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Network Theory EE K-Notes
Network Theory EE K-Notes
1
Manual for K-Notes
Why K-Notes?
Towards the end of preparation, a student has lost the time to revise all the chapters from his /
her class notes / standard text books. This is the reason why K-Notes is specifically intended for
Quick Revision and should not be considered as comprehensive study material.
A 40 page or less notebook for each subject which contains all concepts covered in GATE
Curriculum in a concise manner to aid a student in final stages of his/her preparation. It is highly
useful for both the students as well as working professionals who are preparing for GATE as it
comes handy while traveling long distances.
It is highly recommended to use K-Notes in the last 2 months before GATE Exam
(November end onwards).
Once you finish the entire K-Notes for a particular subject, you should practice the respective
Subject Test / Mixed Question Bag containing questions from all the Chapters to make best use
of it.
2
Network Elements
Active & Passive Elements
If any elements absorb, dissipate, waste, convert electrical energy it is called as passive element.
Eg. Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor.
If any elements energize, deliver, give out, drive the electrical energy it is called as active element.
Eg. BJT, MOSFET.
Network Technologies
Node : It is a point of interconnection or junction between two or more components.
Branch : It is an elemental connection between two nodes.
Mesh: A mesh is a close path which should not have any further closed path in it.
Loop : All possible close path.
Ohm’s law
At constant temperature and for uniform cross section of conductor.
J E
σ= conductivity,
1
resistivity .
V IR
l
R Circuit Symbol:
A
l lenght of conductor
A = Area of conductor.
Sign Convention
To apply ohm’s law, we must apply following sign convention.
3
Short circuit & open circuit
Voltage across terminals of a short circuit is always zero, regardless of the value of current which
could be any value. (R = 0)
The current through an open circuit is always zero, regardless of voltage across the terminals
which could be any value. R
Power of resistor
V2
P VI I2R
R
Resistance always absorbs or dissipates power.
Kirchoff’s laws
Kirchoff’s current law(KCL)
It states that any instant the algebraic sum of current leaving any junction (or node) in a network
is zero.
In other words, current entering a node is equal to current leaving the node.
n in t 0
ientering ileaving
i1 i3 i5 i2 i4
Vdrop Vrise
V1 V2 V3 V4 V5 0
4
Series resistance or voltage division
Two or more circuit elements are connected in series means that current through all elements in
same. If ‘N’ resistors, with resistance R1 ,R2 ,........Rn are connected in series
R eq R1 R 2 ...................RN
V R1
V1
R1 R 2
V R 2
V2
R1 R 2
I R 2
I1
R1 R 2
I R1
I2
R1 R 2
Start to Delta
R1R 2 R1R 3 R 2R 3
Ra
R1
R1R 2 R1R 3 R 2R 3
Rb
R2
R1R 2 R1R 3 R 2R 3
Rc
R3
5
Delta to start conversion
RbR c
R1
R a Rb R c
R aR c
R2
R a Rb R c
R aR b
R3
R a Rb R c
Sources
Independent Voltage Source
An ideal independent voltage source maintains a specified voltage across its terminals. The
voltage is independent of current flowing through it.
Dependent Source
Capacitor
A capacitor is a combination of a two conducting plates separated by a non-conducting material.
Capacitance is donated by ‘C’
A
C
d
ϵ= Permittivity of medium
A = Area of Plates
D = distance between the plates.
Charge on Plates, Q = CV
V = Potential difference between the plates.
6
Voltage Current relationship
dq t
i t
dt
dv t
i t C
dt
Sign Convention
Q t
2
1 1
E cv 2
2
t 2C
Q t v t
2
If voltage across capacitor is constant (dc) then current through capacitor is zero & it acts as open
circuit.
dv t
The voltage across capacitor must be continuous, if it as discontinuous, then i C is infinite,
dt
so voltage across capacitor cannot change instantaneously.
7
Inductor
It is a two terminals element consisting of winding of ‘N’ turns.
N2 A
L 0 r
l
0 = Permeability of free space
r relative Permeability
N = number of turns
A = area of cross section of coil
l = length of inductor
di t
v t L
dt
L is constant, called as inductance
Energy Stored
1
2
E L i t
2
In series connection current in same, through all elements & in parallel connection voltage is same
across all elements.
Duality
Two circuits N1 & N2 are called dual circuit if the branches KCL, KVL & branch v - i relationship
becomes respectively KVL, KCL.
8
Dual Elements
Resistance R Conductance GR
Eg.
Graph Theory
Network Graph:
If all elements of a circuits are replaced a line segment between 2 end points called as nodes.
Directed Graphs:
If the branches of a graph has directions then it is called as a directed graph.
9
Sub graph
It consists of less or equal number of verticals (nodes) & edges, as in its complete graph.
Eg. The following trees can be made from graph shown before.
The set of branches of a network which are remove to form a tree is called co-tree of graph.
10
Incidence Matrix
The dimension of incidence matrix is (nxb)
N = no. of nodes
B = no. of branches
It is represented by A
aij = + 1 , If jth branch is oriented away from ith node
aij = -1 , If jth branch is oriented into ith node.
aij = 0 , If jth branch is not connected to ith node
a b c d e f
1 1 0 1 0 0 1
A 2 1 1 0 1 0 0
3 0 1 0 0 1 1
4 0 0 1 1 1 0
If one of nodes is considered as ground & that particulars row is neglected while writing the
incidence matrix, then it is reduced incidence matrix. Order n 1 b
Number of trees of any graph det Ar Ar
T
Ar = reduced incidence matrix
Circuit Theorems
Linearity
A system is linear if it satisfies the following two properties.
1. Homogeneity Property
It requires that if input is multiplied by constant hen output is multiplied by same constant.
eg. V = IR
is I becomes KI
V’ = KIR = KV
So, resistance is a linear element & so are inductor & capacitor.
2. Additivity Property
It requires that response to sum of inputs is sum of response to each input applied separately.
V1 I1R
V2 I2R
If we apply I1
I2
We get V3 I1 I2 R V1 V2
11
Superposition
It states that, in any linear circuit containing multiple independent sources, the total current
through or voltage across an element can be determined by algebraically adding the voltage or
current due to each independent source acting alone with all other independent source set to
zero.
Source Transformation
It states that as independent voltage source VS in series with a resistance R is equivalent to
independent current source IS Vs / R in parallel with a resistance R.
Or
An independent current source IS in parallel with a resistance R is equivalent to a dependent
source VS ISR in series with a resistance R.
Thevenin’s Theorem
It states that any network composed of ideal voltage and current source, and of linear resistor,
may be represented by an equivalent circuit consisting of an ideal voltage source VTH in series
with an equivalent resistance R TH .
12
To calculate VTH , open circuit of RL
2
VTH 24 12V
22
To calculate Rth
Short I & V sources & open 6mA source
R th 1 2 1 1 2k
13
Case – 1 : Circuit with both dependent & independent sources
Methodology 1:
VTh can be found in same way.
For R TH set all independent sources to zero.
Remove load & put a test source Vtest across its terminals, let current through test source is Itest .
Vtest
Thevenin resistance , R TH
Itest
This method is must if independent sources are absent.
Methodology 2:
VTH is calculated in same way.
For R TH short circuit load terminals & leave independent sources as it is
Obtain ISC through load terminals.
R TH VOC ISC
Norton’s Theorem
Any network composed ideal voltage & current sources, and of linear resistors, may be
represented by an equivalent circuit consisting of an ideal current source IN in parallel with an
equivalent resistance R N .
RN R TH
To calculate IN we short circuit load terminals & calculate short circuit current.
Therein equivalent & Norton equivalent are dual of each other.
14
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem:
A load resistance RL will receive maximum power from a circuit when load resistance is equal to
Thevenin’s/ Norton’s resistance seen at load terminals.
RL R Th
In case of AC circuit, this condition translates to
ZL Z*th
But if load is resistive in AC circuit then
RL Z Th
For maximum power transfer
2
RL R2Th XL X Th
For maximum power transfer
XL XTh 0
Transient Analysis
Time Constant :
It is the time required for the response to delay by a factor of 1 e or 36.8 % of its initial value.
It is represented by τ.
For a RC circuit
RC
For a RL circuit
LR
R is the therein resistance across inductor or capacitor terminals.
15
General method of analysis
x t x x t0 x e o , t 0
t t
x t0 initial value of x t at t t0
x final value of x t at t
Algorithm
1. Choose any voltage & current in the circuit which has to be determined.
2. Assume circuit had reached steady state before switch was thrown at t t0 . Draw the circuit at
t t 0 with capacitor replaced by open circuit and inductor replaced by short circuit. Solve for
v C t0 & iL t0 .
3. Voltage across capacitor and inductor current cannot change instantaneously.
V t V t
VC t
0 C
0 C 0
i t i t i t
L
0 L
0 L 0
4. Draw the circuit for t t with switches in new position. Replace a capacitor with a voltage source
VC t0 VC t0 and inductor with a current source of value iL t0 iL t0 . Solve for initial value
of variable x t .
0
6. τ=Rth C or τ=L/Rth
Example
In the circuit shown below, V1 t for t > 0 will be given as
16
Solution
Step 1 :
For t < 0
30u t 0 & 3u t 0
V1 0 0V
For t
V1 3mA 10k
= -30 V
Step 2 :
At t 0
V1 0 30 V1 0
3mA 0
20k 10k
3
V1 0 1.5mA
20k
V1 0 10V
t
V1 t 30 10 30 e
17
Substitute i t Aest
Aest S2 R s 1
L LC 0 S2 R s 1 0
L LC
2 2
R R R
S1 R 1 , S2 1
2L 2L LC 2L 2L LC
1
S1 ,S2 2 w 02 ; R 2L ; w 0
LC
wd w20 2
With a Source
v t VS Ae 1 Be 2 (Over-damped)
st s t
v t VS A cos wdt Bsinwdt et under damped
By KCL
1 1
t dv t
v t v d C 0
R L dt
18
Characteristics equation
1 1 1 1
s2 s 0 ; , w0
RC LC 2RC LC
S1 ,S2 2 w02
v t Ae 1 Be over damped
st S2t
i t Is Ae 1 Be
st S2 t
Over damped
i t Is A Bt et Critically damped
Steps:
1. Write differential equation that describe the circuit.
2. From differential equation model, construct characteristics equation & find roots.
3. Roots of characteristics equation determine the type of response over-damped, critically damped
& under-damped.
4. Obtain the constant using initial conditions.
Both V1 t & V2 t are expressed in form of either sine function or cosine function.
Both V1 t & V2 t are written with positive amplitude though they may not have same amplitude.
19
If V1 t A sinwt
V2 t Bsin wt ; 00
V2 t leads v1 t by an angle
V1 t lags v 2 t by an angle
PHASORS
A phasor is complex number that represents the amplitude & phase angle information of a
sinusoidal function.
v t Vm sin wt
Networks Elements
1. Resistor
V RI
2. Inductor
V jl I
2f ; f frequency of source
3. Capacitor
I j c V
V Vrms
Impedance , Z v i
I Irms
Unit of impedance ohm
Z R jX Z
R = resistive component
X = relative component
20
Phase angle, tan1 X R
Z R2 X2
For Resistor ZR R
For Inductor ZL jL
1 j
For Capacitor Z C
j L c
Inductive reactance, XL L
1
Capacitive reactance, XL
c
If X = 0, impedance is resistive; current & voltage are in same phase.
If X > 0, impedance is inductive; current lags voltage.
If X < 0, impedance is capacitive; current leads voltage.
1
Admittance, Y G jB
Z
G = Capacitance
B = Susceptance
Impedance in AC circuits behave like resistance in DC circuits and all the laws remain same like
Series combination
Zeq Z1 Z2 ................ Zn
Parallel combination
1 1 1 1
......................
Z eq Z1 Z 2 Zn
Yeq Y1 Y2 ......... Yn
21
Power analysis
Real Power
P VrmsIrms cos v i
In a resistance
Vrms
2
P Irms
2
R
R
Complex Power
*
S VrmsIrms
Vrms Irms v i
Real part of S P Vrms Irms cos v i
Real part of S Q Vrms Irms sin v i
Reactive Power = Q
Q = 0 for resistive loads.
Q < 0 for capacitive loads v i .
If the current goes into an element, then it absorbs power and if current comes out it delivers
power.
Hence, a capacitor absorbs leading reactive power. We can also say it delivers lagging reactive
power.
Same way, inductor absorbs lagging reactive power & delivers leading reactive power.
Power Factor
P
pf cos v i
S
v i power factor angle
22
Resonance
Series resonance
For resonance
Im Z 0
Z R j L 1 c
1
L 1 rad s
c LC
The frequency at which impedance of circuits is purely resistive is called resonant frequency.
1
0 rad s
LC
At resonance
VS
I
R
VR IR VS
VS
VL joL I joL
R
j j VS
Vc I
0c oC R
23
Parallel Resonance
1
Y1 j C
R j L
At resonance
Im Y 0
1
o rad s
LC
At resonance V IS R
IR IS
V IR
IL S
j0L j0L
1
Bandwidth
RC
Re active Power
Quality factor, Q
Average Power
2 2
V V
2 XC 2 XL R R C
Q R
V
2
V
2
XL XC L
2R 2R
24
Circuits analysis in Laplace domain
For basic of laplace transform, refer to signal & system k-notes. Laplace transform.
Resistor
V(s) RI(s)
Inductor
sL s
Capacitor
1 V(0 )
I(s) C sV(s) V(0 ) Or I(s) I(s)
sC s
Methodology
1. Draw circuit in s-domain by substituting s-domain equivalent for each circuit element.
2. Apply circuit analysis to obtain desired voltage or current in s-domain.
3. Take inverse Laplace transform to convert voltage and current back in time-domain.
25
Two Port Network
Impedance Parameters
V1 Z11 I1 Z12 I2
V2 Z21 I1 Z22 I2
V1 Z11 Z12 I1
In matrix form
V2 Z 21 Z 22 I2
V1
Z11 open circuit input impedance
I1 I2 0
V1
Z12 open circuit transfer impedance form part 1 to part 2
I2 I1 0
V2
Z 21 open circuit transfer impedance form part 2 to part 1.
I1 I2 0
V2
Z 22 open circuit output impedance
I2 I1 0
Admittance parameters
I1 y11 V1 y12 V2
I2 y 21 V1 y 22 V2
In matrix form,
I1 y11 y12 V1
I2 y 21 y 22 V2
I1
y11 = short circuit input admittance.
V1 V2 0
I1
y12 = short circuit transfer admittance from part 1 to part 2.
V2 V1 0
26
I2
y 21 = short circuit transfer admittance from part 2 to part 1.
V1 V2 0
I2
y 22 = short circuit output admittance.
V2 V1 0
1
y11 y12 Z11 Z12
y
21 y 22 Z 21 Z 22
Hybrid parameters
V1 h11 I1 h12 V2
I2 h21 I1 h22 V2
In matrix form,
V1 h11 h12 I1
I2 h21 h22 V2
V1
h11 = short circuit input impedance.
I1 V2 0
V1
h12 = open circuit reverse voltage gain.
V2 I1 0
I2
h21 = short circuit forward current gain.
I1 V2 0
I2
h22 = open circuit output admittance.
V2 I
1 0
I1 g11 g12 V1
V2 g21 g22 I2
1
g11 g12 h11 h12
g g22 h21 h22
21
27
Transmission parameters
V1 AV2 BI2
I1 CV2 DI2
V1 A B V2
I C D I
1 2
V1
A = open circuits voltage ratio
V2 I2 0
V1
B = negative short circuit transfer impedance.
I2 V2 0
I1
C = open circuit transfer admittance.
V2 I2 0
I1
D = negative short circuit current ratio.
I2 V2 0
Y12 Y21
h12 h21
AD BC 1
g12 g21
Z11 Z22
Y11 Y22
h11h22 h21h12 1
A=D
g11g22 g21g12 1
28
Interconnection of 2-part networks
For a series connection of two networks Na & Nb having z-parameters metric Z a & Zb
Z Z Z
eq a b
For a parallel connection of two networks Na & Nb having y-parameter matrices ya & yo
yeq ya yb
For a cascade connection of two networks Na & Nb having transmission parameters matrices
Ta & Tb
Teq Ta Tb
di1 t
v 2 t M21
dt
di2 t
v1 t M12
dt
M12 M21 M
29
Dot convention
If a current enters the dotted terminals of one coil, then induced voltage in second coil has a
positive voltage reference at dotted terminal of second coil.
If a current enters undotted terminals of one coil, then induced voltage n second coil as a positive
voltage reference at undotted terminals of second coil.
Leq L1 L2 2M
Leq L1 L2 2M
L1L 2 M2 L1L 2 M2
L eq L eq
L1 L 2 2M L1 L 2 2M
M
Coefficient of coupling k
L1L2
30
Equivalent circuits of linear transformers
T-equivalent circuit
La L1 M
Lb L 2 M
LC M
π- equivalent circuit
L1L 2 M2
LA
L2 M
L1L 2 M2
LB
L1 M
L1L2 M2
LC
M
Van VP00
31
Negative Sequence (acb)
Van VP00
Connections
Star Connection
VL 3VP 300
IL Ip
Vab = line to line voltage or line voltage
by 30 0 .
32
Delta Connection
VL VP
IL 3IP 300
Line current is 3 times phase current & lags respective phase current by 30 0 .
Coulomb’s law
Coulombs law states that magnitude of force between two point charges is directly proportional
to square of distance between them & direction of force is along the line joining the charges.
Q1 Q2
F 2
aˆR
4 R
or ; o 8.854 1012 F m = permittivity of free space
r = relative permittivity or dielectric constant.
33
Electric field intensity
F Q
E aˆR
q 4 R 2
Electric field direction is away from a positive charge & towards negative charge.
Charge densities
3) Conducting sphere
If a conducting sphere of radius ‘R’ is charged with a charge ‘Q’ then electric field.
0 r R
E Q
r R
4 r2
Electric field inside conducting sphere is zero.
34
Electrical potential
The amount of work done in bringing a unit positive charge from infinity to a certain point in an
electric field is called electric potential.
A
VA E.dL
E V
= represent gradiant
D E
Gauss’s law
It states that total electric flux through any closed surface is equal to charge enclosed by that
surface.
S D.dS b dV
By Gauss’s Divergence theorem
.D
Magnetic flux per unit area is called magnetic flux density. It is a vector quantity and denoted by
B & its unit is tesla (T).
Flux B. dS
35
Magnetic field intensity
Represented by H .
B H
= permeability.
or
r = relative permeability
o = permeability of free space
o 4 107 H m
d H
4 R
I
2 dL aˆ
R
I
H aˆ
2
= perpendicular distance of point from line current.
â = Unit vector in cylindrical co-ordinates.
It states that line integral of magnetic field intensity H around any closed path is exactly equal to
net current enclosed by that path.
H . dL I enclosed
H . dL J . ds
By stokes theorem
H J
36
Maxwell equations
d B
1) E . dL dt
B . dS or E
t
1
2) E . dS dv or . E
3) B . dS 0 or .B 0
d
4) B . dL 0 J . ds o o dt E . ds
or
E
B o J o
t
37