 0. So
n= 36.

4. Stn +I= Sn(n + 1)/2 +I= 4n(n +I)+ I= 4n 2 + 4n +I= (2n + 1) 2 = S2n+1·

6. Pn Pn-1 + 3n- 2 = Pn-2 + [3(n- I)- 2] + 3n- 2

Pn-2 + 3[(n- I)+ n]- 2 · 2
Pn-3 + 3[(n- 2) + (n- I)+ n] - 3 · 2

P1 +3(2+3+ .. ·+n) -2(n-!)

I+ 3[n(n + 1)/2- !]- 2(n- I)
n(3n- 1)/2

8. tn-1 + Sn n(n -1)/2 + n 2

n(3n- 1)/2 = Pn

10. Pn + tn-1 = n(3n- 1)/2 + n(n- 1)/2 = n(2n -I)= hn

12. By Theorem 1.13, Stn-1 +I= (2n- 1) 2 , so 8tn_ 1 + 4n = (2n- 1) 2 + 4n -I= (2n) 2

14. proof:
t2n-2tn= (2n)(2n+!) -2· n(n+!) =n'
2 2

16. By Theorem 1.11, tk+tk-1 = k 2. Letting k = tn, this yields the desired result. (This can be confirmed
algebraically also.)

18. proof: Let n = m(m + 1)/2. Then

(2k + !) 2n + tk (2k + !) 2 m(m + 1)/2 + k(k + 1)/2

[(2k + 1) 2 (m2 + (2k +!) 2 m+ k(k + !)] /2
[(2k + l)m + k] [(2k + l)m +I] /2
N(N + 1)/2, whereN = (2k + I)m + k
tN(N+I)/2 1 a triangular number
16 CHAPTER 1. FUNDAMENTALS

20. hn hn-1 + 4n- 3 = hn-2 + [4(n -1)- 3] + (4n- 3)

hn-2 + 4[(n- 1) + n]- 2 · 3

h1 +4(2+3+···+n) +3(n-1)
1 + 4(2 + 3 + · · · + n) + 3(n- 1)
1 +4[n(n+ 1)/2 -1]- 3(n -1)
n(2n-1)

22. e1 = 1; en = en-1 + 5n- 4, n 2: 2.

24. 1, 8, 21, 40

26. On On- I+ 6n- 5 = On-2 + [(6(n -1)- 5] + (6n- 5)

On-2 + 6[(n- 1) + n] -2·5
On-3 + 6[(n- 2) + (n- 1) + n]- 3 · 5

01 +6(2+3+ ···+n) -5(n-1)

1 + 6[n(n + 1)/2- 1]- 5(n- 1)
1 + 3n(n + 1)- 6- 5(n- 1)
n(3n- 2)

28. Both 6 and 62 = 36 are triangular numbers.

30. 1225 = 49. 50/2 = 352 ; 41616 = 288. 289/2 = 2042 ; 1413721 = 1681. 1682/2 = 11892

(17t12v'2) 2 +(17 12,/2) 2 2 2·17 2 ±2·288 2

32 32

578±576 2 = 36·
32 ,
3
(17t12v'2t+(17-12,/2) -2 - 2-17 3 ±2·3·17·288 2
32 - 32

34. I 2 -2(1k- I)
k(k±l) -
" ktl

2f:: (i- k~l)

k=l
2(l- 1
_I )
ntl

2(1- -n+t 1
)
 17

Exercises 1. 7 (p. s2)

,.,
.Ln-1
+ n(n+1)
2

T,
n-2
+ (n~1)n
2
+ n(n+J)
2

,.,
.Ln-3
+ (n~2)(n~1)
2
+ (n~1)n
2
+ n(n+l)
2

T1 + 2·3 + 3·42 + ... + (n~1)n + n(n+1)

2 2 2

1+ 2·3 + 3·42 + ... + (n~1)n + n(n+l)

2 2 2

.!.J_
2
+ 2·3
2
+ 3·42 ... + (n-l)n
2
+ n(n+l)
2

~ f:i(i + 1) = ~ (f:i 2 + f:i)

l
1 1 1
~ [ n(n+1~(2n+1) + n(n2+1) = n(~t1) [( 2n + 1) + 3]
n(n+l)(n+2)
6

4. Sn Sn-1 + n2
Sn~2 + (n- 1) 2 + n 2
Sn~3 + (n- 2) 2 + (n- 1) 2 + n 2

S1 + 22 + 32 + · · · + (n- 1) 2 + n 2
1 + 22 + 32 + · · · + (n -1) 2 + n 2
n(n+1)(2n+l)
6

6. P1 = 1; Pn = Pn-1 + n(J~-o, n 2: 2.

n n
8. L hk = L k(2k -1)
k=l k=l
2 f: k2 _ f: k= 2 [n(n+1~(2n+J)]- n(n +1)
2
k=l k=l
n(n+1~(2n+l) _ n(n/1) = n(n +1) [ ( n
6 2 2 + 1) _ 3]
n(n+1)(4n-1)
6

10.
18 CHAPTER 1. FUNDAMENTALS

Hn-1+2n 2 -n
Hn-2 + [2(n -1) 2 - (n -1)1 + (2n 2 - n)
Hn-2 + [2(n- 1) 2 + 2n 21- [(n- 1) + nl
2 2 2
Hn-3 + 2[(n- 2) + (n -1) + n 1- [(n- 2) + (n- 1) + nl

H, + 2(2 2 + 32 + · · · + n 2 ) - (2 + 3 + · · · + n)
1 + 2(2 2 + 32 + · · · + n 2)- (2 + 3 + · · · + n)

1 + 2 [ n(n+!t(2n+l) _ 1] - [ n(n,+l) _ 1]
l + n(n+1)(2n+l) _
2_ n(n+l) +l
3 2

= n(n/l) [2(2n + 1) - 31
n(n+1)(4n-1)
6

n n
12. En = 2: ek = 2: k(s;-3)
k=l k=l

~ [5~ k2 _ 3~ k] = ~ [ 5n(n+1J(2n+l) _ 3n(;+l) l

n(~~l) [5(2n + 1)- 91
n(n+l)(Sn-2)
6

Exercises 1.8 (p. s7)

(2n)! (2n)!
n!n! - (n l)!(n 1)!

~I(
n!(n+l)! n + 1l - nI

~ n 0.25cm I
n!(n+l)! = C[

4. _1_ (2n+l) 1 (2n+l)! _ (2n)!

2n+l n = 2n+l · n!(n+l)! - n!(n+l)!

2(2n) _ 2n+l (2n)

n n+l n

8· Cs

16 + 6. 4. 1 + 2 = 42
 19

10. C(x) Co+ C1x + C2x 2 + · · · + Cnxn + · · ·

2
[C(x)J CoCo+ (CoC1 + C1Co)x +(CoG,+ C1C1 + C,Co)x 2 + · · ·
C1 + C2x + Csx 2 + · · · + C,+ 1 .~n + · · ·
C(x)-Co
X

00
12. Since .)1- 4x = 1-2 L ~( 2,"~12 )x", it follows that
n=l

1- v'f=4x
2x
= f: ~ (2n-
n n- 1
2)xn-1
n=l

By Exercise 11, this implies that

1- v'f=4x
2x
= ~~
L-n
(2n-
n-1
2)xn-1
n=l

That is 1

f:
n=O
C,xn = f:
n=O
_1_ (2n) x"
n+1 n
Equating the coefficients of xn, we get the desired result:

Cn= _1
n+ 1
(2n)
n

Review Exercises (p. 60)

n n
2. z= z= (2i + 3j)
i=l j=l
i~ (2ni + ;~ 3 1 j) = i~ [ 2ni + 3. n(n +
2
1
)]

2n . n(n+l) + 3n 2 (n+l)
2 2

5(n+l)n 2
2
n n n n
4. 2.: 2.: 2; 2.:(2'+ 1 - 2) = L 2'+ 1 - 2n
i=l j=l i=l i=l
n+l
L 2i- (1 + 2)- 2n = (2"+ 2 - 1)- 3- 2n
i=O
2n+ 2 - 2n- 4
6.
n i n L 2j ITn 32i(i+l}/2
IT IT 32j IT 3;~1
i=l j=l i=l i=l
n

n L(i 2
+ i)
IT 3'<'+1} = 3'~1
i=l
"(n+l)(2n+l) + n(n +t)
3 2

3n(n+l)(n+2)/3
20 CHAPTER 1. FUNDAMENTALS

n i n
8. L i' IT j = L i!i'
i=l j=l i=l

10.
n
IT 2'" = 2r~o
L> = 2Tn, where Tn denotes the nth tetrahedral number.
r=O

12. n
L L Lk
i=l j=l k=l
i j
,tl Ct j) = ,~ i(i;l) = ! ,tl (i' + i)
n(n+l)(2n+l) + n(n+l) = n(n+l)(n+2)
12 4 6

14. 8

16. h(n) h(n-1)+4(n-l)

h(n- 2) + 4(n- 2) + 4(n- 1)
h(n- 3) + 4(n- 3) + 4(n- 2) + 4(n -1)

h(1) + 4[1 + 2 + · · · + (n- 1)]

0+4· (n-1)n/2
2n(n-1), n 21

18. an Un-1 + n(n + 1)

an-2 + (n- 1)n + n(n + 1)
Un-3 + (n- 2)(n -1) + (n- 1)n + n(n + 1)

a1 + 2 · 3 + 3 · 4 + · · · + n(n + 1)
1. 2 + 2 · 3 + · · · + n(n + 1)
n n n
L i(i + 1) = L i 2 + L i
i=l i=l i=l
n(n+1)(2n+l) + n(n+l)
6 2
n(n+l)(n+2)
3 n21

an-1 + 2n-l
an-2 + 2n-2 + 2n-1

an-1 + 2n-3 + 2n-2 + 2n-1

Uj +2+22+···+2n-1
1 + 2 + 22 + ... + 2n-1
2n- 1, n 2 1
 21

an-1 + rn/21 , where ao = 1

1 + r2/21 + r3/21 + r4/21 + rs/21 + ... + rn/21

1 + 1 + 2 + 2 + ... + rn/21

2(1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + n/2) if n is even

2[1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + (n- 1)/2] + (n + 1)/2 otherwise
2(nj2)(n/2 + 1)/2 if n is even
2[(n -1)/2 · (n + 1)/2]/2 + (n + 1)/2 otherwise
n(n+2)/4 ifn is even
(n + 1) 2 /4 otherwise
2
24. proof: Since (..;a- v"b) 2: 0, a+ b- 2,;ab 2: 0; that is, (a+ b)/2 2: ,;ab.
1 4 1
26. When n = 1, LHS = 1 = ' ; ) = RHS. Therefore, P(1) is true.
k k(4k 2 1)
Assume P(k) is true: 2:(2i -1) 2 = 3 -. Then:
i=l

k+l k
l:)2i -1) 2
2)2i- 1) 2 + (2k + 1) 2
io;:;=l i=l

= k(4k 2 -1) (2k )2 = (k + 1)(2k + 1)(2k + 3)

3 + +1 3
(k + 1)[4(k + 1f- 1]
3

Therefore, P(k) implies P(k + 1), so the result follows by induction.

28. Let P(n): an = n(n+l](n+ )

2
When n = 1, a, = l-~· 3 = 2. So P(1) is true. Assume P(k) is true. Then

1 2
Ok+l Ok + (k + 1)(k + 2) = k(k + l(k + ) + (k + 1)(k + 2)

(k+1)(k+2) [~+1] = k(k+1)(k:2)(k+3)

Thus P(k) implies P(k + 1), so the result follows by induction.

30. Let P(n): On = 2n- 1. Since a1 = 2 1 - 1 = 1, P(1) is true. Assume P(k) is true: ak = 2k- 1.
Theu Uk+l = uk + 2k = (2k- 1) + 2k = 2k+ 1 -1. So P(k) implies P(k + 1) and the result follows by
induction.

32. proof:
e:l (2n)! _
n!n! -
(2n-1)!
(2n)(2n-1)!
n!n!
2 n!(n-1)!
2 (2nn-1)

34. t,g + t2o + t21 + t22 + t23 + t24 t25 + t26 + t27 + t28
t29 + t3o + t31 + t32 + t33 + t34 + t3s !35 + t37 + t3s + t39 + t•o
22 CHAPTER 1. FUNDAMENTALS

n n n
36. 2:: k3 = 2:: [t~ - t%_ 1] = t~- ty = t~- 1. Thus 2:: k 3 = [n(n + 1)/2}'.
k=Z k=2 k=l

(n(n+l)J[k(k+1)[ + ((n-1)n[[(k-1)k)]
4 4

n k[(n + 1)(k + 1) + (n -1)(k -1)]

4
nk(nk+l)
2

44. LHS (2k + 1)2. n(,+1) + k(.,+1)

(2k+1} 2 n 2 +(2k+ 1) 2n+k(k+l)

2

[(2k+ 1)n+k II(2k+ 1)n+k+ 11

2

46. proof (by induction on n): Clearly, it is an integer when n = 0 and n = 1.

Now, assume the result is true for an arbitrary integer k ~ 0. Then:

[(k + 1)r]! . (kr)! [(k + 1)r]! k!(r!)k

7
(k + 1)!(r!)k+1 k!(r!)k (k + 1)!(r!)k+1 · (kr)!
(kr + r)(kr + r -1) ... (kr + 1)
(k+1)r!
(kr+r-1) ... (kr+ 1)
(r- 1)!

(
kr + r
r-1
-1)
Since the RHS is an integer, so is the LHS. So the result is also true when n = k + 1. Thus, by
induction, the result is true for every integer n 2: 0.

48. Since an satisfies the same definition as Fn, it follows that an = Fn, n 2: 1.

Supplementary Exercises (p. 62)

(a 2c2 + b2d 2) + (a 2 d 2 + b2 c2)

(a2 c2 + b2d 2 + 2abcd) + (a 2d 2 + b2 c2 - 2abcd)
(ac + bd) 2 +(ad- bc) 2
3n-2
4. (2n- 1) 2 = I:; i
i=n