Mathematics Olympiad

Notes on Algebra

Narasimhan R. Chari

m
1. If a and b are positive real numbers such that a + b = 1, prove that aa bb + ab ba ≤ 1
Hint: Method 1: We use the weighted Arithmetic Mean-Geometric Mean inequality:

o
If w1 , w2 , x1 , x2 are positive real numbers, then

l.c
w1 x1 + w2 x2 w1 + w2
 
≥ x1w1 x2w2
w1 + w2

ai
Put (w1 , w2 ) = (a, b); (x1 , x2 ) = (a, b) and then (x1 , x2 ) = (b, a). We get
a + b
ab + ba a + b
 2
a + b2
  gm
b a
≥ a b and also ≥ aa bb ;
a+b a+b
using a + b = 1 and adding these two inequalities, we get 1 = (a + b)2 ≥ ab ba + aa bb
Method 2: a) We can prove the general AM − GM inequality by induction.
ri@

∑ ai
We must prove that ≥ (∏ ai )1/n , where a1 , a2 , . . . , an are positive real numbers
n
a+b √
Proof: For n = 2, ≥ ab is equivalent to (a + b)2 ≥ 4ab ⇔ (a − b)2 ≥ 0,
2
which is obviously true for all real numbers, since the square of any real number is always non-
ha

negative. This also proves that equality holds in the AM − GM inequality if and only if a = b.
In general, let n ≥ 3 and arrange the given numbers in increasing order, 0 < a1 ≤ a2 ≤ . . . ≤ an .
∑ ai
sic

The arithmetic mean is the average A = and the geometric mean is G = (∏ ai )1/n . Since
n
the average of the n real numbers lies between the minimum and the maximum of the numbers,
we have, 0 < a1 ≤ A ≤ an ; hence a1 − A and A − an are both negative (or zero);
hence (a1 − A)(A − an ) ≥ 0 ⇒ a1 A + an A − A2 ≥ a1 an ; hence
ra

a1 an
A(a1 + an − A) ≥ a1 an ⇒ a1 + an − A ≥ .
A
na

Appling the AM − GM inequality to the set of n − 1 real numbers,

{a2 , a3 , . . . , an−1 , a1 + an − A}, we get
1
a1 + a2 + . . . + an − A
≥ [(a2 a3 · · · an−1 ) (a1 + an − A)] n − 1
n−1
a1 an
but, a1 + a2 + . . . + an = nA and a1 + an − A ≥ ; hence
A

nA − A h  a a i 1
1 n n−1
≥ (a2 a3 · · · an−1 )
n−1 A
1
a1 a2 · · · a n
An−1 ≥ ⇒ An ≥ a1 a2 · · · an ⇒ AM = A ≥ (a1 a2 · · · an ) n = GM
A
Algebra Mathematics Olympiad

Method 2 b) We now explain the convexity reason behind the weighted AM-GM inequality:
We know that f (x) = log x is a strictly increasing concave function, for x > 0,
1 1
i.e., f 0 (x) = > 0 and f 00 (x) = − 2 < 0; by Jensen’s inequality for concave functions,
x x
 
a+b f (a) + f (b)
f ≥ ; this gives the AM − GM inequality:
2 2
a+b √

m
AM ≥ GM, i.e., ≥ ab.
2
wi
Similarly, taking λi = and using Jensen’s inequality in the form

o
Σ wi
f (Σ λi xi ) ≥ Σ λi f (xi ), for a concave function with Σ λi = 1, we get,

l.c
log (λ1 x1 + λ2 x2 + . . . + λn xn ) ≥ λ1 log x1 + λ2 log x2 + . . . + λn log xn
 
log (λ1 x1 + λ2 x2 + . . . + λn xn ) ≥ log x1λ1 x2λ2 . . . xnλn

ai
This gives the weighted AM-GM inequality:
If wi and xi are positive real numbers, for 1 ≤ i ≤ n, we have

∑ wi xi w1 w2
1
wn ∑ wi
≥ x1 x2 . . . xn


gm
∑ wi
There are other related convex functions.
ri@

f (x) = xx , for 0 ≤ x ≤ 1, has the following properties:

f (0) = limx→0 f (x) = 1, by taking logs and using l’Hôpital’s rule;
f 0 (x) = xx (1 + log x);
f 00 (x) = xx−1 + xx (1 + log x)2 ; f 00 (x) > 0; hence f (x) is a convex function;
ha

1
f (x) has a local minimum at x = .
e
Similarly, the function f (x) = x (1 − x)1−x , for 0 ≤ x ≤ 1, has the following properties:
x
sic

 
0 x
f (0) = 1, f (1) = 1, f (x) = f (x). log ;
1−x
    2
00 1 1 0 x
ra

f (x) = f (x) + + f (x). log ;

x 1−x 1−x
f 00 (x) > 0, in [0, 1]; hence f (x) is a convex function; f (x) has a local minimum
na

1
at x = .
2
Similarly, the function f (x) = x1−x (1 − x)x , for 0 ≤ x ≤ 1, has the following properties:
f (0) = 0, f (1) = 0, 0 < f (x) < 1, for 0 < x < 1;
   
0 1−x 1 − 2x
f (x) = f (x) log + ;
x x(1 − x)
1 1
f 0 (x) is decreasing from ∞ at x = 0 to at x = and then further to −∞ at x = 1;
2 2
hence f (x) is a decreasing function, for 0 < x < 1; i.e., f 00 (x) < 0 in this interval; hence f (x)
0
1
is a concave function; f (x) has a local maximum at x = .
2

narasichari@gmail.com 2
Algebra Mathematics Olympiad

 
a+b f (a) + f (b)
Jensen’s inequality gives f ≥ ;
  2 b a 2
a b + ba ab
 
1 1 1
put b = 1 − a; we get f ≥ ; but f = ; hence aa bb + ab ba ≤ 1
2 2 2 2
Note: If f : R → R is a twice differentiable function then f is convex if and only if
00
f (x) ≥ 0, ∀x ∈ R
If f : Rn → R is a twice differentiable function then f is convex if and only if ∇2 f is positive

m
semidefinite, i.e., ∇2 f (x) ≥ 0, ∀x ∈ Rn
In one variable, eax is convex for all a ∈ R; |x|a is convex for a ≥ 1; xa is convex for a ≥ 1

o
and a < 0; sin x is a concave function for 0 ≤ x ≤ π; cos x is concave in the first quadrant and
convex in the second quadrant; log x is concave for all real numbers.

l.c
In several variables, log (ex1 + ex2 + . . . + exn ) is a convex function; max{x1 , x2 , . . . , xn } is also
a convex function;
max{x1 , x2 , . . . , xn } ≤ log (ex1 + ex2 + . . . + exn ) ≤ max{x1 , x2 , . . . , xn } + log n

ai
gm
ri@
ha
sic
ra
na

narasichari@gmail.com 3
Algebra Mathematics Olympiad

2. If a, b, c are positive real numbers such that ab + bc + ca = 1, show that

1 1 1 5
+ + >
a+b b+c c+a 2

Ans: The fractions are well-defined, since, for example, if a + b = 0, the condition gives ab = 1;
hence a2 = −1, which is impossible for real numbers.
Equality holds in the problem for (a, b, c) = (0, 1, 1), (1, 0, 1), (1, 1, 0).

m
1
Equality does not hold for a = b = c, since ab + bc + ca = 1 ⇒ 3a2 = 1, a = b = c = √ ; but
√ 3
1 1 1 3 3

o
the inequality + + ≥ is false: take a and b close to 1, e.g., a = b = 0.9,
a+b b+c c+a 2 √
1 − ab 19 1 1 1 3 3

l.c
c= = gives + + ≈ 2.54, but ≈ 2.59
a+b 180 a+b b+c c+a 2
1 1 3
You can also take a approximately equal to √ ; for example, a = b = , c =
3 2 4

ai
√
1 1 1 13 3 3
+ + = > , since 676 > 675; but
a+b b+c c+a 5 2 gm √
3 8 1 1 1 265 3 3
a=b= , c= gives + + = < , since 70025 < 70227
5 15 a + b b + c c + a 102 2
5
Hence the minimum estimate on the right side cannot be improved.
2
ri@

1 1 1
Aside: There is no global maximum for + + . For instance, to make this func-
a+b b+c c+a
1 1 − ab 1
tion greater than any given positive integer N, we can take a = b = ,c= =N− ;
2N a+b 4N
1 1 1 1
+ + > =N
a+b b+c c+a a+b
ha

Method 1: The u − v − w Theorem:

Every symmetric inequality in three variables a, b, c of degree less than or equal to 5 has to be
proved only for a = b and for a = 0. (See ‘The u − v − w method’, by Mathias, Bæk, Tejs and
sic

Knudsen for the proof using discriminants). These are the only special cases that we must deal
with.
1 1
Special cases: i) If c = 0, we have b = ; the AM-GM inequality gives a + ≥ 2, with equality
ra

a a
1
only for a = 1; f (x) = x + is an increasing function for x ≥ 1; (the graph has asymptotes,
x
(i.e., tangents at infinity) along the y−axis and the line y = x, with a local minimum at x = 1).
na

 
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 5
Hence f a + > f (2) ⇒ + + = a+ + ≥ 2+ =
a a+b b+c c+a a 1 2 2
a+
a
1 − a2
ii) If a = b, then ab + bc + ca = 1 ⇒ c = ; 0<a<1
2a
1 1 1 1 4a
+ + = + 2 .
a + b b + c c + a 2a a + 1
1 4a
Let f (a) = + 2 . This function is monotone decreasing for 0 < a ≤ 1, since its derivative
2a a + 1
is
−1 4 − 4a2 −(3a2 − 1)2
f 0 (a) = + = ≤0
2a2 (a2 + 1)2 2a2 (a2 + 1)2
narasichari@gmail.com 4
Algebra Mathematics Olympiad

5
Hence the minimum value of f (a) is f (1) =
2
1 4a 5 9a2 + 1 5
Or, without using calculus, + 2 > ⇔ > , for 0 < a < 1
2a a + 1 2 2a(a2 + 1) 2
⇔ 5a3 − 9a2 + 5a − 1 < 0 ⇔ (a − 1)(5a2 − 4a + 1) < 0.
But this is true, since the first factor, a − 1 ≤ 0, for 0 < a ≤ 1 and the discriminant of the
quadratic factor is 16 − 20 = −4 < 0, hence this factor has constant sign; its leading coefficient

m
is 5 which is positive; hence this quadratic is positive, for all real values of x.
This finishes the proof.

o
(The u − v − w method): Clear the denominators and use ab + bc + ca = 1 to get the equivalent
formulation

l.c
a2 + b2 + c2 + 3 5
>
(a + b + c)(ab + bc + ca) − abc 2

ai
(a + b + c)2 + 1 5
⇔ >
a + b + c − abc 2

Put u =
a+b+c
3
; v=
r
ab + bc + ca
3
gm √
; w = 3 abc

Then u ≥ v ≥ w ≥ 0
In terms of u, v, w the given condition becomes 3v2 = 1 and we must prove that
ri@

2 a2 + b2 + c2 + 3(ab + bc + ca) > 5(a + b)(b + c)(c + a)

 

⇔ 2 (a + b + c)2 + ab + bc + ca) > 5 [(a + b + c)(ab + bc + ca) − abc]

 

⇔ 2(9u2 + 3v2 ) > 5(9uv2 − w3 )

⇔ 5w3 − 45uv2 + 18u2 + 6v2 > 0 (1)
ha

We have (a − b)2 + (b − c)2 + (c − a)2 ≥ 0 ⇒ a2 + b2 + c2 ≥ ab + bc + ca ⇒ u ≥ v;

1/3
AM-GM gives ab + bc + ca ≥ 3 a2 b2 c2 ⇒ v ≥ w ≥ 0;
sic

a, b, c are the positive real roots of the cubic equation x3 − 3ux2 + 3v2 x − w3 = 0; we may assume
that these roots are distinct (using the special case treated earlier).
Hence the discriminant of this cubic must be positive.
ra

For a general polynomial of degree n, f (x) = a0 xn + a1 xn−1 + . . . + an , we know that the dis-
criminant is defined as
na

2
D = a2n−2
0 ∏ i< j α i − α j , where {αi } are the roots of the equation f (x) = 0
If all the roots are real, we have D ≥ 0;
If the roots are distinct, i.e., there are no repeated roots, we have D 6= 0
For a cubic ax3 + bx2 + cx + d = 0 with roots α, β , γ, n = 3 and hence the ‘Sylvester resultant’
of f (x) and f 0 (x) is
 
 a b c d 0
 
 0 a b c d
Res ( f , f 0 ) = 3a 2b c 0 0
 
 0 3a 2b c 0
 
 0 0 3a 2b c 
Using R3 − 3R1 and R4 − 3R2 and expanding by the first column, we get

narasichari@gmail.com 5
Algebra Mathematics Olympiad

 
a b c d 
 
0
−b −2c −3d 0  3 2 2 2 2 3
Res ( f , f ) = a.   = a(4ac − 18abcd + 27a d − b c + 4b d)

0 −b −2c −3d
n(n − 1)
 
0 3a 2b c 
(−1) 2
By definition, the discriminant of a polynomial of degree n is D = Res( f , f 0 ).
a0
Hence the discriminant of a cubic is
−1

m
D= Res( f , f 0 ) = a4 (α − β )2 (β − γ)2 (γ − α)2 = b2 c2 − 4ac3 − 4b3 d − 27a2 d 2 + 18abcd.
a
In our case,

o
f (x) = x3 − 3ux2 + 3v2 x − w3 = 0; a = 1, b = −3u, c = 3v2 , d = −w3 ;

l.c
D > 0 ⇒ 162uv2 w3 + 81u2 v4 − 108v6 − 27w6 − 108u3 v3 > 0;
⇒ 6uv2 w3 + 3u2 v4 > 4v6 + w6 + 4u3 v3
Using this condition we must prove (1), i.e.,

ai
18u2 + 6v2 − 45uv2 + 5w3 > 0, for u > v > w > 0, v2 < 3. This is not obvious.
gm
For instance, partially completing the square in w,
6uv2 w3 + 3u2 v4 + 3w6 > 4v6 + w6 + 4u3 v3 + 3w6
⇒ 3(uv2 + w3 )2 > 4(w6 + v3 w3 + v6 ), since u > v > w
3 2
" #
v 3v 6
ri@

⇒ 3(uv2 + w3 )2 > 4 w3 + +
2 4
 6
3v
⇒ 3(uv2 + w3 )2 > 4
4
⇒ uv2 + w3 > v3
ha

⇒ w3 > v3 − uv2
We must prove that 18u2 + 6v2 − 45uv2 + 5(v3 − uv2 ) > 0
sic

1
But this is false for u, v ≈ √
3
We can solve the quadratic in w3 :
6uv2 w3 + 3u2 v4 > 4v6 + w6 + 4u3 v3
ra

⇒ w6 − 6uv2 w3 + (4v6 + 4u3 v3 − 3u2 v4 ) < 0

p
na

⇒ w3 > 3uv2 − 2 3u2 v4 − v6 − u3 v3

1
We must prove that 18u2 + 6v2 − 45uv2 + 5w3 > 0, for v > √
3

narasichari@gmail.com 6
Algebra Mathematics Olympiad

Method 2): Case 1) Suppose a + b + c > 2; we have

1 1 1
F(a, b, c) : = + +
a+b b+c c+a
ab + bc + ca ab + bc + ca ab + bc + ca
= + +
a+b b+c c+a
c(a + b) + ab a(b + c) + bc b(c + a) + ca
= + +
a+b b+c c+a

m
ab bc ca
= a+b+c+ + +
a+b b+c c+a
ab bc ca

o
> a+b+c+ + +
a+b+c a+b+c a+b+c
1

l.c
= a+b+c+
a+b+c
1
Now, the function f (x) = x + is decreasing for 0 < x < 1; it has a minimum at x = 1 and it is
x

ai
increasing for x > 1. Since we have assumed that a + b + c > 2 we get f (a + b + c) > f (2), i.e.,
1 5
f (a + b + c) > 2 + = .
2 2 gm
This proves the inequality in this case.
Case 2) For the general case we can use the Lagrange multiplier method.
1 1 1
Let f = + + and g = ab + bc + ca − 1; F = f + λ g. Then
ri@

a+b b+c c+a

∂F 1 1
=− 2
− + λ (b + c) = 0, i.e.,
∂a (a + b) (a + c)2
1 1 1 1
2
+ 2
= λ (b + c), 2
+ = λ (a + b),
(a + b) (c + a) (b + c) (c + a)2
1 1
ha

2
+ = λ (c + a).
(a + b) (b + c)2
Subtracting, we get,
sic

(a − b)(a + b + 2c) (c − a)(a + 2b + c)

λ (a − b) = , λ (c − a) = . If a = b, we get
(b + c)2 (c + a)2 (b + c)2 (a + b)2 √
2 c+a 1 1 1 3 3
a 6= 0, 2λ a = ; hence − = ; c=a=b= √ ;λ = .
(c + a)2 a(c + a)2 (c + a)2 4a2 3 4
ra

If we assume a, b, c are distinct, we can cancel a − b and c − a to get

λ (a + b)2 (b + c)2 = c + a + 2b;
na

(c + a)(c + a + 2b) = (a + b)2 + (b + c)2 ; ac = b2 ; bc = a2 ; a3 = c3 ; a = b = c, contradiction.

The Hessian matrix is
2(a + b)−3 + 2(a + c)−3 2(a + b)−3 + λ 2(a + c)−3 + λ
 
 2(b + a)−3 + λ 2(b + a)−3 + 2(b + c)−3 2(b + c)−3 + λ 
−3
2(c + a) + λ −3
2(c + b) + λ −3
2(c + a) + 2(c + b)−3

√ 1 2 2
 
 
1 1 1 3 3
At the critical point P(a, b, c) ≡ √ , √ , √ , we get H = 2 1 2
3 3 3 2
2 2 1
The eigenvalues are {−1, −1, 5}; the principal minors are {1,√
−3, 5}; H is indefinite; P is a
3 3
saddle point (neither maximum nor minimum) for f ; f (P) = .
2

narasichari@gmail.com 7
Algebra Mathematics Olympiad

1 1 1
The function + + is a convex function in the open first octant
x+y y+z z+x
{(x, y, z) ∈ R3 : x, y, z > 0}, since the Hessian matrix ∇2 f is given by

2(a + b)−3 + 2(c + a)−3 2(a + b)−3 2(c + a)−3

 

H = 2(a + b)−3 2(a + b)−3 + 2(b + c)−3 2(b + c)−3 

2(c + a)−3 2(b + c)−3 2(c + a)−3 + 2(b + c)−3

m
Temporarily using the notation x = 2(b + c)−3 , y = 2(c + a)−3 , z = 2(a + b)−3 , we get values
of the principal minors as y + z, xy + yz + zx, 4xyz, which are all positive. Hence H is positive

o
definite. The constraint ab + bc + ca = 1 represents a hyperboloid of two sheets; f attains its
infimum  on theboundary of the (non-compact) non-convex region xy + yz + zx ≤ 1, i.e., at the

 
1 1
points x, , 0 or x, 0, or 0, y,
x x
l.c

1 5
. These points give the minimum value .
y 2

ai
gm
ri@
ha
sic
ra
na

narasichari@gmail.com 8
Algebra Mathematics Olympiad

3. If a, b, c are positive real numbers and a + b + c + 2 = abc, show that

a b c
+ + ≥2
b+1 c+1 a+1

Hint: Method 1: Given a + b + c + 2 = abc; add a + b + c + ab + bc + ca + 1 on both sides

⇒ (ab + a + b + 1) + (bc + b + c + 1) + (ca + c + a + 1) = abc + ab + bc + ca + a + b + c + 1
⇒ (a + 1)(b + 1) + (b + 1)(c + 1) + (c + 1)(a + 1) = (a + 1)(b + 1)(c + 1). Hence

m
1 1 1
+ + =1 (1)
a+1 b+1 c+1

o
The AM-GM inequality gives
 1
a+1 b+1 c+1 a+1 b+1 c+1 3

l.c
+ + ≥3 . . =3 (2)
b+1 c+1 a+1 b+1 c+1 a+1
a+1−1 b+1−1 c+1−1
Now eq.(2) − eq.(1) gives + + ≥ 3 − 1, i.e.,

ai
b+1 c+1 a+1
a b c
+ + ≥2
b+1 c+1 a+1 gm
Method 2: Change the denominators to new variables:
1 1 1
a + 1 = x, b + 1 = y, c + 1 = z. Then a + b + c + 2 = abc becomes + + = 1;
x y z
x−1 y−1 z−1 x y z
ri@

LHS= + + = + + − 1 ≥ 3 − 1 = 2, by AM-GM.
y z x y z x
a b c
Method 3: Consider + +
b+1 c+1 a+1
3abc + 2(ab + bc + ca) + a + b + c 3(a + b + c + 2) + 2(ab + bc + ca) + a + b + c
= =
(a + 1)(b + 1)(c + 1) abc + ab + bc + ca + a + b + c + 1
ha

2(ab + bc + ca) + 4( a + b + c ) + 6
= =2
2(a + b + c) + ab + bc + ca + 3
sic

1 1 1
Assume wlog, a ≥ b ≥ c. Then ≤ ≤
a+1 b+1 c+1
 1 1 1 
Hence (a, b, c) and , , are opposite sorted sequences.
a+1 b+1 c+1
ra

The re-arrangement inequality gives, for dot products,

Opposite sorting ≤ Random sorting ≤ Like sorting;
na

a b c  1 1 1 
+ + ≤ (a, b, c). , ,
a+1 b+1 c+1 b+1 c+1 a+1
a b c
⇒ 2≤ + +
b+1 c+1 a+1
4. A natural number n is chosen strictly between two consecutive perfect squares. The smaller of
these two squares is n − k and the larger one is equal to n + l. show that n − kl is a perfect square.
Hint: Given x2 < n < (x + 1)2 and x2 = n − k and (x + 1)2 = n + l
Subtracting, we get, (x + 1)2 − x2 = (n + l) − (n + k) ⇒ 2x + 1 = k + l ⇒ l = 1 + 2x − k
Consider n − kl = n − k(1 + 2x − k) = n − k − 2kx + k2 , but n − k = x2 ; hence we get
n − kl = x2 − 2kx + k2 = (x − k)2 , which is a perfect square.

narasichari@gmail.com 9
Algebra Mathematics Olympiad

5. a1 , a2 , . . . , a2011 is a permutation
  1, 2, .. . , 2011. Show that there exists j, k such that
 of
1 ≤ j < k ≤ 2011 and a j − j = ak − k
 
Hint: Suppose, if possible, all these differences |a j − j| are distinct. Then these numbers must
form a permutation of {0, 1, . . . , 2010}. Hence

Σa j − j = Σ2011 a j − j = 1 + 2 + . . . + 2010 = (2010)(2011)

   
j=1 (1)
2


which is odd. But {a j } is a permutation of { j} implies ∑ a j − j = ∑ a j − ∑ j = 0. Now

m
∑ xi = 0 ⇒ ∑xi >0 xi = −Σxi <0 xi ⇒ ∑ |xi | = ∑xi >0 xi − ∑xi <0 xi = 2 ∑xi >0 xi , which is even;

o
this contradicts equation (1).
The conclusion holds whenever n (i.e., 2011 in this example), satisfies n ≡ 2 or 3 (mod 4).

l.c
2 +y 2
6. Find all real numbers x and y such that 16x + 16x + y = 1
2 2
p 2 2
2 2
Hint: By the AM-GM inequality, 16x + y + 16x + y ≥ 2 16x + y .16x + y = 2.4x + y+x + y

ai
√ 2 √ 2
2 1 2 1 2 x + √1 + 2 y + √1
= 22x +2x+ 2 +2y +2y+ 2 =2 2 2 ≥ 20 = 1

√ √
gm
But LHS = 1, (given); hence equality holds in the AM-GM inequality.
1
in the last line must be 0. Hence 2x = 2y = − √ ⇒ (x, y) = − , −
 Hence both
1 1
 the squares
is the unique
2 2 2
solution.
ri@

7. Find a and b such that b 6= 0 and the three distinct polynomials x2 + ax + b, x2 + x + ab and
ax2 + x + b have a common root.
Hint: Let x = k be a common root of the given polynomials. Then
k2 + ak + b = 0 (1)
k2 + k + ab = 0
ha

(2)
ak2 + k + b = 0 (3)
Hence ak + b − k − ab = 0 ⇒ k(a − 1) − b(a − 1) = 0 ⇒ (k − b)(a − 1) = 0 ⇒ k = b or a = 1
sic

If a = 1 all the equations become identical, i.e., x2 + x + b = 0. This contradicts the given
hypothesis that the three polynomials are distinct.
If k = b, we subtract eq (2) − eq (3) to get k2 + ab − ak2 − b = 0
ra

This gives k2 (1 − a) − b(1 − a) = 0 ⇒ (1 − a)(k2 − b) = 0 ⇒ a = 1 or k2 = b

Hence k2 = k ⇒ k = b = 1, since b 6= 0 is given. Equation (1) with the root x = k = 1 gives
na

1 + a + 1 = 0 ⇒ a = −2. Hence the three polynomials are

x2 − 2x + 1 = (x − 1)2 , x2 + x − 2 = (x + 2)(x − 1) and −2x2 + x + 1 = −(x − 1)(2x + 1)

8. a) If |z| = 1 for two complex numbers z = z1 and z = z2 , prove that

|z1 + 1| + |z2 + 1| + |z1 z2 + 1| ≥ 2
b) Show that |cos x| + |cos y| + |cos(x + y)| ≥ 1, for all real numbers x and y.
Hint: Let O ≡ (0, 0), P ≡ (−1, 0), Q ≡ (1, 0), A ≡ z1 = eiθ1 , B ≡ z2 = eiθ2 ,C ≡ z1 z2 = ei(θ1 +θ2 ) be
the given points on the unit circle; by symmetry, we can assume 0 ≤ θ1 ≤ θ2 . ∆ QOA ∼ = ∆ BOC,
(SAS), since OA = OB = OC = OQ = 1 and
∠ BOC = ∠ QOC − ∠ QOB = (θ1 + θ2 ) − θ2 = θ1 = ∠ QOA. Hence BC = QA. Consider
LHS = PA + (PB + PC) ≥ PA + BC = PA + AQ ≥ PQ = 2

narasichari@gmail.com 10
Algebra Mathematics Olympiad

p
b) If |z + 1| = |1 + cos θ + i sin θ | = 1 + 2 cos θ + cos2 θ + sin2 θ
z = eiθ ,
p p
= 2(1 + cos θ ) = 4 cos2 (θ /2) = 2 cos(θ /2); hence part a) gives
      
 θ1   θ 2  
cos  + cos  + cos θ 1 + θ 2 
 ≥ 1;
 2  2  2 
hence |cos x| + |cos y| + |cos(x + y)| ≥ 1, for all x and y.

m
9. If P1 , P2 , . . . , Pn are points on a circle of radius 1, prove that

2
∑ d Pi, Pj ≤ n2
1≤i< j≤n

o


where d Pi , Pj denotes the distance between the points Pi and Pj .

l.c
Hint: Since both the sides of the inequality are independent of the centre the circle, we may
assume that the centre is at the origin, i.e., the circle is the unit circle
|z| = 1; P1 , P2 , . . . , Pn are n
complex numbers, z1 , z2 , . . . , zn , all of unit modulus. Hence d Pi , Pj = |zi − z j |.

ai
|zi − z j |2 = zi − z j zi − z j , since |z|2 = zz

∑i< j |zi − z j |2 = ∑i< j zi − z j zi − z j


gm
= ∑i< j zi zi + z j z j − zi z j + z j zi



= ∑i< j |zi |2 + |z j |2 − 2Re zi z j , but |zi | = 1;

= 2 (nC2 ) − ∑i< j 2Re zi z j

...........................................................(1)
ri@

Consider (∑ zi ) (∑ zi ) = |∑ zi |2 ≥ 0 ...........................................................(2)
⇒ (z1 + z2 + . . . + zn ) (z1 + z2 + . . . + zn ) ≥ 0
⇒ ∑i |zi |2 + ∑i< j zi z j + z j zi ≥ 0


ha

⇒ n + ∑i< j 2Re zi z j ≥ 0


⇒ −2 ∑i< j Re zi z j ≤ n, substitute in Eq. 1
sic

n(n − 1)
∑i< j |zi − z j |2 ≤ 2 (nC2 ) + n = 2 + n = n2
2
Note that equality holds in equation (1) if and only if ∑ zi = 0
ra

10. If three distinct points corresponding to t = a, b, c on the curve given by the parametric equations
t3 t2 − 3
x= , y= are collinear, prove that
t −1 t −1
na

3(a + b + c) − (ab + bc + ca) + abc = 0.

 
x1 y1 1
 
Hint: Use the determinant form x2 y2 1 = 0; clear denominators, then perform the row
x3 y3 1
operations
R2 − R1 , R3 − R1 ; then R2 /(b − a), R3 /(c − a), R3 − R2 followed by C1 − aC2 ,C2 − aC3 .

11. Show that if a = x2 − yz, b = y2 − zx, c = z2 − xy then a3 + b3 + c3 − 3abc is a perfect square.

Hint: a3 − abc = ax(x3 + y3 + z3 − 3xyz) etc., cyclically shows that the required expression is
equal to (x3 + y3 + z3 − 3xyz)2 ; or use a − b = (x − y)(x + y + z) etc., cyclically, together with
1
a3 + b3 + c3 − 3abc = (a + b + c)[(a − b)2 + (b − c)2 + (c − a)2 ] to get the answer.
2

narasichari@gmail.com 11
Algebra Mathematics Olympiad

12. Show that x3 + y3 + 3xy = 1 represents the union of a line and an isolated point.
Hint: x3 + y3 + (−1)3 = 3(−1)(x)(y); x + y = 1 or (x, y) = (−1, −1)

13. If x, y, z are real numbers and x2 + y2 + z2 = 3, show that

√
x3 − x(y2 + yz + z2 ) + yz(y + z) ≤ 3 3
Hint: Put x = y, the expression becomes zero; similarly for x = z; the sum of the three roots of
the cubic in x is the coefficient of x2 , which is zero; hence the third root is −(y + z). To prove

m
that √
(x − y)(x − z)(x + y + z) ≤ 3 3. We may assume without loss of generality that all the factors

o
are positive; (otherwise the LHS is even smaller). Using the AM-GM inequality we get
x−y+x−z+x+y+z p p √
≥ 3 (x − y)(x − z)(x + y + z); also we have x ≤ x2 + y2 + z2 = 3;

l.c
3
hence √
(x − y)(x − z)(x + y + z) ≤ x3 ≤ 3 3

ai
k=2n k=2n
2n + 1

14. If ∑ ak (x − 2)k = ∑ bk (x − 3)k and ak = 1, for k ≥ n, show that bn = n+1
k=0 k=0

an
n!(x − 2)0
+ an+1
(n + 1)!(x − 2)1
gm
Hint: Differentiate both sides n times with respect to x;

+ . . . + a2n
(2n)!(x − 2)n
0! 1! n!
n!(x − 3)0 (n + 1)!(x − 3)1 (2n)!(x − 3)n
= bn + bn+1 + . . . + b2n ;
ri@

0! 1! n!
put x = 3 on both sides and use ak = 1, for k ≥ n; we know that
mC +(m+1)C +(m+2)C + . . . +(m+n)C = (m+n+1)C ; hence
0 1 2 n n
bn = 1 +(n+1) C1 +(n+2) C2 + · · · +(n+n) Cn = (2n+1)Cn = (2n+1)Cn+1 , since nCr =nCn−r
ha
sic
ra
na

narasichari@gmail.com 12
Algebra Mathematics Olympiad

15. To find a formula for Sk (n) = 1k + 2k + . . . + nk , using Bernoulli numbers. (Jakob or James
Bernoulli, 1690)
Let S0 (n) = n + 1; Sk (n) = Sk
Consider
Z n+1 n Z i+1
xk dx = ∑ xk dx; use x = u + i;
0 i=0 i
(n + 1)k+1
Z 1h

m
i
= xk + (x + 1)k + . . . + (x + n)k dx
k+1 0
Z 1  
xk + xk + kC1 xk−1 + kC2 xk−2 + . . . + kCk

o
=
0

l.c
 
k k k−1 k 2 k−2 k k
+ x + C1 (2)x + C2 (2 )x + . . . + Ck (2 )
 
+ . . . + xk + kC1 (n)xk−1 + kC2 (n2 )xk−2 + . . . + kCk (nk ) dx

ai
R1 
(n + 1)xk + kC1 (S1 )xk−1 + kC2 (S2 )xk−2 + . . . + kCk (Sk ) dx.

= 0
Hence we get gm
(n + 1)k+1 n + 1 (kC1 )(S1 ) (kC2 )(S2 ) (kCk )(Sk )
= + + +...+ (1)
k+1 k+1 k k−1 1
This is the recurrence relation which helps us successively evaluate all Sk , for k ≥ 2
ri@

(n + 1)2 n + 1 1
Putting k = 1, we get = + S1 , i.e., S1 = 1 + 2 + . . . + n = n(n + 1).
2 2 2
(n + 1)3 2 2
n + 1 ( C1 )(S1 ) ( C2 )(S2 ) n + 1
For k = 2, we get = + + = + S1 + S2 , i.e.,
3 3 2 1 3
1
ha

S2 = 12 + 22 + . . . + n2 = n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
6
(n + 1)4 n + 1 (3C1 )(S1 ) (3C2 )(S2 ) (3C3 )(S3 )
Putting k = 3, we get = + + + , hence
4 4 3 2 1
sic

1
S3 = n2 (n + 1)2
4
The recurrence relation eq. (1) can be written in matrix form. For example, to find S4 ,
ra

 
n+1
2
     (n + 1) 
1 0 0 0 0 S0  2 
na

1/2 1/1 0 0 0  S1   (n + 1)3 


   
 S2  = 
1/3 2/2 1/1 0 0 
 
3
  

1/4 3/3 3/2 1/1 0  S3   (n + 1)4
 
1/5 4/4 6/3 4/2 1/1 S4
 
 4 
 (n + 1)5 
5
If AS = B, we get S = A−1 B, hence
k
(n + 1)i+1
Sk = ∑ bk,i (2)
i=0 i+1
Bk := bk,0 are the entries in the first column of A−1 = [bk,i ];
B0 = 1; putting n = −1 in the matrix equation we get the recurrence relation
1 nC nC nC
1 2 n
B0 + B1 + B2 + . . . + Bn = 0
n+1 n n−1 1
narasichari@gmail.com 13
Algebra Mathematics Olympiad

Bn = {1, −1/2, 1/6, 0, −1/30, 0, . . .} are called the Bernoulli numbers.

Hence we have the formula
       
1 k+1 k+1 k k+1 k−1 k k+1
Sk (n) = B0 n − B1 n + B2 n + . . . + (−1) Bk n (3)
k+1 1 2 k
Another method is to use the binomial expansion

m
k  
k+1 k+1 k+1
(m + 1) =m +∑ mi
i=0 i

o
Separating the last term and summing over m, we get

l.c
n k−1 n   n
k+1 k+1 k+1 i
∑ [(m + 1) − m ] − ∑ ∑ i m = (k + 1) ∑ mk
m=1 i=0 m=1 m=1
The telescoping sum gives

ai
∑nm=1 [(m + 1)k+1 − mk+1 ] = (n + 1)k+1 − 1. Hence
k−1  gm

k+1 k+1
(k + 1)Sk (n) = (n + 1) − 1 − ∑ Si (n) − n
i=1 i
This gives the recurrence relation
" #
k−1  
1 k + 1
Sk (n) = (n + 1)k+1 − (n + 1) − ∑ Si (n) (4)
ri@

k+1 i=1 i
1 1 1
Hence S0 := n + 1; S1 = − (n + 1) + (n + 1)2 = n(n + 1)
2 2 2
1 1 1 1
S2 = (n + 1) − (n + 1)2 + (n + 1)3 = n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
6 2 3 6
ha

1 (n + 1) 2 3 (n + 1) 3 (n + 1)4 1 2
S3 = 0 + − + = n (n + 1)2
2 2 2 3 4 4
1 1 (n + 1) 3 2 (n + 1)4 (n + 1)5 1
sic

S4 = − (n + 1) + 0 + − + = n(n + 1)(2n + 1)(3n2 + 3n − 1)

30 3 3 4 4 5 30
1 1
S5 = n2 (n + 1)2 (2n2 + 2n − 1); S6 = n(n + 1)(2n + 1)(3n4 + 6n3 − 3n + 1)
12 42
k+1
ra

(n + B) − Bk+1 k+1

Also, Sk (n) = , where (n + B)k+1 := Σk+1i=0 i Bi n
k+1−i .
k+1
Sk (n) is divisible by n(n + 1), by induction. The coefficient of n in Sk (n) is the Bernoulli number
na

Bk . The Bernoulli polynomials are defined as

k  
k
Bk (x) = ∑ Bi xk−i , Bk = Bk (0)
i=0 i
They satisfy the equation B0k (x) = k Bk−1 (x)
Faulhaber’s formulas for odd values of  k: (JohannFaulhaber, German, 1631): Let u = n(n + 1)
1 1 1 1
Then ∑ n = u; ∑ n3 = u2 ; ∑ n5 = u3 − u2 , etc.
2 4 6 2
The formula for ∑ n 2k−1 is a polynomial in u of degree k; moreover the coefficients of n, n3 , n5 , . . .
are zero, since Bn = 0, for n = 3, 5, 7, . . . For example,
1
∑ n7 = n4 (n + 1)4 + an3 (n + 1)3 + bn2 (n + 1)2 + cn(n + 1) gives c = 0, a + 2b = 0,

8  
7 1 4 4 3 2 2
3a + 4 = 0, hence ∑ n = u − u + u
8 3 3
narasichari@gmail.com 14
Algebra Mathematics Olympiad

 
d n n−1 d
The calculus procedure is as follows: (x ) = nx ⇒ x xn = nxn ; repeating this k
dx dx
times, we get
d k n d k
   
x k n
x =n x ; x (1 + x + . . . + xn ) = 0 + 1k x + 2k x2 + . . . + nk xn ; hence
dx dx
d k
 
limx→1 x (1 + x + . . . + xn ) = 1k + 2k + . . . + nk ; hence
dx

m
 d k  xn+1 − 1 
lim x = 1k + 2k + . . . + nk
x→1 dx x−1
.

o
l.c
ai
gm
ri@
ha
sic
ra
na

narasichari@gmail.com 15
Algebra Mathematics Olympiad

16. Find all solutions in positive integers of the system of equations: x2 − y = 158, y2 − x = 108
Hint: x2 − y2 + x − y = 50; (x − y)(x + y + 1) = 50 = 50 × 1, or 1 × 50, or 2 × 25, or 25 × 2, or
10 × 5, or 5 × 10; x − y = 1, x + y + 1 = 50 gives x = 25, y = 12, but this does not satisfy the
given conditions.
x − y = 5, x + y + 1 = 105 gives x = 7, y = 2, which does not satisfy any of the given pair of
equations. x − y = 2, x + y + 1 = 25 gives the only solution x = 13, y = 11.
Eliminating y from the given equations we get (x − 13)(x3 − 13x2 − 147x − 1912) = 0; this

m
equation has four real roots; one is integral and the other three are irrational. This can be seen
graphically; the two given parabolas have four points of intersection, one in each quadrant.
√ √

o
17. Find all positive real pairs (x, y) which satisfy x2 + y xy = 336, y2 + x xy = 112
√   √  

l.c
Hint: x x3/2 + y3/2 = 336; y y3/2 + x3/2 = 112. Dividing and squaring, we get
√ √
x = 9y; given 336 − x2 = y xy and 112 − y2 = x xy; multiplying, we get,
(336)(112) − 112x2 − 336y2 + x2 y2 = x2 y2 ; cancel 112; x2 + 3y2 = 336; using x = 9y, we get

ai
(x, y) = (18, 2) as the only point of intersection of the two given curves in the first quadrant.

18. Solve in integers: m − n = m2 + mn + n2

Hint: (4m2 + 4mn − 4m) + 4n2 + 4n = 0;
gm
(2m + n − 1)2 + 3n2 + 6n − 1 = 0; (2m + n − 1)2 + 3(n + 1)2 = 4; 2m + n − 1 = ±2, n + 1 = 0;
ri@

2m + n − 1 = ±1, n + 1 = ±1. There are 6 possible integer solutions:

(m, n) = (0, 0), (1, 0), (0, −1), (2, −1), (1, −2), (2, −2)

19. Find all polynomials P(x) with real coefficients such that P(x2 ) + P(x)P(x + 1) = 0
Hint: If α is a (complex) root of P(x), α 2 and (α − 1)2 are also roots; hence {α, α 2 , α 4 , . . .}
ha

are all roots of the polynomial. Hence α 2k = α; α = 0 or |α| = 1; similarly,

{(α − 1)2 , (α − 1)4 , . . .} are 2 2 2 4
 also roots. Hence |α − 1| = 0 or 1; {(α − 1) , (α − 1) , . . .} are
2
also roots; hence α − 1 = 0 or 1. The two circles |z| = 1 and |z − 1| = 1 intersect at two
sic

√ 

  −3
  3 √
points z = eiπ/3 and z = e−iπ/3 , but then z2 − 1 = e2πi/3 − 1 = 
  
+i  = 3 6= 0, 1;
 2 2 
hence |α − 1| = 0 ⇒ α = 1; hence 0 and 1 are the only possible roots of P(x);
ra

n
hence P(x) = axm (x − 1)n ; P x2 = ax2m x2 − 1 ; the given equation becomes



n
ax2m x2 − 1 = −a2 xm (x − 1)n (x + 1)m (x + 1 − 1)n ; this gives m = n and a = −1;
na

hence P(x) = −xn (x − 1)n

narasichari@gmail.com 16
Algebra Mathematics Olympiad

20. If a, b, c are non-zero real numbers and ab + bc + ca = 0, prove that

1 1 1
+ + =0
a2 − bc b2 − ca c2 − ab
Hint: a + b 6= 0, (since a + b = 0 and ab + bc + ca = ab + c(a + b) = 0 ⇒ ab = 0 ⇒ a = b = 0);
a + b + c 6= 0, since c = −(a + b) and c(a + b) = −ab gives
2 2  2  2
b 3b b b
a2 + ab + b2 = 0, a2 + ab + + = a+ +3 = 0; a = b = 0; the problem is
4 4 2 2

m
well-defined since all the denominators are non-zero: e.g., a2 = bc
⇒ a2 + ab + ac = 0 ⇒ a = 0 or a + b + c = 0, which is not possible; now, use ab + ca = −bc

o
etc., cyclically,
1 1 1 1 1 1

l.c
LHS = + + = + +
a2 + ab + ca b2 + bc + ab c2 + bc + ca a(a + b + c) b(a + b + c) c(a + b + c)
ab + bc + ca
= =0

ai
abc(a + b + c)
21. (Kiran Kedlaya, 1995) If x1 , x2 , . . . , xn are positive real numbers such that
x1 + x2 + . . . + xn = 1, prove that

√
x1
+√
x2
+...+ √
xn
≥
gmr
n
1 − x1 1 − x2 1 − xn n−1
1−x 1 √ 1
Hint: If 0 ≤ x ≤ 1, change x to 1 − x; 0 ≤ 1 − x ≤ 1 and √ = √ − x and √ and
ri@

x x x
√ x
− x are convex functions. Hence f (x) = √ is a convex function on [0, 1]. By Jensen’s
1−x
inequality, we get
 
x1 + x2 + . . . xn f (x1 ) + f (x2 ) + . . . + f (xn )
f ≤ ; but x1 + . . . + xn = 1;
ha

n n
1
x1 x2 xn
⇒rn ≤√ +√ +...+ √
1 − x1 1 − x2 1 − xn
sic

1
1−
n
22. Find the number of binomial coefficients 2018C which are multiples of 13.
r
n
ra

Hint: The number of binomial coefficients Cr , 0 ≤ r ≤ n which are multiples of a given prime p,
is given by (n + 1) − (c0 + 1)(c1 + 1) · · · (ck + 1), where n = c0 + c1 p + c2 p2 + . . . + ck pk , ck 6= 0
0 ≤ ci ≤ p − 1, is the p−adic expansion of n, (i.e., in base p).
na

Proof: The binomial expansion (1 + x)n has n + 1 terms. By induction, i.e., by repeated long
division we know that every positive integer has a unique base-p expansion; n = ∑ki=0 ci pi gives
k
(1 + x)n = (1 + x)c0 (1 + x)c1 p · · · (1 + x)ck p ; going mod p we get (1 + x) p = 1 + x p (since pCi
k k
is a multiple of p, for 1 ≤ i ≤ p − 1); by induction, we get (1 + x) p = 1 + x p (mod p). Equat-
k
ing coefficients on both sides, we get nCi xi = c0Ci0 c1Ci1 · · · ckCik xi0 +i1 p+...+ik p ; 0 ≤ c j ≤ p − 1
implies that p does not divide c jCi j , for 0 ≤ j ≤ k; hence p does not divide the product of the
binomial coefficients on the right side; hence p also does not divide the binomial coefficient on
the left side. Now every positive integer i has a unique base p expansion. Hence the number of
non-zero terms (modulo p) on the left side is equal to the number of non-zero terms on the right
side. Hence the number of binomial coefficients nCr , which are not divisible by p is equal to
(c0 + 1)(c1 + 1) · · · (ck + 1). The rest are multiples of p.
For n = 2018, p = 13, we get 2018 = 11(132 ) + 12(13) + 3, hence the required number of bi-
nomial coefficients which are multiples of p is 2019 − (11 + 1)(12 + 1)(3 + 1) = 1395
narasichari@gmail.com 17
Algebra Mathematics Olympiad

1 1 1
23. a) If a, b, c are distinct non-zero real numbers and a + = b + = c + , show that abc = ±1
b c a
1 7 1 1
b) If a + = ; b + = 4; c + = 1, show that abc = 1. Further show that
b 3 c a
 
5 3 2
(a, b, c) = , ,
3 2 5
1 1 1
c) If a, b, c are positive real numbers and a + = l; b + = m; c + = n, show that
b c a

m
lmn ≥ l + m + n + 2. If equality holds then abc = 1 and there is a unique solution for a, b, c.
b−c c−a a−b

o
Hint: a) a − b = ;b−c = ;c−a = ; multiplying these three equations we get
bc ca ab
(a − b)(b − c)(c − a)

l.c
(a − b)(b − c)(c − a) = ; given a, b, c are all distinct, hence a2 b2 c2 = 1
a2 b2 c2
1 1 b2 − 1 −(b + 1)
Case 1: Let c = ; a + = b + ab; a(1 − b) = ; either b = 1 or a = . If b = 1,
ab b b b
1 1 1

ai
c = ; b + = c + ; a2 + a − 2 = 0; a = −2, 1 (a, b, c) = (1, 1, 1), (−2, 1, − 12 ).
a c a
−(b + 1) 1 1
If b 6= 1, we get a = , b 6= −1, c =
gm =− ;
 b   ab b +1
b+1 1 1 a+1
(a, b, c) = − , b, − = a, − ,− , where a 6= −1 and b 6= −1.
b b+1 a+1 a
This parametrisation gives all solutions.
ri@
 
1 1 a−1
Case 2: Let c = − ; repeating the steps we get (a, b, c) = a, , , where a 6= 1.
ab 1−a a
This parametrisation gives all real solutions in this case.
If a, b, c are all positive, then (1, 1, 1) is the only solution.
   
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
ha

b) a + b+ c+ = abc + + a + b + c + + + ; hence
b c a abc a b c
1 1
abc + + 7/3 + 4 + 1 = (7/3)(4)(1) = 28/3; put abc = x; x + = 2; (x − 1)2 = 0; x = 1;
abc x
sic

ab + 1 7 7b 1
hence abc = 1; further, = ; ab = − 1; use = ab; the second equation becomes
b 3 3 c
7b 3 7 2 5 2
b + ab = 4; b = 5 − ; b = ; a = − = ; abc = 1 gives c =
3 2 3 3 3 5
ra

1 1
c) Proceed as above. x + = lmn − l − m − n and use x + ≥ 2, for all positive real numbers.
x x
na

24. If a, b, c are distinct real numbers and a + b + c = 0, show that

a2 b2 c2
+ + =1
2a2 + bc 2b2 + ca 2c2 + ab
a2 a2 a2 a2
Hint: 2 = 2 = 2 = ;
2a + bc a + a.a + bc a + a(−b − c) + bc (a − b)(a − c)
a2 b2 c2
+ +
(a − b)(a − c) (b − a)(b − c) (c − a)(c − b)
−a2 (b − c) − b2 (c − a) − c2 (a − b)
=
(a − b)(b − c)(c − a)
−a2 (b − c) − b2 c + c2 b + b2 a − c2 a) −a2 (b − c) − bc(b − c) + a(b + c)(b − c)
= =
(a − b)(b − c)(c − a) (a − b)(b − c)(c − a)
narasichari@gmail.com 18
Algebra Mathematics Olympiad

(b − c)(−a2 + ab − bc + ac)
=
(a − b)(b − c)(c − a)
(b − c)[−a(a − b) + c(a − b)]
=
(a − b)(b − c)(c − a)
(a − b)(b − c)(c − a)
= =1
(a − b)(b − c)(c − a)

m
a b c
25. a) If a, b, c are real numbers such that + + = 1, show that a, b, c are distinct.
b+c c+a a+b

o
a b c
b) If a, b, c are real numbers such that + + = 1, prove that
b+c c+a a+b

l.c
a2 b2 c2
+ + =0
b+c c+a a+b
Note that Nesbitt’s inequality, (England, 1903), for positive real numbers gives

ai
a b c 3
+ + ≥
b+c c+a a+b 2
Hint: a) If a = b,
solutions.
2a
+
a + c 2a
c
gm
= 1 ⇒ c2 − ac + 2a2 = 0; ∆ = −7 < 0 ⇒ there are no real

b) Multiply the given condition by a and b and then c

ri@

a2 ab ac
+ + =a
b+c c+a a+b
ab b2 bc
+ + =b
b+c c+a a+b
c2
ha

ac bc
+ + =c
b+c c+a a+b

Adding, (first diagonally and then columnwise), we get,

sic

a2 b2 c2 ab + ac ab + bc ac + bc
+ + + + + = a + b + c;
b+c c+a a+b b+c c+a a+b
a2 b2 c2 a(b + c) b(c + a) c(a + b)
ra

⇒ + + + + + = a + b + c;
b+c c+a a+b b+c c+a a+b
a2 b2 c2
⇒ + + +a+b+c = a+b+c
na

b+c c+a a+b

a2 b2 c2
⇒ + + =0
b+c c+a a+b
x y z 4xyz
26. If xy + yz + zx = 1, show that 2
+ 2
+ 2
=
1−x 1−y 1−z (1 − x )(1 − y2 )(1 − z2 )
2

Hint: Method 1: For any triangle ∆ ABC we know that cot A cot B + cot B cotC + cotC cot A = 1,
tan A + tan B
(because tanC = tan (π − A − B) = − tan (A + B) = −
1 − tan A tan B
⇒ tanC (1 − tan A tan B) = − tan A − tan B
⇒ tan A tan B + tan B tanC + tanC tan A = tan A tan B tanC;
dividing both sides by tan A tan B tanC, we get cot A cot B + cot B cotC + cotC cot A = 1)

narasichari@gmail.com 19
Algebra Mathematics Olympiad

Put x = cot A, y = cot B, z = cotC.

cos A sin A
LHS = 2 +...
sin A − cos2 A
 
1 sin 2A sin 2B sin 2C 1
=− + + = − [tan 2A + tan 2B + tan 2C];
2 cos 2A cos 2B cos 2C 2
now repeat tan 2C = tan (2π − 2A − 2B) = − tan (2A + 2B)
tan 2A + tan 2B

m
=−
1 − tan 2A tan 2B
⇒ tan 2C (1 − tan 2A tan 2B) = − tan 2A − tan 2B

o
⇒ tan 2A tan 2B + tan 2B tan 2C + tan 2C tan 2A = tan 2A tan 2B tan 2C; hence

l.c
1 1 2 tan A 2 tan B 2 tanC
LHS = − tan 2A tan 2B tan 2C = − ;
2 2 1 − tan A 1 − tan B 1 − tan2 C
2 2

1 1 1
but tan A = , tan B = , tanC = ;

ai
x y z
2 2 2
hence we get −
1
2 1
x
1
1− 2 1− 2 1− 2
y
1
= z
gm
4xyz
(1 − x )(1 − y2 )(1 − z2 )
2

x y z
x y z
Method 2: Put a = ;b= ;c= ; to prove that a + b + c = 4abc;
ri@

1−x 2 1−y 2 1 − z2
consider
1 − x2 1 − y2



1 1 x y
= = − − + xy; hence
ab xy xy y x
 
1 1 1 1 1 1 x y y z z x
ha

+ + = + + − − − − − − + (xy + yz + zx)
ab bc ca xy yz zx y x z y x z
xy + yz + zx xy + yz + zx xy + yz + zx x y y z z x
= + + − − − − − − +1
sic

xy yz zx y x z y x z
x y y z z x x y y z z x
= 1 + + + 1 + + + 1 + + − − − − − − + 1 = 4;
y x z y x z y x z y x z
1 1 1
ra

this proves + + = 4; hence a + b + c = 4abc

ab bc ca
na

27. If x, y, z are positive real numbers and xyz = 1, show that

−1
−1
−1
1 + x + y−1 + 1 + y + z−1 + 1 + z + x−1 =1

−1
−1
−1 1
Hint: Let a = 1 + x + y−1 , b = 1 + y + z−1 , c = 1 + z + x−1 . Then = xz gives
y
1 1 1 1 1
a= ; also 1 = xyz ⇒ a = = ; b= = ;
1 + x + xz xyz + x + xz x(1 + z + yz) xyz + y + xy y(1 + x + xz)
1 c a b
hence a = by; similarly, c = ⇒ c = ax; xyz = 1 ⇒ b = cz; x = , y = , z = ;
1 + z + yz a b c
1 1 1 1 1 1 a+b+c
a+b+c = + + = + a c + =
1 1 1 c b 1+ + b a a+b+c
1+x+ 1+y+ 1+z+ 1+ + b b 1+ +
y z x a a c c
=1

narasichari@gmail.com 20
Algebra Mathematics Olympiad

28. Solve simultaneously: x + y + z = 1, x2 + y2 + z2 = 1, x3 + y3 + z3 = 1.

Hint: 1 = (x + y + z)2 = x2 + y2 + z2 + 2(xy + yz + zx) = 1 + 2(xy + yz + zx) ⇒ xy + yz + zx = 0;
1 = (x + y + z)3 = x3 + y3 + z3 + 3(x + y)(y + z)(z + x) = 1 + 3(x + y)(y + z)(z + x);
hence x = −y or y = −z or z = −x. Suppose x = −y; then z = 1; this gives x2 + y2 = 0,
i.e., (x, y, z) = (0, 0, 1). Hence the only possible solutions are (x, y, z) = (1, 0, 0) or (0, 1, 0) or
(0, 0, 1)

m
29. x, y, z are real numbers and x + y + z = 0. Let Tk = xk + yk + zk , for k ≥ 1. Prove that:

o
T2 T3 T5 T2 T5 T7
a) = ; b) = ; c) 25 T32 T4 = 18 T52
2 3 5 2 5 7

l.c
Hint: x, y, z are the roots of the equation (λ − x)(λ − y)(λ − z) = 0; then
λ 3 − (x + y + z) λ 2 + (xy + yz + zx) λ − xyz = 0 (1)

ai
Let s1 = x + y + z = 0; s2 = xy + yz + zx; s3 = xyz be the elementary symmetric functions of the
roots. T1 = s1 = 0;
gm
T2 = (x + y + z)2 − 2 (xy + yz + zx) = s21 − 2s2 = −2s2 ;
T3 = (∑ x)3 − 3 [(x + y + z)(xy + yz + zx) − xyz] = s31 − 3s1 s2 + 3s3 = 3s3 .
Put λ = x, y, z in eq. (1) and multiply by xk , yk , zk ; we get,
ri@

xk (x3 − s1 x2 + s2 x − s3 ) = xk+3 − s1 xk+2 + s2 xk+1 − s3 xk = 0; similarly,

yk+3 − s1 yk+2 + s2 yk+1 − s3 yk = 0 and
zk+3 − s1 zk+2 + s2 zk+1 − s3 zk = 0. Adding, we get
Tk+3 − s1 Tk+2 + s2 Tk+1 − s3 Tk = 0; hence
ha

Tk+3 = −s2 Tk+1 + s3 Tk , for k ≥ 1. Using this recurrence relation we can find Tk , for all k ≥ 4.
T4 = −s2 T2 + s3 T1 = −s2 (−2s2 ) = 2s22 ; T5 = −s2 T3 + s3 T2 = −s2 (3s3 ) + s3 (−2s2 ) = −5s2 s3 .
sic

T2 T3 T5
Hence, = −s2 s3 = ; T6 = −s2 T4 + s3 T3 = −2s32 + 3s23 ;
2 3 5
T2 T5 T7
T7 = −s2 (−5s2 s3 ) + s3 2s22 = 7s22 s3 . Hence, = s22 s3 = ;


ra

2 5 7
25 T32 T4 = 25 (3s3 )2 2s22 = 18 25s22 s23 = 18 T52



na

30. A1 = {1}; An+1 = {3k, 3k + 1 : k ∈ An }, for n ≥ 1; A = ∪ An . Show that every positive integer
can be written as a sum of two elements of A. Is this expression unique?
Hint: A1 = {1}; A2 = {3, 3 + 1}; A2 = {32 , 32 + 1, 32 + 3, 32 + 3 + 1}. A is the set of all
positive integers which have each digit equal to either 0 or 1 in their 3−adic expansion, i.e.,
A = {n ∈ N : n = ∑ ai 3i : ai = 0 or ai = 1, ∀ i ≥ 0}. Recall the similar definition of the Cantor
set in (0, 1).
Given a positive integer n, there is a unique non-negative integer m such that 3m ≤ n < 3m+1 .
If n = 3m then this is the 3−adic expansion of n; otherwise, by induction n − 3m has a unique
3−adic expansion, n − 3m = ∑0≤ j≤m a j 3 j ; hence n = ∑ a j 3 j + 3m , 0 ≤ j ≤ m is the unique
3−adic expansion.
Let n = ∑ ai 3i ; let T1 = ∑i { ai 3i : ai = 0, 1} and T2 = ∑ j { a j 3 j : a j = 2}.
n = a1 + a2 , where a1 = ∑ ai 3i : ai ∈ T1 ; a2 = ∑ ai 3i : ai ∈ T2 ,
narasichari@gmail.com 21
Algebra Mathematics Olympiad

a1 = x ∈ A; a2 = 2y, y ∈ A; n = x + 2y : x, y ∈ A; hence n = (x + y) + y. This is an expression

of n as a sum of two elements, namely, x + y and y of A.
Given n, we know that the 3−adic expansion n = ∑ ai 3i is unique. Hence
y = ∑ ai 3i , with ai = 2, is uniquely determined by n and y ∈ A; hence x = n − y is also uniquely
determined by n and x ∈ A.

31. (Reflections, Awesomemath, 2016): Solve simultaneously (over the reals):

m
x3 + y3 y3 + z3 z3 + x3 = 8




(1)
x2 y2 z2 3

o
+ + = (2)
x+y y+z z+x 2

l.c
Ans: (x, y, z) = (1, 1, 1) is the only common solution.
Hint: Step 1): We have the identity

3
x3 + y3 (x + y)3 + x3 − y3 (x − y)3 = 2 x2 + y2

ai
Proof: Both the left and right sides are homogeneous polynomials in one variable of degree
six. We can divide by x6 , i.e., dehomogenise, to get the equivalent identity in one variable
gm
3
1 + t 3 (1 + t)3 + 1 − t 3 (1 − t)3 = 2 1 + t 2

Any such polynomial is determined by seven coefficients. Hence it is enough to show that the
two sides are equal for seven distinct values of x. We can put x = 0, ±1, ±ω, ω 2 , ∞ and verify
that the identity is satisfied.
ri@

Of course there is always the pedestrian way:

Using (x ± y)4 = x4 ± 4x3 y + 6x2 y2 ± 4xy3 + y4 , we get,
LHS = (x + y) x2 − xy + y2 (x + y)3 + (x − y) x2 + xy + y2 (x − y)3

= (x + y)4 x2 + y2 − xy + (x − y)4 x2 + y2 + xy

 

ha

2 2

h 4 4
i h
4 4
i
= x + y (x + y) + (x − y) − xy (x + y) − (x − y)
= x2 + y2 2x4 + 12x2 y2 + 2y4 − xy 8x3 y + 8xy3




sic

2
3
= x2 + y2 2x4 + 4x2 y2 + 2y4 = 2 x2 + y2 x2 + y2 = 2 x2 + y2

= RHS
ra

Step 2): We know that x3 is an increasing function; hence x − y and x3 − y3 always have the
same sign, for all real numbers. Hence (x − y)(x3 − y3 ) ≥ 0, for all x, y ∈ R. Using this in the
step (1) formula we get
na

 2 3
2 2 3

3 3

3 x + y2 x3 + y3
2 x +y ≥ x + y (x + y) , ∀ x, y ∈ R ⇒ ≥ , ∀ x, y ∈ R (3)
x+y 2
Equation 2
x2 y2 z2 3
⇒ + + =
x+y y+z z+x 2
x2 − y2 + y2 y2 − z2 + z2 z2 − x 2 + x 2 3




⇒ + + =
x+y y+z z+x 2
y 2 z2 x 2 3
⇒ x−y+ +y−z+ +z−x+ =
x+y y+z z+x 2
y 2 z 2 x 2 3 2
x +y2 y2 + z2 z2 + x2 3 3
⇒ + + = ⇒ + + = + =3 (4)
x+y y+z z+x 2 x+y y+z z+x 2 2

narasichari@gmail.com 22
Algebra Mathematics Olympiad

a+b+c
Now AM ≥ GM ⇒ ≥ (abc)1/3 ;
3
x2 + y2 y2 + z2 z2 + x 2
Let a = , b= , c= and cube both sides; we get
x+y y+z z+x
 2 3
x + y2 y2 + z2 z2 + x2
 2
x + y2
 2 2 2
z + x2

y +z
+ + ≥ 27 ; use equation 4;
x+y y+z z+x x+y y+z z+x

m
3 x3 + y3 y3 + z3 z3 + x3




(27)
39 ≥ ; but equation 1 implies that equality holds here.
(2)(2)(2)

o
We know that equality holds in AM − GM if and only if a = b = c, i.e., x = y = z in
equation 4. Hence the only solution is x = 1, y = 1, z = 1

l.c
32. Let n ≥ 1 be an integer. Let
     
n n n n−2 n n−4 2
x= 2 + 2 (3) + 2 (3 ) + . . .

ai
0 2 4
Show that 2x − 1, 2x, 2x + 1 form the sides of a Heron triangle, i.e., the lengths of the sides and
the area are all integers. gm√
n
Hint: Consider the binomial expansion 2 + 3 :
√ n n n−1 √  n n−2 √ 2
    
n
2+ 3 = 2 + 2 3 + 2 3 +...
1 2
Separating the rational and irrational parts, we get
ri@

√ n √
          

n n n−2 n n−4 2 n n−1 n n−3
2+ 3 = 2 + 2 (3) + 2 (3) + . . . + 3 2 + 2 (3) + . . .
2 4 1 3
√
= x + y 3; x and y are positive integers and the conjugate equation is
 √ n √
2− 3 = x−y 3
ha

Multiplying these two equations we get

h √  √ in  √  √ 
2+ 3 2− 3 = x+y 3 x−y 3
sic

⇒ x2 − 3y2 = 1 (Pell0 s equation); (1)

√ √  √ n  √ n
Also, x + y 3 + x − y 3 = 2 + 3 + 2 − 3
ra

   
n n n−2
⇒ 2x = 2 2 + 2 (3) + . . .
2
na

Given n ≥ 1; hence the right side is at least equal to 2; hence,

2x ≥ 4, hence x ≥ 2; hence, 2x + (2x − 1) = 4x − 1 > 2x + 1
Thus the sum of the two smallest sides of the triangle is greater than the third (longest) side;
hence 2x − 1, 2x, 2x + 1 form the sides of a triangle.
2x − 1 + 2x + 2x + 1
s= = 3x;
2
p
By Heron’s formula we get the area of the triangle ∆ = s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c)
p p
∆ = 3x(x + 1)(x)(x − 1); ∆ = 3x2 (x2 − 1); but equation 1 gives x2 − 1 = 3y2 .
p
Hence ∆ = 3x2 (3y2 ) = 3xy, which is an integer; the in-radius is r, where ∆ = rs; hence r = y

narasichari@gmail.com 23
Algebra Mathematics Olympiad

33. Solve simultaneeously:

a + b = 8, ab + c + d = 23, ad + bc = 28, cd = 12
Ans: (a, b, c, d) = (3, 5, 2, 6), (5, 3, 6, 2), (4, 4, 3, 4), (4, 4, 4, 3)
12
Hint: d = ; b = 8 − a
c
ad + bc = 28
28c − 8c2
 

m
12
⇒a + c(8 − a) = 28 ⇒ a =
c 12 − c2
Using this condition we get

o
ab + c + d = 23

l.c
12
⇒ a(8 − a) + c + = 23
c
28c − 8c2 28c − 8c2
 
12
⇒ 8− +c+ = 23

ai
12 − c2 12 − c2 c
28c − 8c2
  
96 − 28c 12
⇒ + c + = 23 gm
12 − c2 12 − c2 c
⇒ c6 − 23c5 + 212c4 − 1000c3 + 2544c2 − 3312c + 1728 = 0
⇒ the roots are c = 2, 2, 3, 4, 6, 6
Hence we get all the solutions:
ri@

(a, b, c, d) = (3, 5, 2, 6), (5, 3, 6, 2), (4, 4, 3, 4), (4, 4, 4, 3)

1
34. If x = a, y = a + 1, z = , where a is a real number, a 6= −1, evaluate
a+1
(x + y + z)3 − (x + y − z)3 − (y + z − x)3 − (z + x − y)3 in terms of a
ha

Hint: Let y + z − x = u, z + x − y = v, x + y − z = w. Then

u + v = y + z − x + z + x − y = 2z; v + w = 2x; u + w = 2y;
sic

u+v+w = y+z−x+z+x−y+x+y−z = x+y+z

The given expression is
(u + v + w)3 − u3 − v3 − w3
ra

= 3(u + v)(v + w)(w + u) (Factorisation)

= 3(2x)(2y)(2z) = 24xyz
 
1
na

= 24(a)(a + 1) = 24a
a+1
35. (Archimedes): A, B, C are three collinear points in order, i.e., AB + BC = AC and squares are
drawn on the sides AB, BC, AC with areas x2 , y2 , z2 respectively. Then

2
x2 + y2 + z2 = 2 x4 + y4 + z4

Hint: z = x + y. Consider
h i
4 4 4

4 4 4
2 x + y + z = 2 x + y + (x + y)
= 2 x4 + y4 + x4 + 4x3 y + 6x2 y2 + 4xy3 + y4


h i
2 2
 4 2 2 4 2 2

2 2
 2

2 2

2 2
= 4 x + 2x y + y + 2xy x + y + x y = 4 x + y + 2xy x + y + x y

2 h i2
2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2
2
= x2 + y2 + z2


= 4 x + y + xy = 2x + 2xy + 2y = x + y + (x + y)

narasichari@gmail.com 24
Algebra Mathematics Olympiad

36. If a, b, c are positive real numbers such that

a b c 1
+ + = 1, prove that abc ≤
1+a 1+b 1+c 8
Hint: Given,
a(1 + b)(1 + c) + b(1 + c)(1 + a) + c(1 + a)(1 + b) = (1 + a)(1 + b)(1 + c)
⇒ a(1 + b + c + bc) + b(1 + c + a + ca) + c(1 + a + b + ab)

m
= 1 + a + b + c + ab + bc + ca + abc
⇒ ab + bc + ca + 2abc = 1 (1)

o
Using this equation there are several equivalent
 waysof solving the problem.
1 1 1
Method 1: ,AM ≥ HM gives (x + y + z) + + ≥9 Put

l.c
x y z
a b c
x= , y= , z= Using the given condition we get,
1+a 1+b 1+c
 

ai
1+a 1+b 1+c
(1) + + ≥9
a b c
1 1 1 gm
⇒ +1+ +1+ +1 ≥ 9
a b c
ab + bc + ca
⇒ ≥ 6, use equation 1
abc
1 − 2abc 1
⇒ ≥ 6 ⇒ 1 ≥ 8abc ⇒ abc ≤
ri@

abc 8

Method 2: GM ≥ HM gives
3
(abc)1/3 ≥ , put abc = x and use equation 1
1 1 1
+ +
ha

a b c
3abc
⇒ x1/3 ≥
1 − 2abc
⇒ (1 − 2x)3 ≥ 27x2
sic

⇒ 8x3 + 15x2 + 6x − 1 ≤ 0
1
⇒ (x + 1)2 (8x − 1) ≤ 0 ⇒ x ≤
8
ra

Method 3: Using AM ≥ GM for 4 numbers we get

ab + bc + ca + 2abc
na

≥ (ab.bc.ca.2abc)1/4 , use equation 1

4
1
1/4
⇒ ≥ 2a3 b3 c3 ⇒ 44 2a3 b3 c3 ≤ 1


4
1
⇒ (8abc)3 ≤ 1 ⇒ abc ≤
8
37. Let {a1 , a2 , . . .} be a strictly increasing sequence of positive integers in arithmetic progression.
Show that there exists a subsequence (of this sequence) which is in geometric progression.
Hint: Each term of the given AP is of the form a + kd, for some non-negative integer k. Suppose
the GP is of the form {a, ar, . . . , }. Thenar = a + nd, for some integer
n. If we take n = 1, we
2
get r = 1 + d. The corresponding GP is a, a(1 + d), a (1 + d) , . . . . The general term is
a (1 + d)n = a 1 + nd + n2 d 2 + . . . + d n = a + kd, for some integer k. Hence it belongs to the



AP.
narasichari@gmail.com 25
Algebra Mathematics Olympiad

38. If x, y, z are positive real numbers, show that

y2 + z2 z2 + x2 x2 + y2
+ + ≥ 2(x + y + z)
x y z
Hint: Given x, y, z are all positive; hence (x − y)2 (x + y) ≥ 0;
(x + y)(x − y)(x − y) ≥ 0 ⇒ x2 − y2 (x − y) ≥ 0 ⇒ x3 − x2 y − xy2 + y3 ≥ 0

x3 + y3 x2 y2
⇒ x3 + y3 ≥ xy(x + y) ⇒ ≥ x+y ⇒ + ≥ x+y

m
xy y x
y2 z2 z2 x 2
By symmetry, we get + ≥ y + z and + ≥ z+x

o
z y x z
Adding these three inequalities we get the required answer.

l.c
39. If a, b, c are positive real numbers such that abc = 1, prove that
a3 b3 c3
+ + ≥3

ai
(a − b)(a − c) (b − a)(b − c) (c − a)(c − b)
−a3 (b − c) − b3 (c − a) − c3 (a − b)
Hint: The left hand side of the expression is equal to
gm (a − b)(b − c)(c − a)
The numerator is a homogeneous symmetric polynomial of degree 4. It can be factorised as
follows.
Put b = a; we get −a3 (a − c) − a3 (c − a) − c3 (a − a) = (a − c)(−a3 + a3 ) = 0; hence (a − b) is
ri@

one factor; by cyclic symmetry, (b−c) and (c−a) are also factors. The remaining homogeneous
symmetric factor of degree one must be a constant multiple of x + y + z
Let −a3 (b − c) − b3 (c − a) − c3 (a − b) = k(a − b)(b − c)(c − a)(a + b + c)
To find k, put (a, b, c) = (0, 1, 2) (or any three distinct numbers with non-zero sum); we get
ha

−(2) − 23 (−1) = k(−1)(−1)(2)(3) ⇒ k = 1

⇒ −a3 (b − c) − b3 (c − a) − c3 (a − b) = (a − b)(b − c)(c − a)(a + b + c)
(a − b)(b − c)(c − a)(a + b + c)
sic

⇒ LHS = = a + b + c ≥ 3(abc)1/3 = 3, since abc = 1, (given)

(a − b)(b − c)(c − a)
ra
na

narasichari@gmail.com 26
Algebra Mathematics Olympiad

a c e
40. Let a, b, c, d, e, f be positive integers such that < < and a f − be = −1. Prove that
b d f
d ≥ b+ f
Hint:
a c
< ⇒ ad < bc ⇒ bc − ad > 0 ⇒ bc − ad ≥ 1 (1)
b d
c e
< ⇒ c f < de ⇒ de − c f > 0 ⇒ de − c f ≥ 1 (2)
d f

m
Multiply eq. 1 by f and eq. 2 by b and add; we get
bc f − ad f + bde − bc f ≥ b + f ⇒ d(be − a f ) ≥ b + f ; but (given) be − a f = 1 ⇒ d ≥ b + f

o
41. Show that the infinite arithmetic progression {1, 4, 7, 10, . . .} has infinitely many 3− term subse-

l.c
quences in harmonic progression such that for any two such triples (a1 , a2 , a3 ) and (b1 , b2 , b3 )
in H.P., we have
a1 a2 a2 a3
6= and 6=
b1 b2 b2 b3

ai
Hint: The given A.P. is {3n + 1}, which consists of all positive integers which are congruent to
1 modulo 3 gm
1 1 1
a, b, c are in H.P. if and only if , , are in A.P.
a b c
1 1 2
⇒ + =
a c b
ri@

⇒b(a + c) = 2ac
⇒ab = c(2a − b)
a| LHS ⇒ a| RHS. Let c = al
⇒ab = al(2a − b)
ha

⇒b(1 + l) = 2al
l| RHS and (l, 1 + l) = 1; hence l|b; let b = lm
⇒lm(1 + l) = 2al ⇒ m = 2n ⇒ n(1 + l) = a
sic

⇒a = n(1 + l); b = ln = 2ln; c = al = ln(1 + l)

a 1+l 1 1 b 2
Then = = + ; = ;
b 2l 2l 2 c 1 + l
these are strictly decreasing functions of l; hence these ratios are distinct for distinct values of l.
ra

Take l ≡ 1 (mod 3); n ≡ 2 (mod 3)

Then a ≡ (2)(2) = 4 ≡ 1 (mod 3); b ≡ (2)(1)(2) ≡ 1 (mod 3); c ≡ (1)(2)(2) ≡ 1 (mod 3);
na

hence a, b, c belong to the given A.P.

For example, {2(3k + 2), 4(3k + 1), 2(3k + 1)(3k + 2)} is a H.P. for all k ≥ 1

42. a) For every natural number N ≥ 3, show that there exists a strictly increasing sequence of
positive integers which form a harmonic progression.
b) Prove that there does not exist a strictly increasing infinite sequence of positive integers which
are in harmonic progression.
n 1 1 o
Hint: a) We start with the harmonic progression 1, , , . . .
2 3
To get an integer sequence we multiply all these numbers by L := lcm{1, 2, . . . , N}.
n L L Lo
Then, L, , , . . . , is a decreasing H.P.
2 3 N

narasichari@gmail.com 27
Algebra Mathematics Olympiad

Take these numbers in the reverse order to get an increasing harmonic progression of N integers,
i.e.,
nL L Lo
, , ...,
N N −1 1
b) Suppose, if possible, there exists an infinite increasing sequence {a1 , a2 , . . .} of positive
integers which form a harmonic progression. Their reciprocals form an arithmetic progression.
1
Let bi = , i ≥ 1. These terms form a decreasing A.P. of positive rational numbers; bn < bn−1 ;

m
ai
hence the difference between any two consecutive terms bn −bn−1 = d, which must be a negative
constant.

o
bn = b1 + (n − 1)d, d < 0, b1 > 0; b1 is fixed. Hence there exists n sufficiently large such that
bn < 0. This is a contradiction.

l.c
1 1 1
43. (RMO, 2014) If a, b, c are positive real numbers such that + + ≤ 1, prove
1+a 1+b 1+c
that

ai
1 + a2 1 + b2 1 + c2 ≥ 25

Equality holds only when a = b = c = 2

Hint:
1
+
1
≤ 1−
1
=
c
gm
1+a 1+b 1+c 1+c
r
c 1 1 1 1 2
≥ + ≥2 =p (by AM-GM inequality)
ri@

1+c 1+a 1+b 1+a 1+b (1 + a) (1 + b)

b 2 a 2
Similarly, ≥p and ≥p and
1+b (1 + c) (1 + a) 1+a (1 + b) (1 + c)
abc 8
Hence ≥ ⇒ abc ≥ 8
ha

(a + 1)(b + 1)(c + 1) (a + 1)(b + 1)(c + 1)

Consider (1 + a2 )(1 + b2 )(1 + c2 ) = 1 + a2 + b2 + c2 + (a2 b2 + b2 c2 + c2 a2 ) + a2 b2 c2 , use AM-
GM,
√ √
sic

3 3
≥ 1 + 3 a2 b2 c2 + 3 a4 b4 c4 + (abc)2 , use abc ≥ 8
≥ 1 + 3(64)1/3 + 3(24 ) + 82 = 1 + 12 + 48 + 64 = 125; equality holds in AM-GM if and only if
a=b=c
ra
na

narasichari@gmail.com 28
Algebra Mathematics Olympiad

a2 b2 c2
44. If a + b + c = 0, find the value of f (a, b, c) := + + whenever
2a2 + bc 2b2 + ca 2c2 + ab
f (a, b, c) is well-defined.
Hint: Method 1 (Using cyclic symmetry in the three variables):
a + b + c = 0 ⇒ c = −a − b ⇒ 2c2 + ab = c2 + c2 + ab = c2 + c(−a − b) + ab
= c2 − ac − bc + ab = c(c − a) − b(c − a) = (c − a)(c − b) = −(b − c)(c − a)
Cyclically, we get, 2a2 + bc = −(a − b)(c − a); 2b2 + ca = −(b − c)(a − b);

m
2c2 + ab = −(c − a)(b − c)
a2 b2 c2
f (a, b, c) = − − −

o
(a − b)(c − a) (b − c)(a − b) (c − a)(b − c)

l.c
−a2 (b − c) − b2 (c − a) − c2 (a − b) −a2 b + a2 c − b2 c + ab2 − c2 (a − b)
= =
(a − b)(b − c)(c − a) (a − b)(b − c)(c − a)
−a2 b + ab2 + a2 c − b2 c − c2 (a − b) −ab(a − b) + c(a2 − b2 ) − c2 (a − b)
= =

ai
(a − b)(b − c)(c − a) (a − b)(b − c)(c − a)
(a − b)(−ab + ca + bc − c2 ) (a − b)(−a(b − c) + c(b − c))
gm
= =
(a − b)(b − c)(c − a) (a − b)(b − c)(c − a)
(a − b)(b − c)(c − a)
= =1
(a − b)(b − c)(c − a)
Method 2: (Eliminating one variable, i.e., brute force): a+b+c = 0 ⇒ c = −a−b ⇒ 2a2 +bc =
ri@

2a2 + b(−a − b)
2a2 + bc = 2a2 − ab − b2 = 2a2 − 2ab + ab − b2 = 2a(a − b) + b(a − b) = (a − b)(2a + b)
2b2 + ca = 2b2 + a(−a − b) = 2b2 − 2ab + ab − a2 = 2b(b − a) + a(b − a) = (b − a)(2b + a)
ha

2c2 + ab = 2(a + b)2 + ab = 2a2 + 4ab + 2b2 + ab = 2a(a + 2b) + b(a + 2b) = (a + 2b)(2a + b)
a2 b2 c2
f (a, b, c) = + +
(2a + b)(a − b) (2b + a)(b − a) (a + 2b)(2a + b)
sic

 2
b2 (a + b)2

1 a
= − +
a − b 2a + b 2b + a (a + 2b)(2a + b)
 2
a (2b + a) − b2 (2a + b) (a + b)2

1
ra

= +
a−b (2a + b)(a + 2b) (a + 2b)(2a + b)
 2
2a b − 2ab2 + a3 − b3 (a + b)2

1
na

= +
a−b (2a + b)(a + 2b) (a + 2b)(2a + b)
(a − b)(2ab + a2 + ab + b2 ) (a + b)2
 
1
= +
a−b (2a + b)(a + 2b) (a + 2b)(2a + b)
a2 + 3ab + b2 + (a + b)2 2a2 + 5ab + 2b2
= = =1
(a + 2b)(2a + b) (a + 2b)(2a + b)

narasichari@gmail.com 29
Algebra Mathematics Olympiad

45. (BMO, UKMT, 2016): |n ∆ ABC, D, E, F are points on the sides BC, CA, AB respectively. AD,
BE and CF are concurrent at O. Numbers are arranged at the seven points A, B, C, D, E, F, O.
If the sums of the numbers along each line segment and on the circle DEF are all equal, show
that all the seven numbers are equal.
Hint:
a + b + f = k; a + c + e = k; b + c + d = k (1)
a + b + f = a + c + e ⇒ a + e = b + d.

m
Adding we get 2(a + b + c) + (d + e + f ) = 3k (2)
Given d + e + f = k ⇒ a + b + c = k (3)

o
Given d + a + o = k; e + b + o = k; f + c + o = k (4)
⇒ d + e + f + (a + b + c) + 3o = 3k

l.c
k
⇒ k + k + 3o = 5k ⇒ o =
3
k

ai
Subst in equation 4, d + a + = k
3
k 4k
⇒ d +a = e+b = f +c = ⇒ b+e+ f +c = ; gm
3 3
2k
but equation 1 ⇒ b + f = c + e ⇒ b + f = c + e =
3
2k k
⇒ b+e = b+ f = ⇒e= f =b=c=a=d=o=
3 3
ri@

46. a) Suppose a − 7b + 8c = 4 and 8a + 4b − c = 7. Find a2 − b2 + c2

b) Suppose 3a + 3b − c = 1 and 20a + 13b + 5c = 16. Find a2 − b2 + c2
    
a cos θ − sin θ b
c) Suppose = . Prove that a2 − b2 + c2 = 1
c sin θ cos θ 1
ha

Hint: Method 1:
a − 7b + 8c = 4 ⇒ 8a − 56b + 64c = 32 (1)
sic

8a + 4b − c = 7 (2)
12b + 5
Eq.1 − Eq.2 ⇒ −60b + 65c = 25 ⇒ c = (3)
13
ra

8(12b + 5) 12 − 5b
Eq.1 ⇒ a − 7b + =4⇒a= (4)
13 13
(12b + 5) + (12 − 5b)2 169b2 + 169
2
(Eq.3)2 + (Eq.4)2 ⇒ a2 + c2 = = b2 + 1
na

=
169 169
2 2 2
⇒ a −b +c = 1

Method 2: Eq.1 ⇒ a + 8c = 7b + 4
Eq.2 ⇒ 8a − c = 7 − 4b
Squaring and adding, we get, (a + 8c)2 + (8a − c)2 = (7b + 4)2 + (7 − 4b)2
⇒ a2 + 16ac + 64c2 + 64a2 − 16ac + c2 = 49b2 + 56b + 16 + 49 − 56b + 16b2
⇒ 65a2 + 65c2 = 65b2 + 65 ⇒ a2 − b2 + c2 = 1

narasichari@gmail.com 30
Algebra Mathematics Olympiad

47. Solve simultaneously: x2 y − x3 = 1 and 3x3 − 8x2 y + y3 + 21 = 0

x3 + 1
Hint: x2 y = x3 + 1 ⇒ x 6 0⇒y=
= ;
x2

3
x3 + 1
3x3 − 8 x3 + 1


The second equation ecomes + + 21 = 0
x6
1
Put x3 = t ⇒ 4t 3 − 8t 2 + 5t − 1 = 0 ⇒ (t − 1)(2t − 1)2 = 0 ⇒ t = 0, t = ;

m
2
1 3√
 
3
Hence (x, y) = (1, 2) or (x, y) = √ 3 , 4
2 2

o
48. Find natural numbers m, n such that 7 m2 + mn + n2 = 39(m + n)

l.c
Hint: 7n2 + 7mn − 39m − 39n = −7m2 and both m and n must be positive integers
⇒ 7n(m + n) − 39(m + n) = −7m2 ⇒ (7n − 39)(m + n) = −7m2 < 0

ai
39
Hence 7n − 39 ≤ 0 ⇒ n ≤ ⇒n≤5
7
gm
Try n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 in succession for positive integer solutions in m; we get the only solution
(m, n) = (5, 2)

49. f : R \ {1} → R \ {−3} is a function such that

 
3x − 7
ri@

2 f (x) + 3 f = 10x + 7. Find f (5).

x−1
Hint: Put x = 5 ⇒ 2 f (5) + 3 f (2) = 57
Put x = 2 ⇒ 2 f (2) + 3 f (−1) = 27
Put x = −1 ⇒ 2 f (−1) + 3 f (5) = −3
ha

39 639 −111
Solving these three equations we get, f (5) = , f (2) = , f (−1) =
35 35 35
3x − 7
sic

Note: The bilinear transformation is of order 3; equivalently, the matrix

x−1
 
3 −7
A= has the property that A3 is a scalar matrix.
1 −1
ra
na

narasichari@gmail.com 31
Algebra Mathematics Olympiad

50. a) Show that x2 + y2 + z2 − xy − yz − zx cannot be factorised as a product of two linear factors

with real coefficients.
b) Factorise x2 + y2 + z2 − xy − yz − zx as a product of two linear factors with complex coeffi-
cients.
Hint: a) As a quadratic in x, we have x2 − (y + z)x + y2 − yz + z2 . The discriminant of this

quadratic is D = (y + z)2 − 4 y2 − yz + z2 = −3 (y − z)2 , which is not a perfect square; hence

this quadratic in x has no rational roots (as rational functions of y, z); hence the given quadratic

m
cannot be factorised as a product of two real linear factors.
b) The same quadratic formula gives the values of x as

o
√
(y + z) ± −3 (y − z)
x= , with complex coefficients.

l.c
2
√ √
−1 + i 3 2 −1 − i 3
In standard notation, ω = ; ω =
2 2
√ √

ai
y + z + i 3 (y − z) y + z − i 3 (y − z)
The roots are x = and x =
2 2
√ gm √
y + z + i 3 (y − z) y + z − i 3 (y − z)
Hence the factors are x − and x −
2 2
√ √ √ √
−1 − i 3 −1 + i 3 −1 + i 3 −1 − i 3
i.e., x + y+ z and x + y+ z
2 2 2 2
ri@

i.e., x + ω 2 y + ωz and x + ωy + ω 2 z
Hence,
x3 + y3 + z3 − 3xyz = (x + y + z) x2 + y2 + z2 − xy − yz − zx

= (x + y + z) x + ω 2 y + ωz x + ωy + ω 2 z



ha

51. Factorise a) n4 + (n + 1)4 + 1; b )16x6 − 24x5 + 12x4 + 8x3 − 12x2 + 6x − 1

Hint: a) n4 + n4 + 4n3 + 6n2 + 4n + 1 + 1 = 2 n4 + 2n3 + 3n2 + 2n + 1


sic

= 2 n4 + 2n3 + n2 + 2n2 + 2n + 1




= 2 (n2 (n + 1)2 + 2n(n + 1) + 1 = 2 a2 + 2a + 1 , with a = n(n + 1)

 

2
= 2(a + 1)2 = 2 [n(n + 1) + 1]2 = 2 n2 + n + 1
ra

b) 16x6 − 24x5 + 12x4 + 8x3 − 12x2 + 6x − 1; use (a − b)3 = a3 − 3a2 b + 3ab2 − b3

= 16x6 − 24x5 + 12x4 + (2x)3 − 3(4x2 ) + 3(2x) − 1

 
na

= 8x6 + 8x6 − 12x4 (2x − 1) + (2x − 1)3

 

= (2x2 )3 + (2x2 )3 + (2x − 1)3 − 3(2x2 )(2x2 )(2x − 1)

 

use, a3 + b3 + c3 − 3abc = (a + b + c) a2 + b2 + c2 − ab − bc − ca

= 2x2 + 2x2 + 2x − 1 4x4 + 4x4 + (2x − 1)2 − 2x2 (2x − 1) − 2x2 (2x − 1) − 4x4

h
2 i
= 4x2 + 2x − 1 4x4 − 4x2 (2x − 1) + (2x − 1)2 = 4x2 + 2x − 1 2x2 − 2 (2x2 )(2x − 1) + (2x − 1)2

2 1 √  √  2
= 4x2 + 2x − 1 2x2 − 2x + 1 , (over Q) = 4x + 1 + 5 4x + 1 − 5 2x2 −2x+1 ,


4
over the reals

narasichari@gmail.com 32
Algebra Mathematics Olympiad

52. (IMOTC, 2017) If a, b, c are positive real numbers and abc = 1, prove that
a6 b6 c6
+ + ≥ 15
(a − b)(a − c) (b − c)(b − a) (c − a)(c − b)
a6 b6 c6 −a6 (b − c) − b6 (c − a) − c6 (a − b)
Hint: + + =
(a − b)(a − c) (b − c)(b − a) (c − a)(c − b) (a − b)(b − c)(c − a)
To prove that −a6 (b − c) − b6 (c − a) − c6 (a − b) ≥ 15(a − b)(b − c)(c − a)

m
The polynomial an (b − c)bn (c − a)cn (a − b) is a homogeneous symmetric polynomial of degree
n which becomes zero when a = b; hence it has a − b, b − c and c − a as factors. The remaining
factor is ∑i+ j+k=n−2 ai b j ck , i.e.,

o
!
an (b − c) + bn (c − a) + cn (a − b) = −(a − b)(b − c)(c − a) ∑ ai b j ck (1)

l.c
i+ j+k=n−2

The last bracket is the sum of all the nC2 monomials of degree n − 2 in 3 variables.

ai
Hence, for n = 6, we must prove that

∑ ai b j ck ≥ 15 gm (2)
i+ j+k=4

We use the re-arrangement inequality.

Define (a, b, c)  (d, e, f ) ⇔ [a > d, a + b > d + e, a + b + c = d + e + f ]
Then the re-arrangement inequality states:
ri@

(a, b, c)  (d, e, f ) ⇒ ∑ xa yb zc ≥ ∑ xd ve z f
sym sym
4 0 0 2
(4, 0, 0)  (2, 1, 1) ⇒ ∑ a b c ≥ ∑ a bc
sym sym
ha

⇒ 2
(a + b + c ) ≥ 2
(a bc + b ca + c2 ab)
4 4 4 2 2

(3, 1, 0)  (2, 1, 1) ⇒ ∑ a3 b ≥ ∑ a2 bc
sym sym
sic

⇒ a b + b a + b c + c b + c a + a3 c ≥ 2(a2 bc + b2 ca + c2 ab)
3 3 3 3 3

(2, 2, 0)  (2, 1, 1) ⇒ ∑ a2 b2 ≥ ∑ a2 bc
sym sym
ra

⇒ a b + b a + b c + c b + c a + a2 c2 ≥ 2(a2 bc + b2 ca + c2 ab)
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

⇒ a2 b2 + b2 c2 + c2 a2 ≥ a2 bc + b2 ca + c2 ab
na

Hence,
∑ ai b j ck = a4 + b4 + c4 + a3 b + ab3 + b3 c + bc3 + c3 a + ca3
i+ j+k=4
+ a2 b2 + b2 c2 + c2 a2 + a2 bc + b2 ca + c2 ab
≥ 5(a2 bc + b2 ca + c2 ab)
= 5abc(a + b + c), but abc = 1
= 5(a + b + c), use AM − GM,
√
3
≥ 5(3) abc
= 15
This proves the inequality (2)

narasichari@gmail.com 33
Algebra Mathematics Olympiad

53. a) If the sum of n positive real numbers is equal to S, show that there exists a pair ai , a j , with
S
i 6= j such that 0 < ai − a j < n
C2
b) The sum of 6 positive real numbers is 150. Show that there exist two of these numbers whose
difference is less than 10.
Hint: Without loss of generality, assume 0 < a1 < a2 < . . . < an . Suppose if possible,
S

m
ai − a j > nC
, for all i > j ≥ 1
2
Let d = min {ai − a j : 1 ≤ j < i ≤ n}

o
S = a1 + a2 + . . . + an

l.c
= a1 + (a2 − a1 + a1 ) + (a3 − a2 + a2 − a1 + a1 ) + . . .
     
S 2S (n − 1)S
≥ a1 + n + a1 + n + a1 + . . . + nC
+ a1
C2 C2 2

ai
S (1 + 2 + . . . + (n − 1))
≥ na1 +
n(n − 1) gm
2
= na1 + S > S, contradiction.

54. (RMO, 1984) Solve simultaneously:

ri@
 
1
5x 1 + 2 = 12
x + y2
 
1
5y 1 − 2 =4
x + y2
Hint: Use polar coordinates. Let x = r cos θ ; y = r sin θ , x2 + y2 = r2 ; r > 0; also x > 0 from
ha

the first equation.

1 12 1 4
r+ = ; r− =
r 5 cos θ r 5 sin θ
sic

36 4
Squaring and adding, we get, − =1
25 cos θ 25 sin2 θ
2

36 4
Put sin2 θ = t > 0; we get, − =1
ra

25(1 − t) 25t
1 1
25t 2 + 15t − 4 = 0 ⇒ 25t 2 + 20t − 5t − 4 = 0 ⇒ (5t − 1)(5t + 4) = 0 ⇒ t = ⇒ sin θ = ± √ ;
5
na

5
2
cos θ = √ ; there are two cases.
5
1 1 4 √ √ √ 1
If sin θ = √ , r − = √ ⇒ 5r2 − 4r − 5 = 0 ⇒ r = 5, (the negative root r = − √ is
5 r 5 5
neglected).
 
1 1 2 1
If sin θ = √ , we get r = √ ; we get two solutions (x, y) = (2, 1) or (x, y) = ,−
5 5 5 5

narasichari@gmail.com 34