Research

Research Methodology and Dissertation Preparation
EDUC 551
Fall 2021-2022
Dr. Hiba Dandachi
Fall 2021-2022 | Dr. Hiba Dandachi 1

Tasks to prepare students for the final
Participation (20%)
project
Take-home Midterm (40%) Research Proposal Critique
Final Project (40%) Proposal

Starting your Research
Chapter 1: Introduction
Chapter 2: Literature Review
Chapter 3: Methodology
Chapter 4: Results
Chapter 5: Discussions
Preparing the Manuscript for Submission

Introduction: Starting Your Research
Read Articles
Choose the Topic
Address a Problem
Identify the Variables

Read Articles
Choose the Topic Quantitative Design Qualitative Design
It emphasizes deep
It emphasizes by using numbers
Address a Problem understanding by analyzing
and statistics.
words rather than numbers.

Report Element Quantitative Design Qualitative Design
Read Articles 1. Title and Authors ✓

✓
2. Abstract ✓ ✓
Choose the Topic 3. Introduction and
✓ ✓
Statement of Problem
4. Review of the Literature Extensive Brief
Address a Problem
5. Research Questions Specific questions General with subquestions
6. Research Hypotheses ✓ ☓
7. Methodology ✓ ✓
8. Results Statistical Narrative
9. Discussion ✓ ✓
10. Conclusions ✓ ✓
11. References ✓ ✓
Read Articles General Tip
Begin with the abstract and then scan the introduction, research problem,
Choose the Topic
and conclusion sections.
If, after reading these sections, you are still interested in the article, then start at
Address a Problem the beginning and read the entire article more carefully.

Read Articles
Appendix: Read and Evaluate the article
• Quantitative Article
• Qualitative Article
The Effects of Computer-Assisted Instruction on First Grade

Choose the Topic Students’ Vocabulary Development
Charlotte Boling, The University of West Florida

Address a Problem Sarah H. Martin, Eastern Kentucky University
Michael A. Martin, Eastern Kentucky University

Discuss the following

Read Articles
1. Research Problem: How clearly is the problem stated?
• Qualitative Article 2. Purpose of the Study: How succinctly is the purpose stated?
3. Review of the Literature: Does the review support the need for studying the
problem?
Choose the Topic
4. Research Questions and Hypotheses: Are the research questions and the
hypotheses stated in a clear and concise manner?
Address a Problem 5. Methodology: Is this section described with sufficient clarity to permit another
researcher to replicate the study?
Identify the Variables 6. Results: Are the results presented objectively, without interpretation?
7. Discussion: Have the results been related to the research questions and previous
studies?
8. Conclusion: Did the authors indicate implications for future research and practical
applications.
Read Articles
Appendix: Read and Evaluate the article
• Qualitative Article
The Developmental Progression of Children’s Oral Story Inventions
Choose the Topic Eugene Geist

Jerry Aldridge
Address a Problem

Discuss the following

Read Articles
1. Research Problem: How clearly is the problem stated?
• Qualitative Article 2. Purpose of the Study: How succinctly is the purpose stated?
3. Review of the Literature: Does the review support the need for studying the
problem?
Choose the Topic
4. Research Questions and Hypotheses: Are the research questions and the
hypotheses stated in a clear and concise manner?
Address a Problem 5. Methodology: Is this section described with sufficient clarity to permit another
researcher to replicate the study?
Identify the Variables 6. Results: Are the perspectives of the different participants clearly presented? Are
participants’ words or comments quoted?
7. Discussion: Have the results been related to the research questions and previous
studies?
8. Conclusion: Are implications of the findings indicated?
Read Articles Ponder this
‘Would you tell me, please, which way I ought to walk from here?’
Choose the Topic
‘That depends a good deal on where you want to get to’, said the Cat.
‘I don’t much care where’, said Alice.
Address a Problem ‘Then it doesn’t matter which way you walk’, said the Cat.
Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland.

If you are not clear about what you are going to research,
it will be difficult to plan how you are going to research it.

Read Articles
Choose the Topic
Address a Problem

Techniques for generating research ideas

Read Articles
Rational Thinking Creative Thinking
Choose the Topic • Examining your own strengths and • Keeping a notebook of your ideas
interests • Exploring personal preferences

Address a Problem
• Examining academic staff research using past projects
Identify the Variables interests • Relevance trees
• Looking at past project titles • Brainstorming
• Discussion
• Searching existing literature
• Scanning the media

Rational Thinking
Read Articles
• Examining your own strengths and interests
Look at completed assignments for which you have received good grades.
Choose the Topic
• Examining academic staff research interests
• Rationale Thinking Check the profile pages of academic staff on your university’s website and their list of
• Creative Thinking publications.
• Looking at past project titles
Address a Problem Scan a list of past project titles for anything that captures your imagination.
• Discussion
Colleagues and university tutors are all good sources of possible research ideas.
• Searching existing literature
Browsing journals online and using available search facilities should help you to identify
possible research ideas and potential topics.
• Scanning the media

Fall 2021-2022 | Dr. Hiba Dandachi
Keeping up to date with items in the news can be a very rich source of ideas.
15
Read Articles Searching existing literature
Choose the Topic
• Rationale Thinking
• Creative Thinking
1. Start with an
article of interest
Address a Problem

Choose the Topic
2. Backward
reference
searching:
Address a Problem examine the
works cited in the
inital article.

Choose the Topic
3. Forward
reference
searching: find
Address a Problem articles that cite
the initial
article.

Read Articles Scanning the media
Where real-life crises provide valuable lessons

Choose the Topic
By Sarah Murray
• Creative Thinking Real events helped to underpin dramatically what was being taught to students
during one Master of Science in Global Finance programme when it was launched
10 years ago.
Address a Problem For Menachem Brenner, co-academic director of the programme, the financial
crisis sharpened his ambitions for the programme. The constant flux in the
financial world has meant the content needs to be regularly updated. For
Identify the Variables example, two courses have recently been added, one in fintech and the other in
behavioural finance.
Source of extract: Murray, Sarah (2017) ‘Where real-life crises provide valuable
lessons’, Financial Times, 19 June. Copyright 2017 The Financial Times Limited

Read Articles Critical Thinking
• Keeping a notebook of your ideas

Choose the Topic keeps a notebook by his bed so he can jot down any flashes of inspiration that occur to
him in the middle of the night. He can then pursue the idea using more rational thinking
• Rationale Thinking techniques later.
• Exploring personal preferences using past projects
Read through a number of past project reports from your university to explore your
personal preferences.
Address a Problem
• Relevance trees
Start with a broad concept from which you generate more specific topics. Each of these
Identify the Variables topics forms a separate branch from which you can generate further, more detailed
subbranches.
• Brainstorming
A problem solving technique that involves a number of stages: Defining the problem,
asking for suggestions, recording suggestions; reviewing suggestions, analysing
suggestions.
Read Articles
Exploring Personal Preferences using past projects
Choose the Topic

For each project that you like, note down your first thoughts in response to each
• Rationale Thinking of the following questions:
1. What do you like in general about the project?
2. Why do you like the project?
3. Which ideas in the project appeal to you?
Address a Problem
For each project that you do not like, note down your first thoughts in response to
each of the following questions:
1. What do you dislike in general about the project?
2. Why do you dislike the project?
3. Which ideas in the project do not appeal to you?

Read Articles
Brainstorming
George’s main interest was football. In his university city he worked part-time in
Choose the Topic
the retail store of the local football club and thought he would like to carry out his
• Rationale Thinking research project in this setting.
When he finished university he wanted to work in marketing, preferably for a
sports goods manufacturer or retailer. He had examined his own strengths and
discovered that his highest marks were in marketing. He wanted to do his
Address a Problem research project on some aspect of marketing, preferably linked to the football
club, but had no real research idea. He asked three friends, all taking business
management degrees, to help him brainstorm the problem.
George began by explaining the problem in some detail. At first the suggestions
emerged slowly. He noted them down on some flipchart sheets. Soon a number of
sheets of paper were covered with suggestions and pinned up around the room.
George counted these and discovered there were over 100.

Read Articles
Brainstorming- Continued
Reviewing individual suggestions produced nothing that any of the group felt to
Choose the Topic
be of sufficient merit for a research project. However, George recalled an article
• Rationale Thinking they had been asked to read based on a case study of an English Premier League
• Creative Thinking football club ( Ogbonna and Harris 2014 ). He had found this interesting because
of its subject. He recalled that it was about organisational culture being
perpetuated within organisations that have a long history of success, and
stakeholder groups such as football fans who have a strong sense of identity.
Address a Problem
George’s recollections of this article encouraged the group to discuss their
suggestions further. Combining a number of suggestions from the flipchart sheets
Identify the Variables with their discussion about organisational cultural perpetuation, George noted a
possible research idea as: ‘The impact of factors that perpetuate organisational
culture on the development of marketing strategies – help or hindrance?’
George thought this idea could be based on his local football club.
George arranged to see his project tutor to discuss how to refine the idea they
had just generated.
Read Articles
Refining research ideas
Choose the Topic

Having generated a research idea you will need to refine it to choose a
suitable topic:
Address a Problem Once you have your initial research idea you can re-visit the literature
with a much clearer focus to understand how this helps you to refine
your research idea and choose your topic.

Read Articles
A research topic is the broad subject matter addressed by the study.
Choose the Topic
Address a Problem
Find a niche
Identify the Variables After doing some initial reading, it’s time to start narrowing down your broad
area. This can be a gradual process, and your topic should get more and more
specific.
Narrow the topic to a specific research problem.

Read Articles A research topic is a general indication of the subject that is being researched.
• Student motivation
Choose the Topic • Reading difficulties of elementary students
• Formative classroom assessment
• Social development of adolescents
Address a Problem • Adult literacy
Identify the Variables The research problem is the issue, controversy, or concern that initiates the study.
• Motivation stimulated by the grades/ petitions of students seeking more

points.

Read Articles 1. Study the problem if your study will fill a gap or void in the existing literature.
For example, assume that a researcher examines the literature on the ethical climate on
Choose the Topic college campuses and finds that past research has examined the perceptions of
students, but not of faculty. This is a void or gap in the body of research about this issue.
Address a Problem Conducting a study about faculty perceptions of the ethical climate would address a
topic not studied in the current literature.

Read Articles 2. Study the problem if your study replicates a past study but examines different
participants and different research sites.
Choose the Topic In a quantitative study of ethical climate, for example, past research conducted in a
liberal arts college can be tested (or replicated) at other sites, such as a community
college or major research university. Information from such a study will provide new
Address a Problem
knowledge.

Read Articles 3. Study the problem if your study extends past research or examines the topic
more thoroughly.
Choose the Topic For example, in our illustration on ethical climate, although research exists on ethical
climates, it now needs to be extended to the situation in which students take exams,
because taking exams poses many ethical dilemmas for students. In this way, you
Address a Problem
extend the research to new topics. This extension is different from replication because
you extend the research to these topics rather than participants and research sites.

Read Articles 4. Study the problem if your study gives voice to people silenced, not heard, or
rejected in society.
Choose the Topic For example, although past studies on ethical climate have addressed students in
private universities, we have not heard the voices of students in public universities on
this topic. A study of this type would report and give voice to those students.
Address a Problem

Read Articles
5. Study the problem if your study is significant (contribute to knowledge/practice).
Choose the Topic For example, a study of ethical issues in a college setting may lead to new policies about
cheating on exams, or new approaches to administering tests.
Address a Problem

Task 1: Construct your Working Title
1. Select a general research topic

Practice Makes Perfect
2. Narrow down your topic to a specific research problem
3. Write your working Title.
Task 1: Example
1. Cognition functions (memory and thinking skills)
2. Interventions to reduce cognitive decline with aging are needed.
3. The effect of music therapy on the cognition of elderly people in Lebanon.

Task 1: Tips for Question 3
Step 1: Answer the following questions:

a. What is my research about? I want to study whether music therapy

improves cognitive functions.
b. What technique will I use? I want to do an experiment.
c. Who is studied? 40 persons aged between 60-70 years old.
d. Where are you going to do the study? in Lebanon.
Step 2: Create a sentence that includes your answers.
This study is an experiment that investigates whether music therapy will improve
cognitive functions in elderly people in Lebanon.
Step 3: Write a working title
The effect of music therapy on the cognition of elderly people in Lebanon.

Task 1: Tips for Question 3

• Indicate accurately the subject and scope of the study.

• Avoid using abbreviations.
• Use words that create a positive impression and stimulate reader interest.
• The title is limited to 10 to 15 substantive words.
• Do not include "study of," "analysis of" or similar constructions.
• Identify key variables/ central phenomenon.

Road Map

Read Articles Quantitative Study Qualitative Study
Explain or predict variables: Explore a central phenomenon:

Choose the Topic Cause and Effect Logic. In-depth understanding of a single
phenomenon.
Define the Problem

X Y
Y
The independent variable (X) influences External factors shape and are shaped
a dependent variable (Y). by the central phenomenon (Y).

Read Articles Working Title
The effect of physical exercise on the Physical exercise and cognitive

Choose the Topic cognitive plasticity of elderly people in performance in the elderly: current
Lebanon. perspectives
Define the Problem
Physical exercise cognitive plasticity Cognitive

performance

Read Articles Variable
Choose the Topic
Can be measured Varies

Define the Problem
Identify the Variables Can be counted, Can assume different

observed, recorded on values or scores for
an instrument different individuals.

Levels of Measurements
Read Articles
▪ Nominal Scale: Classification into categories

Choose the Topic Gender varies by two possible categories: Female and male.
▪ Ordinal Scale: Rank order

Frequency of physical exercise: Never, Rarely, Sometimes, Often, Always
Define the Problem
▪ Interval Scale: Numerical scale that has equal distances
Scores on the SAT test: Test-takers can score between 400–1600.
Identify the Variables Scores on the IQ test: Test-talers can score between 80-140.
Celsius and Fahrenheit scales where zero is just another temperature value.
• Levels of
Measurement
• Operational ▪ Ratio Scale: Quantitative scale where there is a true zero
Definition Kelvin scale has a true zero at the starting point (0 K) where nothing can be colder.
• Types of Variables You can only calculate ratios of temperatures in the Kelvin scale: in the Kelvin scale,
40 K is twice as hot as 20 K. However, it isn’t twice as hot on the Celsius or
Fahrenheit scales.

Read Articles
Choose the Topic
Define the Problem
• Levels of
Measurement
• Operational
Definition
• Types of Variables

Read Articles
Student achievement is a construct, while the more specific term grade point
average is a variable.
Choose the Topic
Define the Problem What is the difference between a construct and a variable?
Construct is an attribute or characteristic expressed in an abstract, general way.

Variable is an attribute or characteristic stated in a specific, applied way.
• Levels of
Measurement
• Operational
Definition

Read Articles
Each construct must be defined operationally by specifying the activities
or operations necessary to measure this construct.
Choose the Topic
Define the Problem Conceptual definition: provides meaning to a construct in abstract or

theoretical terms.
Identify the Variables Operational definition: defines a construct by specifying the procedures used
to measure a construct.
• Levels of
Measurement
• Operational
Definition

Read Articles
Each construct must be defined operationally by specifying the activities
or operations necessary to measure this construct.
Choose the Topic
Construct Conceptual Definition Operational Definition
Intelligence Ability to think abstractly Scores on the Stanford–
Define the Problem
Binet Intelligence Scale
Self-concept Characteristics used to describe Scores on the Coopersmith
Identify the Variables oneself Self-Esteem Inventory
Teacher Withitness Awareness of student behavior Results of the Robinson
• Levels of Scale Teacher With-It-Ness
Measurement
Anxiety Apprehension or vague fear Scores on the Hamilton
• Operational
Definition Anxiety Scale

In small groups, you will operationalize the following constructs.

Be both creative and precise!
▪ Enthusiasm
▪ Love
▪ Organization

Read Articles
Independent Variable Dependent Variable
Choose the Topic Method of instruction Student achievement
Type of feedback Student motivation
Type of curriculum Student achievement
Define the Problem
Induction programs Teacher satisfaction
Test preparation programs Student confidence
Identify the Variables School Size Student achievement
• Levels of
Measurement
• Operational
Definition

Factor that exists more in one group than in

Read Articles another and affects the dependent variable Student learning style
(Need to be considered when discussing the
results, to avoid spurious conclusions)
Confounding variable
Choose the Topic
Define the Problem

Method of instruction Student Motivation
Identify the Variables Independent variable Dependent variable
• Levels of Cause or antecedent Outcome or consequence

Measurement
• Operational
Definition
Uncontrolled factor that has an undesirable
• Types of Variables effect on the dependent variables (Need to be Noise
considered when discussing the results, to
avoid spurious conclusions)
Extraneous variable
Read Articles
Independent Variable (IV) Dependent Variable (DV)
Choose the Topic

1- Number of years 2- Proficiency in
studying Spanish Spanish
Define the Problem
Moderator Variable (MV)

3- Gender
• Levels of (Female/male)
Measurement
• Operational
Definition
Control Variable (CV)
4- Eliminate all the students who have previous
background in Spanish (visited Mexico)
Read Articles
Independent Variable (IV) Dependent Variable (DV)
Choose the Topic ▪ Cause

▪ Effect
▪ Predictor
▪ Outcome
▪ Factor
Define the Problem
Moderator Variable (MV)
Identify the Variables May or may not have an effect

on the central relationship
• Levels of between the IV and the DV
Measurement
• Operational
Definition
Control Variable (CV)
Kept constant/eliminated so it will not have an effect
on the relationship between the DV and the IV.
Consider a car accident as an example.

The outcome (dependent variable) was that you hit another car at a stop. You
caused this fender bender because you were talking on your cell phone
(independent variable). The cause might have been the slick pavement (control
variable), but the skies were sunny and it had not rained for days.
See how this works?
Now take another situation in your life this last week, and list the
dependent, independent, and control variables in your own cause-and-
effect situation.

For each experiment below, specify the dependent variable, the independent
variable and the control variable.
1. Two groups of students were tested to compare their speed working math
problems. Each group was given the same problems. One group used calculators
and the other group computed without calculators.
2. Some elementary school teachers were told that a child’s parents were college
graduates, and other teachers were told that the child’s parents had not finished
high school; they then rated the child’s academic potential.
3. Students at a University were split into two groups and each received a different
text for a philosophy course. One group received a traditional text book, while
the other received an interactive textbook on a tablet computer. After the course,
the final exam marks between the two groups of students were compared.

Chapter 4: Results

Introduction
Background of the Study
Problem Statement In the introduction, you set up your dissertation’s topic, purpose, and relevance,
and tell the reader what to expect in the rest of the dissertation.
Rationale for the Study
The introduction should include:
Purpose Statement
Research Questions • Topic and context: what does the reader need to know to understand the
dissertation?
Research Hypotheses • Focus and scope: what specific aspect of the topic will you address?
• Relevance and importance: how does the research fit into existing work on
Nature of the Study this topic?
• Questions and objectives: what does the research aim to find out and how?
Significance of the Study • Overview of the structure: what does each chapter of the dissertation
contribute to the overall aim?
Definition of Terms
Assumptions, Limitations
and Delimitations
Summary
Introduction
Problem Statement
Everything in the introduction should be clear, engaging, and relevant to your
research. By the end, the reader should understand the what, why and how of
Purpose Statement your research.
Research Questions Although the introduction comes at the beginning of your dissertation, it doesn’t
have to be the first thing you write — in fact, it’s often the very last part to be
Research Hypotheses completed.
Nature of the Study
Significance of the Study
Definition of Terms
and Delimitations
Summary
Introduction

How long should the Introduction be?
Problem Statement

Typically, the introductory chapter is one of the shorter chapters of the entire
Purpose Statement thesis.
Research Questions • The 45 thesis Introductions examined by Bunton (2002) averaged 17.4 pages.
• He found that Introductions from medicine were particularly long (29–45
Research Hypotheses
pages).
Nature of the Study • Social sciences and arts Introductions were over 40 pages in length.
• It appears, from Bunton’s (2002) research, that certain humanities’ (arts)
Significance of the Study theses may not have separate literature review chapters but that a review of
the literature is conducted in the introductory chapter.
Definition of Terms
and Delimitations
Summary
Introduction
Background of the Study Guidelines

Problem Statement
1. This section provides a brief overview of the research focus or problem,
Rationale for the Study explains why this study is worth conducting, and discusses how this study
will be completed.
Purpose Statement
2. Number of pages: Minimum three to four paragraphs or approximately one
Research Questions page.
Research Hypotheses
Nature of the Study
Definition of Terms
and Delimitations
Summary
Introduction
Example
According to the International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE, 2011),
Problem Statement one of the areas that is noteworthy to boosting the achievement of K-12 students
is preparing preservice teachers to integrate technology into curricular areas
Rationale for the Study before they begin teaching independently. Kumar and Vigil (2011) discovered
that preservice teachers who used technology in their personal lives were not
Purpose Statement applying these skills for educational purposes in the classroom when planning
lessons. Even though preservice teachers may feel experienced with technology,
Research Questions
innovative tools and technology will constantly evolve and change (Teo, 2009).
Research Hypotheses Therefore, high technological self-efficacy is necessary for preservice teachers to
be comfortable taking on new technology as it is introduced (Hearrington, 2010;
Nature of the Study Moore-Hayes, 2011; Ruz & Khasawneh, 2011).
Significance of the Study School districts have begun to use online communities for professional
development while some high educational institutions also use them for faculty
Definition of Terms learning (Wenger, White, & Smith, 2009). This study provided insight into how an
Assumptions, Limitations online community affects pre-student teachers’ technological self-efficacy and
and Delimitations therefore contributed to the teacher preparatory programs. She put her study
Summary in the context of a broader educational problem in the introduction, indicating
the potential for social change.
Introduction

Example - Continued
Problem Statement
This chapter includes a discussion of the background of technological self-efficacy,
Rationale for the Study online communities of practice, and the use of iPads in the classroom. This discussion
is followed by the problem statement and an explanation of the focus of this study. An
Purpose Statement overview of this mixed methods study beginning with the purpose follows. Bandura’s
(1977) social learning theory and Lave and Wenger’s (1991) community of practice
Research Questions serve as the conceptual framework for the study. In this chapter the nature of this
mixed methods study is explained along with definitions of terms that may be
Research Hypotheses unfamiliar. Assumptions are an important part of this study and are also addressed in
this chapter. The delimitations and limitations are a significant element to consider as
Nature of the Study
both the concerns of quantitative and qualitative sections are clarified. This chapter
Significance of the Study concludes with a section on the significance of this study. As new technological tools
are introduced, classroom teachers will require different strategies and resources to
Definition of Terms meet the needs of the learners .
and Delimitations
Summary
Introduction
Problem Statement Checklist

❑ Introduce the thesis topic.
Provide the reader with a clear understanding of the problem in a concise yet
Purpose Statement ❑
complete manner.
Research Questions
❑ Discuss the value of conducting the study.
Research Hypotheses
❑ Briefly describe how the study will be done.
Nature of the Study ❑ Present the guiding research question or hypothesis for the study.
Significance of the Study ❑ Provide an overview of what is contained in the chapter.
Definition of Terms
and Delimitations
Summary
Introduction
Guidelines
Problem Statement 1. The background section explains both the history of and the present state of
the problem and research focus: includes a review of the existing literature
Rationale for the Study on the area of your research, leading up to your topic.
Purpose Statement 2. Please ensure that you only discuss the main and relevant aspects of the
studies that have led to your aims. Do not elaborate on them as this should be
Research Questions done in the literature review section. The background should be written as a
summary of your interpretation of previous research and what your study
Research Hypotheses
proposes to accomplish.
Nature of the Study
3. Number of pages: Minimum two to three paragraphs or approximately one
Significance of the Study page.
Definition of Terms
and Delimitations
Summary
Introduction
Example
Barnes (2000) found preservice teachers’ self-efficacy in the area of instructional
Problem Statement
effectiveness decreased throughout their years in an undergraduate teacher
Rationale for the Study preparatory program. One way to increase their self-efficacy is online
Purpose Statement communities of practice. Many school systems are using online communities of
Research Questions practice as a form of professional development or a setting for mentorship

(Kopcha, 2010; Lieberman & Mace, 2009). Lewis, Koston, Quartley, and Adsit
Research Hypotheses
(2011) explained the benefits of sharing while using current tools such as online
Nature of the Study
blogs. Tsai et al. found that participants’ feelings of teaching confidence were
Significance of the Study enhanced after their experience with an online community of practice.
Definition of Terms In response to The U.S. Department of Education’s technology plan (2010),
Assumptions, Limitations schools are investing in new technologies such as iPads. Teacher preparatory
and Delimitations
programs are needed that include experiences that involve incorporating these
Summary
Fall 2021-2022 | Dr. Hiba Dandachi new devices into their instruction. 60
Introduction
Problem Statement Checklist

Rationale for the Study ❑ Provide a summary of results from the prior empirical research on the topic.
Purpose Statement Briefly introduce the reader to the theoretical framework that provides a
❑ theoretical context for developing the research problem.
Research Questions
Research Hypotheses
Nature of the Study
Definition of Terms
and Delimitations
Summary
Introduction Guidelines
Background of the Study 1. The problem statement is the discrepancy between what we already know and
what we want to know. This section clearly states the problem or research focus and
Problem Statement
the population affected. A well-written problem statement begins with the big
Rationale for the Study picture of the issue “macro” and works to the small, narrower, and more specific
problem “micro”.
Purpose Statement
2. It clearly communicates the magnitude and importance of the problem and transitions
Research Questions into the Purpose of the Study with a declarative statement such as “It is not known if
and to what degree/extent...” or “It is not known how/why and…”
Research Hypotheses
3. Make sure your research problem passes the ROC test meaning your problem is
Nature of the Study Researchable, Original, and Contributory.
4. Many styles are used in presenting the research problem, and usually there is no
Definition of Terms separate section of the report named “Research Problem.” In short articles the
research problem may consist of only a few sentences. In doctoral dissertations there
and Delimitations may be several pages devoted to the research problem.
Summary 5. Number of pages: Minimum three to four paragraphs or approximately one page with
Fall 2021-2022 | Dr. Hiba Dandachi citations from empirical research articles to support statements. 62
Introduction
Background of the Study Example
Problem Statement A few studies were found that provided information that the use of iPads in the
Rationale for the Study classroom increases productivity, creativity, and collaboration (Foote, 2012;
Purpose Statement Getting & Swainey, 2012; Harmon, 2012; McClanahan, Williams, Kennedy, & Tate,
2012; Price, 2011). McClanahan et al. (2012) discovered that the use of an iPad as
Research Questions
a tool for intervention strategies with a struggling reader showed one year of
Research Hypotheses
growth in a 6-week time period. Price (2011) found that the use of iPads as e-
Nature of the Study readers improved the comprehension skills of students with autism. None of
Significance of the Study these research studies provided information about how to assist preservice
Definition of Terms teachers in planning instruction with iPads .

and Delimitations
Summary
Introduction
Background of the Study Checklist

Problem Statement State the specific problem proposed for research by presenting a clear
❑
declarative statement that begins with:
• Quantitative: “It is not known if and to what degree/extent...”
Purpose Statement
• Qualitative: “It is not known how/why and…”
Research Questions
Research Hypotheses ❑ Identify the general population affected by the problem.
Nature of the Study ❑ Clearly describe the magnitude and importance of the problem.
Definition of Terms
and Delimitations
Summary
Introduction
Background of the Study Elements of a Problem Statement
Problem Statement
Public school teachers in Lebanon are dissatisfied with the outcomes of the
What is Wrong Where it went
Purpose Statement
remote learning. Since starting in March, students’ achievement decreased
Research Questions When it occurred How much is the extent
Research Hypotheses by 50%, while students’ achievement in private schools have remained
How do we know this
Nature of the Study
stable.
Definition of Terms
and Delimitations
Summary
Introduction
Problem Statement 1. The rationale of your research, also referred to as the justification of the study, is the
Rationale for the Study reason for performing the research study in question.
Purpose Statement
2. In writing your rational you should able to convey why there was a need for your
Research Questions
study to be carried out.
Research Hypotheses
Nature of the Study 3. Having explained the work of previous literature and prior research (Background of
Significance of the Study the study), and included discussion about where the gaps in knowledge are in your
Definition of Terms field (Problem Statement), you need to point out the value of your research and to
Assumptions, Limitations convey to the reader why your research topic is needed.
and Delimitations
4. Number of Pages: one to two paragraphs .
Summary
Introduction

There are many possible ways to answer the question about the value of your
Problem Statement research:
Purpose Statement • You might suggest that the area/topic you have picked to research lacks
critical investigation.
Research Questions
• You might be looking at the area/topic from a different angle and this could
Research Hypotheses
also be seen as adding value.
Nature of the Study • In some cases, it may be that your research is somewhat urgent and value
Significance of the Study can be added in this way.
Definition of Terms
Whatever reason you come up with to address the value added question, make
and Delimitations sure that somewhere in this section you directly state the importance or added
Summary value of the research.
Introduction
Example
Problem Statement In this study, I examined iPads as the technology being integrated into the
Rationale for the Study classroom instruction and learning. The study provided insight into a new form of
Purpose Statement teacher preparation using learning communities of in-service and preservice
teachers to measure its impact on technological self-efficacy regarding technology
Research Questions
proficiency, developing lessons using iPads, and integrating technology into lessons.
Research Hypotheses
Research on technology integration, professional development, communities of
Nature of the Study practice, collaboration, and self-efficacy have been conducted, but little of the
Significance of the Study research has been an analysis of the synergy of a program that combines preservice
Definition of Terms teachers with in-service teachers in communities of practice regarding the use of
Assumptions, Limitations technology in the classroom. She addresses the gap in the current research on this
and Delimitations
topic showing how her study will contribute new knowledge to the field
Summary
Introduction

Problem Statement Identify the need for the study and why it is of concern to the researcher.
❑
❑ Identify the gap in the Lebanese Context.
Purpose Statement
❑ State the worth of your work and suggest how the study may contribute to
Research Questions
solving the problem.
Research Hypotheses
Nature of the Study
Definition of Terms
and Delimitations
Summary
Introduction
Problem Statement
The background discusses existing data on your topic.
Purpose Statement
The problem statement is what you identify as an issue with supporting data.
Research Questions
Research Hypotheses
Nature of the Study The rationale tells the reader from your perspective why the study is needed.
Definition of Terms
and Delimitations
Summary
Introduction
Problem Statement The rationale is the justification for the study presented as a logical argument. It
Rationale for the Study describes the genesis of the study and why it is important to carry it out.
Purpose Statement
This is distinct from the significance of the study, which addresses the benefits that
Research Questions
may be derived from doing the study. The significance addresses questions
Research Hypotheses
regarding your study such as “So what?” or “What difference does it make?”
Nature of the Study
Definition of Terms
and Delimitations
Summary
Introduction

Problem Statement
1. The purpose statement, usually written in a single sentence or paragraph,
clearly and succinctly states the intent of your study—what exactly
Purpose Statement you're going to find out.
Research Questions 2. The purpose specifies the variables or concepts under study .
Research Hypotheses 3. Number of pages: Minimum two to three paragraphs.
Nature of the Study
Definition of Terms
and Delimitations
Summary
Introduction

Writing Quantitative Purpose Statements
Problem Statement
Rationale for the Study A quantitative purpose statement identifies the variables, their relationship,
and the participants and site for research.
Purpose Statement
• Relate two or more variables or compare a variable composed of two or
Research Questions more groups in terms of the dependent variable, or describe one variable.
Research Hypotheses
• Identify the participants to be studied and the research site at which they
Nature of the Study will be studied.
Definition of Terms
and Delimitations
Summary
Introduction
Background of the Study Example 1 - A Purpose Statement in a Relationships Study

Problem Statement
The purpose of this study was to identify the relationship between the
Rationale for the Study perceived effectiveness of teacher work teams and teacher motivational
needs.
Purpose Statement
Example 2 - A Purpose Statement in a Comparative Study
Research Questions
The purpose of this study was to determine whether there is a significant
Research Hypotheses difference between the limited-English-speaking high school students
attending year-round schools and limited- English-proficient students
Nature of the Study
attending traditional high schools in the areas of (1) student attendance, (2)
Significance of the Study student grade point average, (3) student academic achievement as measured
by units earned toward graduation, and (4) student oral English-language
Definition of Terms acquisition as measured by Language Assessment Survey (LAS). (Miranda,
Assumptions, Limitations 1993)
and Delimitations
Summary
Introduction
Problem Statement
Rationale for the Study Example 3 - A Purpose Statement in a Descriptive Study
Purpose Statement The purpose of this study was to determine which strategies principals used
to implement shared decision making in selected elementary schools and to
Research Questions determine how effective they were perceived to be by the principal, a
teacher, and a parent at each site. (Walkington, 1991)
Research Hypotheses
Nature of the Study
Definition of Terms
and Delimitations
Summary
Introduction
Background of the Study Example 4 - A Purpose Statement in a Descriptive-Comparative Study

Problem Statement
The purpose of this study was to describe the collective bargaining
Rationale for the Study procedures used by selected community college districts and the climates of
the colleges. It was also the purpose of this study to describe the differences
Purpose Statement between a population with training in non-adversarial collective bargaining
strategies and a population without training in collective bargaining
Research Questions strategies. (Garcia-Lipscomb, 1997)
Research Hypotheses Example 5 - A Purpose Statement in a Comparative-Relationship Study
Nature of the Study
The purpose of this study was to determine the differences between public
Significance of the Study and non-public school special education principals and teachers of students
with severe emotional disturbances on their leadership orientations. It also
Definition of Terms determined whether a relationship existed between these leadership
Assumptions, Limitations orientations and variables of school success as measured by student
and Delimitations absenteeism, suspensions, expulsions, and teacher absenteeism. (Hernandez,
1996)
Summary
Introduction
Problem Statement
Quantitative purpose statement script
Purpose Statement
Research Questions
Research Hypotheses
Nature of the Study
Definition of Terms
and Delimitations
Summary
Introduction
Problem Statement
Example
The purpose of this proposed experimental study will be to determine the effect
Purpose Statement
of different types of achievement feedback on the motivation and achievement of
Research Questions students at an elementary school in Dade County, Florida. The independent
Research Hypotheses variable will be defined as the type of weekly feedback a student receives; either
Nature of the Study a traditional or graphical report card. The dependent variables are defined as
intrinsic motivation and levels of 5th grade math achievement.
Definition of Terms
and Delimitations
Summary
Introduction

Writing Qualitative Purpose Statements
Problem Statement
Rationale for the Study A purpose statement in qualitative research indicates the intent to explore or
understand the central phenomenon with specific individuals at a certain
Purpose Statement research site.
Research Questions • State the central phenomenon you plan to explore.

• Mention the participants in the study.
Research Hypotheses • Refer to the research site where you will study the participants.
• Use exploratory verbs that convey the language of emerging design. These
Nature of the Study
verbs tell that the study will:
• Discover (e.g grounded theory)
Definition of Terms • Seek to understand (e.g ethnography)
Assumptions, Limitations • Explore a process (e.g case study)
and Delimitations • Describe the experiences (e.g phenomenology)
• Report the stories (e.g narrative research)
Summary
Introduction
Problem Statement
Qualitative purpose statement script
Purpose Statement
Research Questions
Research Hypotheses
Nature of the Study
Definition of Terms
and Delimitations
Summary
Introduction
Problem Statement
Example
The purpose of this study will be to understand the life experiences of female
Purpose Statement
math majors at Pleasantville university. At this stage in the research, “life
Research Questions experiences” will be defined as events that female math majors feel may have
Research Hypotheses influenced their choice of major.
Nature of the Study
Definition of Terms
and Delimitations
Summary
Introduction

Problem Statement Write a declarative statement: “The purpose of this study is….” that identifies the
❑
research methodology and design, population, variables (quantitative) or
phenomena (qualitative) to be studied and geographic location.
Purpose Statement Identifies research methodology as qualitative, or quantitative, and identifies the
❑
specific research design.
Research Questions
❑ Describes the target population and geographic location for the study.
Research Hypotheses
❑ Quantitative: Defines the variables, relationship of variables, or comparison of
Nature of the Study groups.
Qualitative: Describes the nature of the phenomena to be explored.
Definition of Terms
and Delimitations
Summary
Introduction
Guidelines
Problem Statement 1. In a paragraph prior to listing the research questions, include a discussion of the
research questions, relating them to the problem statement.
2. Then, include a leading phrase to introduce the questions such as: The following
Purpose Statement
research questions guide this qualitative study: “This section narrows the focus of
Research Questions
the study by specifying the research questions to address the problem statement”.
Research Hypotheses 3. The research questions should be derived from, and are directly aligned with, the
Nature of the Study problem and purpose statements.

4. Number of pages: Minimum two to three paragraphs or approximately one page.
5. Qualitative studies will typically have one overarching research question with
Definition of Terms
three or more sub-questions.
and Delimitations 6. Quantitative studies will typically have three or four research questions and
Summary associated hypotheses.
Introduction

Quantitative Research Questions
Problem Statement
Rationale for the Study Type of RQ Format

1. Descriptive What is… ?
Purpose Statement How frequently… ?
Research Questions
2. Comparative What is the difference… ?
Research Hypotheses Is there a difference… ?
3. Correlational (Relationship) What is the relationship between… ?
Nature of the Study
Significance of the Study 4. Causal (Experimental Relationship) What is the effect of …. ?
Definition of Terms
and Delimitations
Summary
Introduction
Background of the Study Descriptive questions
Problem Statement Studies using descriptions typically use frequencies, percentages, averages, total
scores, graphs, and other indicators of how much or how frequently something has
Rationale for the Study occurred.
Purpose Statement
Example:
Research Questions • How do the students rate on critical thinking skills?
• What are the student’s achievement levels (or grades) in science classes?
Research Hypotheses • What is the educational attainment of the parents of the eighthgraders?
• How often do (African Americans feel) isolated on (college campuses)?
Nature of the Study
Significance of the Study Script
Definition of Terms How frequently do (participants) (variable) at ( research site)?

and Delimitations
Summary
Introduction
Background of the Study Comparative questions

Problem Statement
Studies aim to examine the differences between two or more groups on one or
Rationale for the Study more dependent variables.
Purpose Statement
Example:
Research Questions • What differences exist in the motivation of students across grade level?
• How do (African Americans) and (Euro Americans) compare in (their
Research Hypotheses
perceptions of ethnic identity)?
Nature of the Study

Script
Definition of Terms
How does ( group 1) differ from (group 2) in terms of (dependent variable) for
and Delimitations (participants) at (research site)?
Summary
Introduction
Correlational questions
Problem Statement Studies examine the degree to which two or more variables are related to each
other.
Purpose Statement Example:

• How do (feelings of isolation) relate to the (ethnic identity) of (African
Research Questions
Americans) in the (United States)?
Research Hypotheses • To what extent do preservice ratings during student teaching predict teaching
effectiveness?
Nature of the Study
Significance of the Study Script

Definition of Terms
How does (independent variable ) relate to (dependent variable) for
Assumptions, Limitations (participants) at ( research site)?
and Delimitations
Summary
Introduction
Background of the Study Causal questions
Problem Statement These questions clearly imply a causal intent, consistent with doing an experiment.
Purpose Statement Example:

Research Questions • What is the effect of (online teaching) on the (academic achievement) of
(first-grade children) at (public schools)?
Research Hypotheses
Nature of the Study

Script
What is the effect of the (independent variable ) on the (dependent variable) for
Definition of Terms (participants) at ( research site)?
and Delimitations
Summary
Introduction

Correlation does not imply causation
Problem Statement
Purpose Statement
Research Questions
Research Hypotheses
Nature of the Study
Definition of Terms
and Delimitations
Summary
Introduction
Example - Comparative and Correlational Research Questions
Problem Statement The present study was designed to address four primary questions:

(a) What is the relationship between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation?
Purpose Statement
Research Questions
(b) Are there significant age differences in intrinsic and extrinsic motivation when
Research Hypotheses these two constructs are measured independent of one another?
Nature of the Study

(c) How are these two motivational orientations related to academic outcomes?
Definition of Terms
(d) With respect to the previous three questions, are there significant differences
and Delimitations between European American and Asian American children?
Summary
Introduction

Qualitative Research Questions
Problem Statement
Rationale for the Study Qualitative Research questions tend to use specific kinds of verbs, such as
Purpose Statement generate, understand, describe, discover, and explore, rather than relate,
differ, or compare
Research Questions
Research Hypotheses
There are two types of qualitative research questions: the central question and
Nature of the Study subquestions.
Significance of the Study • The central question is an open-ended idea that identifies, in a broad way,
Definition of Terms the central phenomenon that will be investigated.

Assumptions, Limitations • Sub-questions are referred as issue and procedural sub-questions.
and Delimitations
Summary
Introduction

Issue Sub-questions Procedural Sub-questions
Problem Statement Intent To subdivide the central question To subdivide the central question
into detailed questions into steps for data collection
during the study
Purpose Statement Example Central Question: Central Question:
What does it mean to be a professional What is the change process in the
Research Questions teacher? revision of a general education
curriculum on a college campus?
Research Hypotheses
Issue Sub-questions: Procedural Sub-questions:
Nature of the Study • What do professional teachers do? • How did the process unfold?
• What is difficult/easy about being • Who were the people involved?
Significance of the Study a professional educator? • What events occurred?
• When did the teacher first became • What was the outcome?
Definition of Terms aware of being a professional?
and Delimitations
Summary
Introduction
Problem Statement Script- Issue Subquestions
Rationale for the Study What is (the sub-question issue ) for (participants—optional information) at
(research site —optional information)?
Purpose Statement
*If you state the participants and research site in the central question or purpose
Research Questions statement, you do not need to repeat them in the subquestions.
Research Hypotheses
Script- Procedural Subquestions
Nature of the Study
Significance of the Study (What question will be answered first?)

(What question will be answered second? )
Definition of Terms (What question will be answered third?)
and Delimitations
Summary
Introduction
Background of the Study Example – Qualitative Research Questions

Problem Statement
In order to understand this complex situation more deeply, I designed a qualitative
study to investigate kindergarten teachers’ experiences in responding to the
Purpose Statement
challenges presented by the changing expectations for kindergarten teaching. The
Research Questions study’s research questions were:
Research Hypotheses
Nature of the Study 1) How do kindergarten teachers satisfy both their commitment to developmentally
appropriate teaching practices and their responsibility to teach the
predetermined knowledge and skills mandated by their state?;
Definition of Terms
2) What challenges do kindergarten teachers feel they are facing, and how do they
and Delimitations respond to those challenges?
Summary
Introduction

Checklist
Problem Statement
❑ Qualitative Designs: State the research question(s) the study will answer and
describes the phenomenon to be studied.
Purpose Statement
Quantitative Designs: State the research questions the study will answer,
Research Questions identifies the variables, and states the hypotheses (predictive statements) using
the format appropriate for the specific design.
Research Hypotheses
Nature of the Study ❑ This section includes a discussion of the research questions, relating them to the
problem statement.
Definition of Terms
and Delimitations
Summary
Introduction
Problem Statement
Purpose Statement
Research Questions
Research Hypotheses
Nature of the Study
Definition of Terms
and Delimitations
Summary
Introduction

Problem Statement
1. Similar to research questions, hypotheses narrow the purpose statement in
quantitative research.
Purpose Statement 2. Hypotheses advance a prediction about what the researcher expects to find.
Research Questions 3. The researcher can make these predictions because of past studies in the
Research Hypotheses literature that suggest certain outcomes.
Nature of the Study
Definition of Terms
and Delimitations
Summary
Introduction
Problem Statement

Research Question:
Purpose Statement
What is the effect of the math gamification app on second grade students’
Research Questions attitudes toward math?
Research Hypotheses
Nature of the Study
Definition of Terms
and Delimitations
Summary
Introduction
Background of the Study Null hypothesis:
Problem Statement The math gamification app has no statistically significant effect on second grade
students’ attitudes toward math (as measured by the Attitudes Toward Mathematics
Rationale for the Study Assessment).
Purpose Statement Alternative hypothesis (Non-directional Alternative Hypothesis):
Research Questions
The math gamification app will have a significant statistically effect on second
Research Hypotheses grade students’ attitudes toward math (as measured by the Attitudes Toward
Mathematics Assessment).
Nature of the Study
Alternative hypothesis (Directional Alternative Hypothesis):
Second grade students who participate in the math gamification app will have
Definition of Terms significantly higher mean scores on the Attitudes Toward Mathematics Assessment
Assumptions, Limitations as opposed to second grade students who participate in a traditional math class.
and Delimitations
Summary *Directional hypothesis should only be posed if strong empirical and theoretical support exists.
Introduction
Background of the Study Null Hypothesis
Problem Statement
There is no relationship between independent and dependent variables.
Purpose Statement
Script
Research Questions
H0 : There is no statistically significant difference/relationship between
Research Hypotheses (independent variable, group 1) and (independent variable, group 2) ) in terms of
(dependent variable) for (participants) at (research site)
Nature of the Study
Significance of the Study Example:
Definition of Terms H0 : There is no statistically significant difference between at-risk and non-at-risk
Assumptions, Limitations students in terms of student achievement on math test scores for third-grade
and Delimitations students in a Midwest school district.
Summary
Introduction
Background of the Study Alternative Hypotheses
Problem Statement
Non-directional alternative hypothesis
Purpose Statement In a non- directional alternative hypothesis the researcher predicts a change, a
difference, or a relationship for variables in a population but does not indicate
Research Questions
whether the direction of this prediction will be positive or negative, or greater
Research Hypotheses or less.
Nature of the Study

Directional alternative hypothesis
The researcher predicts the direction of a change, a difference, or a
Definition of Terms relationship for variables in the total population of people. A researcher selects a
Assumptions, Limitations sample of people from a population and predicts that the scores will be higher,
and Delimitations better, or changed in some way. This typical form for writing hypotheses is
Summary encountered in the literature more than any other type of hypothesis.
Introduction
Problem Statement
Non-Directional alternative hypothesis
Script
Purpose Statement
Research Questions H1 : There is a statistically significant difference/relationship between

(independent variable, group 1) and (independent variable, group 2) ) in terms of
Research Hypotheses (dependent variable) for (participants) at (research site)
Nature of the Study

Example:
Definition of Terms H1 : There is a statistically significant difference between at-risk and non-at-
risk students in terms of student achievement on math test scores for third-
and Delimitations grade students in a Midwest school district.
Summary
Introduction
Problem Statement
Directional alternative hypothesis
Script
Purpose Statement
Research Questions H1 : (group 1, independent variable) at (research site ) will have (some difference,
such as higher, lower, greater, lesser) on (dependent variable) than (group 2 of
Research Hypotheses independent variable).
Nature of the Study Example:

H1 : Students who are not at risk in Midwest school district will have higher
Definition of Terms math test scores than students who are at-risk.
and Delimitations
Summary
State the null and the alternative hypothesis based on each of the following research questions:
1. What is the effect of individualized and structured social studies on high school students?
2. Are there any differences in students’ engagement in tasks when a teacher uses a positive introduction
and when a teacher uses a neutral introduction to tasks?

Introduction
Problem Statement
Alternative Hypothesis Null Hypothesis
Purpose Statement There is a relationship Accept Reject

Research Questions
There is no relationship Reject Fail to reject
Research Hypotheses
Nature of the Study

*We never say we accept the null hypothesis because it is never possible to prove
Significance of the Study something does not exist.
Definition of Terms
By tradition, we try to disprove (reject) the null hypothesis. We can never prove
and Delimitations a null hypothesis, because it is impossible to prove something does not exist.
Therefore, in research we try to disprove the null hypothesis.
Summary
Introduction
Problem Statement
Purpose Statement
Research Questions
Research Hypotheses
Nature of the Study
Definition of Terms
and Delimitations
Summary The burden of proof is placed on the researcher not to
support that null hypothesis.
Introduction
Problem Statement
Purpose Statement
Research Questions
Research Hypotheses
Nature of the Study
Definition of Terms
and Delimitations
Summary
Introduction

Checklist
Problem Statement
Rationale for the Study ❑ Write the null and the alternative hypothesis for each quantitative research
question.
Purpose Statement
❑ The hypothesis should align to the research question.
Research Questions
Research Hypotheses
Nature of the Study
Definition of Terms
and Delimitations
Summary
Introduction

Problem Statement
1. This section describes the specific research design to answer the research
questions and affirms why this approach was selected.
Purpose Statement 2. It describes the research sample being studied as well as the process that will
Research Questions be used to collect the data on the sample.
Research Hypotheses 3. It identifies the instruments or sources of data needed to answer the research
questions.
Nature of the Study
4. It provides citations from seminal sources such as research textbooks,
research articles, and articles on similar studies.
Definition of Terms 5. Number of pages: three to four paragraphs or approximately one page.
and Delimitations
Summary
Introduction
Problem Statement This mixed methods study included an independent variable that was the
preservice teachers’ participation in an online community of practice. The
Rationale for the Study dependent variable for this study was the preservice teachers’ perception of self-
Purpose Statement efficacy in regards to technology.
“A major advantage of mixed methods research is that it enables the researcher to
Research Questions simultaneously ask confirmatory and exploratory questions and therefore verify
and generate theory in the same study” (Teddlie & Tashakkori, 2009, p. 33). This
Research Hypotheses methodology was chosen after a review of current literature. The need to
increase teachers’ technological self-efficacy is increasingly important as society
Nature of the Study becomes more embedded with technology. One phenomenon was the focus of
this study.
Significance of the Study Preservice teachers completed a technological self-efficacy survey in the
Definition of Terms beginning and at the end of the semester that was analyzed to determine how
they perceived their use of technology. Survey results provided information
Assumptions, Limitations relevant to the impact of the online community of practice and their self-efficacy
and Delimitations in regard to using technology in the classroom instruction.
Summary
Introduction
Background of the Study Example - Continued

Problem Statement
The sample included students enrolled in two sections of an instructional
Rationale for the Study technology course at a liberal arts university in the Midwest. These students
were 35 sophomores who are pursuing a degree in different licensure areas of
Purpose Statement teaching.
An analysis of variance was conducted to measure presurvey and post-survey
Research Questions differences. To gain insight on these findings a sample of nine participants were
interviewed. The interview questions were based on areas of the survey (NETS-T
Research Hypotheses and TPACK) to probe further into the findings of the quantitative portion of the
study. The responses from the interviews were analyzed based on themes to
Nature of the Study
explain the differences found in the survey results. The data resulting from the
Significance of the Study interviews enabled inferences to be drawn to answer the second and third
research questions. Then a comparison of the rich themes and patterns that were
Definition of Terms drawn from the interviews and the posts on the online community of practice,
Edmodo, was conducted.
and Delimitations
Summary
Introduction

Checklist
Problem Statement
Rationale for the Study ❑

Describe the selected design for the study.
Purpose Statement
❑ Discusses why the selected design is the best design to address the problem
Research Questions statement and research questions as compared to other designs.
Research Hypotheses ❑ Use citations from empirical research literature.
Nature of the Study ❑ Briefly describe the target population, and the sampling method for the study,
the data collection procedures to collect data on the sample, and the instruments
Significance of the Study or sources of data needed to answer the research questions.
Definition of Terms
and Delimitations
Summary
Introduction

Problem Statement
1. This section identifies and describes the significance of the study and the
implications of the potential results based on the research questions, the
Purpose Statement problem statement, and the hypotheses or the investigated phenomena.
Research Questions
Research Hypotheses 2. It describes how the research fits within and will contribute to the current
literature or body of research. It describes potential practical applications
Nature of the Study
from the research.
3. Number of pages: Minimum two to three paragraphs.
Definition of Terms
and Delimitations
Summary
Introduction

Problem Statement
This study has the potential to advance the use of online communities of practice
Rationale for the Study in teacher preparatory programs as well as provide information about the effect
these communities of practice have on technological self-efficacy of preservice
Purpose Statement teachers as they prepare lessons using iPads. Teacher education programs may
gain insight into strategies to assist student teachers in the use of technology in
Research Questions the classroom. The significance of increasing their technological self-efficacy may
increase student performance. Teachers with high self-efficacy support student
Research Hypotheses learning and therefore motivate students (Bandura, 2006).
Nature of the Study
The experience with online communities of practice may provide a resource for
Significance of the Study them and their fellow educators as they strive to plan effective instruction. This
study has the potential to contribute to changes in how professional development
Definition of Terms in school systems is organized. The use of online communities of practice
Assumptions, Limitations throughout a school year instead of a one day workshop may allow teachers to
and Delimitations practice, reflect, and share with fellow educators.
Summary
Introduction

Checklist
Problem Statement
Rationale for the Study ❑ Describe how the proposed research fits within the prior research and how the
study will make an academic research contribution in the field of study.
Purpose Statement
❑ Describe how the study will make a practical contribution in the field of study.
Research Questions
❑ Describe how addressing the problem will add value to the population,
Research Hypotheses community, or society.
Nature of the Study
Definition of Terms
and Delimitations
Summary
Introduction

Problem Statement
1. This section defines the study constructs and provides a common
understanding of the technical terms, exclusive jargon, variables, phenomena,
Purpose Statement concepts, and technical terminology used within the scope of the study.
Research Questions 2. Terms are defined in simple language and in the context in which they are
Research Hypotheses used within the study.

3. Definitions must be supported with citations from scholarly sources.
Nature of the Study
4. The term is considered a Level 3 heading.
5. A paragraph introducing this section prior to listing the definition of terms
Definition of Terms can be inserted. However, a lead-in phrase is needed to introduce the terms
such as: “The following terms were used operationally in this study.”
and Delimitations
Summary 6. Each definition may be a few sentences to a paragraph.
Introduction

Problem Statement
In-service teacher. People who have earned their teaching license and are
Rationale for the Study teaching in their own classrooms.
Purpose Statement Preservice teacher. Students in a teacher education program, at a college or

university, seeking certification to prepare for a profession-level teaching
Research Questions position.
Research Hypotheses Online community of practice. A group of people who share a common interest
for something as they interact online regularly and learn about it better (Wenger,
Nature of the Study
White, & Smith, 2009).
Self-efficacy. A belief in one’s abilities to organize and be successful in specific
Definition of Terms situations (Bandura, 1977).
and Delimitations
Summary
Introduction

Checklist
Problem Statement
Rationale for the Study ❑ Define any words that may be unknown to a lay person (words with unusual or
ambiguous meanings or technical terms) from the research or literature.
Purpose Statement
❑ Define the variables for a quantitative study or the phenomena for a qualitative
Research Questions study from the research or literature.
Research Hypotheses ❑ Definitions are supported with citations from scholarly sources.
Nature of the Study
Definition of Terms
and Delimitations
Summary
Introduction

Problem Statement
1. This section identifies the assumptions and specifies the limitations, as well
as the delimitations, of the study.
Purpose Statement a. An assumption is a self-evident truth. This section should list what is
Research Questions assumed to be true about the information gathered in the study.
Research Hypotheses b. Limitations are things that the researcher has no control over, such as
bias.
Nature of the Study
c. Delimitations are things over which the researcher has control, such as
location of the study.
Definition of Terms
2. Number of pages: Minimum three to four paragraphs.
and Delimitations
Summary
Introduction
Background of the Study Assumptions
Problem Statement
Rationale for the Study State the assumptions being accepted for the study as methodological,
theoretical, or topic- specific. For each assumption listed, you must also
Purpose Statement provide an explanation. Provide a rationale for each assumption,
incorporating multiple perspectives, when appropriate.
Research Questions
Research Hypotheses
Nature of the Study
Definition of Terms
and Delimitations
Summary
Introduction

Problem Statement
This study was conducted under the following assumptions: (a) The preservice
Rationale for the Study teachers were reading posts on the online community and looking at the
suggestions and Apps that were described, (b) the preservice teachers provided
Purpose Statement honest responses to the pretest and posttest surveys, and (c) the preservice
teachers provided honest and candid responses in their written reflections and
Research Questions interviews. These assumptions were necessary due to the nature of this study.
Research Hypotheses For those in-service teachers who were posting resources, advice, and suggested
integrations, it is assumed that they were actively incorporating iPads. These
Nature of the Study
posts were essential as those preservice teachers involved in this online
Significance of the Study community of practice learned from their participation with teachers who were
using iPads in the classroom. The assumption that the preservice teachers were
Definition of Terms reading the posts and looking at the resources was also critical to this study as
Assumptions, Limitations participation was the main purpose of an online community of practice.
and Delimitations
Summary
Introduction
Background of the Study Limitations (Weaknesses of the Study)
Problem Statement
Limitations of a dissertation are potential weaknesses in your study that
are mostly out of your control, given limited funding, choice of research
Purpose Statement design, statistical model constraints, or other factors.
Research Questions Limitations are particular features of your study that you know may
negatively affect the results or your ability to generalize.
Research Hypotheses Limitations are usually areas over which you have no control. Some
typical limitations are sample size, methodology constraints, length
Nature of the Study of the study, and response rate.
Definition of Terms
and Delimitations
Summary
Introduction

• Your choice of research design is within your control; however, the
Problem Statement limitations of the design refer to those aspects that may restrict your
ability to answer the questions you might like to answer.
• Some qualitative methods do not lend themselves well to replicability.
Purpose Statement
• Most of the commonly used quantitative statistical models can only
Research Questions determine correlation, but not causation.
Research Hypotheses
• The people whom you managed to get to take your survey may not truly
Nature of the Study be a random sample, which is also a limitation.
Significance of the Study • If you used a common test for data findings, your results are limited by
the reliability of the test.
Definition of Terms
Assumptions, Limitations • If your study was limited to a certain amount of time, your results are
and Delimitations affected by the operations of society during that time period (e.g.,
economy, social trends).
Summary
Introduction
Problem Statement The limitations of this mixed methods study included concerns for both
Rationale for the Study qualitative and quantitative approaches. One limitation for qualitative research
Purpose Statement was the fact that the data represent the small group that participated in the
interviews. These data, however, were complemented by the statistical data of
Research Questions
the surveys in the quantitative portion of the study and the dialogue on Edmodo
Research Hypotheses
for the entire group. Another limitation in this study was the data collected from
Nature of the Study the surveys were not conclusive. In the quantitative portion of this study the
Significance of the Study results were limited to 20 students who completed the survey before and after
Definition of Terms the Instructional Technology course during one semester only. A larger sample
Assumptions, Limitations would have provided a better saturation of the population. However an N of 20
and Delimitations
was significant. A final limitation was that participants were either in their first
Summary
or second year in the teacher preparatory program.
Introduction
Background of the Study Delimitations (Scope of the Study)
Problem Statement
Because no study is designed to apply to all persons in all situations, it is
Rationale for the Study necessary to state the main delimitations of your study. Your delimitations
let readers know that you are aware of the scope of your study.
Purpose Statement
Delimitations are based on intentional choices you make a priori (i.e., as
Research Questions you’re designing the study) about where you’re going to draw the
boundaries of your project.
Research Hypotheses
Nature of the Study When thinking about delimitations, you must consider the ways in
which specific variables (e.g. IQ, language proficiency or self-esteem),
Significance of the Study participants (e.g. age, motivational level, year in school, first language or
culture), settings (e.g. a laboratory, a hospital, or a particular country or
Definition of Terms region), designs, instruments, time, and analyses are used in your study and
Assumptions, Limitations how they limit its generalisability.
and Delimitations
Summary
Introduction

Following are some ways to express a dissertation's delimitations:
Problem Statement
• Location: Only those districts with student enrollments less than
Rationale for the Study 1,000 were included in this study.
Purpose Statement • Sample of the Study: Those surveyed in this study consisted of
female managers in their first supervisory position.
Research Questions
• Selected Criteria of the Study: The study included only those
Research Hypotheses
organizations that m a t c h e d the selection criteria established for
Nature of the Study the study. The criteria for selection included…
Definition of Terms
and Delimitations
Summary
Introduction
Problem Statement The sample for the quantitative portion of this study was delimited to those
Rationale for the Study preservice teachers enrolled in the two sections of the sophomore level
Purpose Statement Instructional Technology course. I teach one section of the course, and a colleague
teaches the other section. For the qualitative portion of this study, only students
Research Questions
in the section taught by my colleague were used to avoid bias.
Research Hypotheses
Nature of the Study
Definition of Terms
and Delimitations
Summary
Introduction

Checklist
Problem Statement
Rationale for the Study ❑ State the assumptions being accepted for the study (methodological, theoretical,
and topic-specific).
Purpose Statement
❑ Provide rationale for each assumption, incorporating multiple perspectives,
Research Questions when appropriate.
Research Hypotheses ❑ Identify limitations of the research study.
Nature of the Study ❑ Identify delimitations of the research study.

Definition of Terms
and Delimitations
Summary
Introduction
Guidelines
Problem Statement 1. This section summarizes the key points of Chapter 1 and provides
supporting citations for those key points.
Purpose Statement
2. It then provides a transition discussion to Chapter 2 followed by a
Research Questions description of the remaining chapters. A good outline shows how the
Research Hypotheses different parts relate to each other, and is a useful guide for the reader.
Nature of the Study

3. The Proposal, but not the Thesis, provides a timeline for completing the
research and thesis.
Definition of Terms
and Delimitations 4. Number of pages: Minimum one to two pages.
Summary
Introduction
Example
Problem Statement A review of current literature demonstrated a need to prepare preservice

teachers to incorporate current technology into their lessons (Anderson et al.,
2011). This may be done by increasing the technological self-efficacy of
Purpose Statement
preservice teachers (Bandura, 2006). One way to increase self-efficacy is through
Research Questions modeling. Therefore, to raise preservice teachers’ technological self-efficacy, they
Research Hypotheses need to be exposed to teachers who are using devices such as an iPad in their
Nature of the Study instruction on an ongoing basis. This study explored how preservice teachers’
technological self-efficacy was affected when involved in an online community of
practice with in-service teachers who are using iPads in the classroom.
Definition of Terms
and Delimitations
Summary
Introduction
Example
Problem Statement This chapter provided insight into the need to increase a preservice teacher’s
technological self-efficacy. The gap in research, which includes iPads in the
classroom, was also addressed, as well as the problem statement. In Chapter 2,
Purpose Statement
the work of Bandura (1977) and Lave and Wenger (1991) is analyzed as the
Research Questions conceptual framework for this study. Current research is also analyzed and major
Research Hypotheses themes are discovered in the areas of online communities of practice, iPads in the
Nature of the Study classrooms, and technological self-efficacy. This research will be followed by a
close look at the methodology of this study in Chapter 3, where the research
design is explained as well as data components.
Definition of Terms
and Delimitations
Summary
Introduction

Checklist
Problem Statement
Rationale for the Study ❑

Summarize key points presented in Chapter 1.
Purpose Statement
❑ Provide citations from scholarly sources to support key points.
Research Questions
❑ Describe the remaining Chapters and provides a transition discussion to Chapter 2.
Research Hypotheses For proposal only, a timeline for completing the research and thesis is provided.
Nature of the Study
Definition of Terms
and Delimitations
Summary
Task 2: Write Chapter 1 – Introduction (3 pages)
1. Include all the elements presented in this chapter.
2. Refer to the rubric provided on each section for self-assessment.
3. Reconsider your working title.

Task 2: Write Chapter 1
Road Map

Chapter 4: Results

APA Style
• Quick Guide
• Headings
• In-text Citations
• End-of-Text Citations
• Quotations
• Appendices
• Tables and Figures
• General Tips
Literature Review
Theoretical Framework
Conceptual Framework

APA Style
• Quick Guide
• Headings
• Quotations
• Appendices
• General Tips
Literature Review

APA Style
• Quick Guide
• Headings
• Quotations
• Appendices
• General Tips
Literature Review

APA Style
• Quick Guide
• Headings
• Quotations
• Appendices
• General Tips
Literature Review

APA Style
•Quick Guide
•Headings
•In-text Citations
•End-of-Text Citations
•Quotations
•Appendices
•Tables and Figures
•General Tips
Literature Review

APA Style
•Quick Guide
•Headings
•Quotations
•Appendices
•General Tips
Literature Review

APA Style
•Quick Guide
•Headings
•Quotations
•Appendices
•General Tips
Literature Review

APA Style
•Quick Guide
•Headings
•Quotations
•Appendices
•General Tips
Literature Review

APA Style
•Quick Guide
•Headings
•Quotations
•Appendices
•General Tips
Literature Review

APA Style
•Quick Guide
•Headings
•Quotations
•Appendices
•General Tips
Literature Review

APA Style
•Quick Guide
•Headings • If the quote is under 40 words, place it in double quotation marks.
•Quotations
•Appendices
•General Tips
Literature Review
The page number is preceded by “p.” (for a single page) or “pp.” (for a page range).

APA Style
•Quick Guide
•Headings • If the quote is 40 words or more, format it as a block quote.
•Quotations
•Appendices
•General Tips
Literature Review

APA Style
•Quick Guide
•Headings
•Quotations
•Appendices
•General Tips
Literature Review

APA Style
•Quick Guide
•Headings
•Quotations
•Appendices
•General Tips
Literature Review

APA Style
•Quick Guide
•Headings
•Quotations
•Appendices
•General Tips
Literature Review

APA Style
•Quick Guide
•Headings
•Quotations
•Appendices
•General Tips
Literature Review

APA Style
•Quick Guide
•Headings
•Quotations
•Appendices
•General Tips
Literature Review

APA Style
•Quick Guide Publisher location not included
•Headings
•Quotations ✗ Covey, S. R. (2013). The 7 habits of highly effective people: Powerful lessons in personal
•Appendices
•Tables and Figures change. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster.
•General Tips ✓ Covey, S. R. (2013). The 7 habits of highly effective people: Powerful lessons in personal
change. Simon & Schuster.
Literature Review

APA Style
•Quick Guide DOIs (Digital Object Identifiers) are formatted as URLs
•Headings
•Quotations
✗ doi: 10.1080/02626667.2018.1560449
•Appendices
•Tables and Figures ✓ https://doi.org/10.1080/02626667.2018.1560449
•General Tips
Literature Review

APA Style
•Quick Guide Use singular “they”
•Headings
•Quotations
•Appendices ✗ A researcher’s career depends on how often he is cited.
•Tables and Figures ✓ A researcher’s career depends on how often they are cited.
•General Tips
Literature Review ✗ Each examiner submitted his or her assessment

✓ Each examiner submitted their assessment.

APA Style
•Quick Guide Be sensitive to labels
•Headings
•Quotations ✗ The poor
•Appendices
•Tables and Figures ✓ People living in poverty.
•General Tips
Literature Review

APA Style
•Quick Guide Appropriate level of specificity
•Headings
•End-of-Text Citations ✗ Over-65s
•Quotations
•Appendices ✓ People aged 65 to 75
•General Tips
✗ Asian participants
Literature Review ✓ Vietnamese, Cambodian, and Thai participants

APA Style
•Quick Guide Fonts to choose from
•Headings
•Quotations ✓ Times New Roman (12 pt)
•Appendices
✓ Arial (11pt)
•General Tips ✓ Georgia (11pt)
✓ Calibri (11pt)
Literature Review
✓ Lucida Sans Unicode (10pt)

APA Style
For more Details, please check the following Websites:

Literature Review
https://apastyle.apa.org/blog/concise-guide-apa-style
Theoretical Framework https://www.scribbr.com/category/apa-style/

APA Style
Literature Review
• Locate the Literature
• Evaluate the Literature
• Organize the Literature
• Thematic Analysis Grid
• Write the Literature
Primary source literature Secondary source literature
It consists of literature It summarizes primary sources.
reported by the individual(s) It does not represent material
Conceptual Framework who actually conducted the published by the original
research or who originated researcher or the creator of the
the ideas. idea.

Primary source Secondary source

APA Style
Novel Article analyzing the novel
Painting Exhibition catalog explaining the painting
Literature Review
Letters and diaries written by a historical Biography of the historical figure
figure
• Organize the Literature Essay by a philosopher Textbook summarizing the philosopher’s
• Thematic Analysis Grid ideas
• Write the Literature Photographs of a historical event Documentary about the historical event
Theoretical Framework Government documents about a new policy Newspaper article about the new policy
Conceptual Framework Music recordings Academic book about the musical style
Results of an opinion poll Blog post interpreting the results of the poll
Empirical study Literature review that cites the study

Primary Sources
APA Style
▪ Journals Articles:
Literature Review ▪ Research database (ERIC Educational Resources Information Center:
• Locate the Literature http://www.eric.ed.gov/ ).

• Evaluate the Literature ▪ Exceptional Child Education Resources (ECER) is a quarterly publication that
• Thematic Analysis Grid contains abstracts of resources in special and gifted education.
▪ The Physical Education Index: database of all aspects of physical education.
▪ PsycINFO www.psycinfo.com and psycArticles www.apa.org/psycinfo
▪ Statistical Sources:
American Statistics Index (ASI), Statistical Reference Index (SRI), Index to
International Statistics (IIS), World Almanac and Book of Facts, Information Please
Almanac, and Statistical Abstract of the United States, National Center for Education
Fall 2021-2022 | Dr. Hiba Dandachi Statistics (NCES). 162
APA Style
Primary Sources
Literature Review
▪ Other types of peer-reviewed sources (such as academic conference papers:
http://www.aera.net/).
▪ Books written by experts.
Theoretical Framework ▪ Professional organizations.
▪ Some Websites, if connected to a professional organization: .gov or .edu sites are

trustworthy sources of information.
▪ Some Published Reports, government or private (Foundations/Non-profits)

APA Style
Secondary Sources
Literature Review
▪ Periodicals, such as newspapers, magazines, online weekly reports (such
as Education Week: http://www.edweek.org/ew/index.html), or even
textbooks, dictionaries. You might see references to research, but the actual
Theoretical Framework report is in a journal article, as above.
▪ You are generally not to use secondary sources.

APA Style Useful Databases
Some useful databases to search for journals and articles include:

Literature Review
• Locate the Literature • Your university’s library catalogue
• Organize the Literature • Google Scholar
• JSTOR
Theoretical Framework • EBSCO
• Project Muse (humanities and social sciences)

• Medline (life sciences and biomedicine)
• EconLit (economics)
• Inspec (physics, engineering and computer science)

Login required (but you can make an account):

Literature Review
• Locate the Literature •ProQuest Dissertations & Theses (More than 2 million master’s theses)
• Organize the Literature •eThOS (400,000 British doctoral theses)
• Write the Literature No login required:
Theoretical Framework •DART-Europe E-theses Portal (More than 106,000 doctoral theses)
•Openthesis (International database)

•thesis.fr (270,000 PhD theses from French universities)
•Deutsche National Bibliothek (German thesis database)

Literature Review Ivy League Universities
• Locate the Literature • Brown University (all electronic dissertations submitted since 2008):
• Organize the Literature • Columbia University
• Write the Literature • Cornell University
Theoretical Framework • Dartmouth College
• Harvard University
• Princeton University
• University of Pennsylvania
• MIT

APA Style
• When you find a useful article, check the reference list to find more
Literature Review
• Locate the Literature relevant sources.
• Organize the Literature • If the same authors, books or articles keep appearing in your reading,
• Write the Literature make sure to seek them out.
• You can find out how many times an article has been cited on Google
Conceptual Framework Scholar—high citation counts mean the article has been influential in the
field.

APA Style
Is it an Accurate Source?
Literature Review
.com A commercial site
• Evaluate the Literature .edu A college or university
• Organize the Literature .gov The government
• Write the Literature .us
Usually a state government, community college, or school district site
.lb
Theoretical Framework .org An organization
.net A community network or Internet service provider

APA Style
Appendix
Literature Review
• Locate the Literature Journal Quality List by Subject Area

APA Style
Is it Relevant?
Literature Review Topic relevance:

• Locate the Literature Does the literature focus on the same topic as your proposed study?
• Organize the Literature Individual and site relevance:
• Thematic Analysis Grid Does the literature examine the same individuals or sites that you want to study?
Problem and question relevance:
Theoretical Framework Does the literature examine the same research problem that you propose to
study? Does it address the same research question you plan to address?
Accessibility relevance:
Is the literature available in your library or can you download it from a Web site?
Can you obtain it easily from the library or a Web site?

APA Style
Guidelines
Literature Review
Reproducing, Downloading, and Filing:
▪ Place the articles in file folders.
• Organize the Literature ▪ Store them in a computer file alphabetized by author name.
Theoretical Framework Taking Notes and Abstracting Studies

▪ Develop an abstract for each source (no more than 350 words).
Conceptual Framework ▪ The abstract should include: (a) the questions being addressed, (b) data
collection, and (c) major results.
▪ Do not to use the abstracts available at the beginning of journal articles
(they may be too brief – do not plagiarize)

APA Style Abstract Elements
Literature Review

APA Style Abstract Elements
Literature Review

APA Style
Literature Review
This visual rendering helps you see overlaps in information or major topics in the
literature and can help you determine how a proposed study adds to or extends
the existing literature rather than duplicates past studies.
APA Style ▪ Indicate your proposed study that

will extend or add to the literature.
Literature Review ▪ Draw a box at the bottom of the

figure that says “my proposed
study,” “a proposed study,” or “my
study.”
• Write the Literature ▪ In this box, you could state a
proposed title, a research
Theoretical Framework question, or the problem you wish
to study.
▪ An extremely important step is to
draw lines connecting your
proposed study to other branches
(boxes) of the literature. In this
way, you establish how your study
adds to or extends the existing
literature.
176
APA Style
Literature Review

Watch https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_13GGEhi99g 177
Guidelines
APA Style To construct a Thematic Analysis Grid, you:
Literature Review 1. Identify potential themes from your initial annotated reading of the literature; these
• Locate the Literature will form the grid’s columns.
2. As you re-read each journal article, book or book chapter, insert a new row (keeping
• Thematic Analysis Grid the date order) and make brief notes under the appropriate potential themes
(columns); these should be in your own words, the page number being noted for
quotations.
3. In a final column, ‘methodology’, note briefly the methodology used.
4. Look for patterns emerging across the themes; look for where:
a. there is consensus;
b. there are contradictions;
c. the literature you have reviewed is most convincing (the methodology column
Fall 2021-2022 | Dr. Hiba Dandachi will help here). 178
Topic: Anxiety in Graduate Studies
Multiple Roles Relationships Classroom Environment

Wolniewicz (1996) Graduate students report Personal relationships Anxiety over finishing
feeling pressure to prioritize and connections large projects and meeting
academic roles over health, suffer; socializing is deadlines.
financial security, and not a priority.
personal relationships
Pallos, Yamada, & Limited support and A lot of independent
Okawa interactions with learning and researching
(2005) supervisors. without much guidance.
Wyatt & Oswalt Graduate students often have Graduate students are
(2013) problems juggling academic often detached from
responsibilities, research, and the social and cultural
financial responsibilities. events and activities
largely promoted to
undergraduate
students on campus.

APA Style
Thematic Literature Review
Literature Review The researcher identifies a theme and briefly cites literature
• Locate the Literature (typically multiple references) to document this theme.
• Organize the Literature In this approach, the author discusses only the major ideas or results
• Thematic Analysis Grid from studies rather than the detail of any single study.
Authors use this approach frequently in journal articles.

APA Style
Example
Literature Review Among other things, racial identity is a sense of group belonging based on the
perception of a shared racial heritage with a specific group and, as such, it has an impact
on personal feelings and attitudes concerning distinguishable racial groups (Helms,
• Organize the Literature 1990; Mitchell & Dell, 1992). Researchers agree that White Americans generally are not
• Thematic Analysis Grid challenged to ask themselves, “What does it mean to be white?”.
Theoretical Framework In this case, the authors review the literature about the theme “racial identity” and
mention references to support the theme. The authors do not discuss each reference
separately and in detail.

APA Style Reporting verbs:
Literature Review
Point out Argue Identify Explain
Propose Observe Believe Suggest
• Organize the Literature Add Describe Think Doubt
• Thematic Analysis Grid Indicate Assert Urge Agree with
Maintain Support Affirm Disagree with
Recommend Say State Dispute
Claim Assert Report Dismiss

APA Style
Your literature review is NOT just a series of paragraphs,

Literature Review each describing and summarising a book or journal article.
• Evaluate the Literature You need to produce a critical analysis of the key literature
• Organize the Literature that relates to your research questions.

Identifying Methodological Weaknesses

APA Style
Unfortunately, the vast majority of research on this important issue has fallen
Literature Review
short of scientific standards for drawing causal inference. . . . Virtually all
• Evaluate the Literature published evaluations of state pre-K programs, as well as the national studies,
• Thematic Analysis Grid have failed to correct for selection bias; many have relied on tests that have not
• Write the Literature been normed or validated, and it has not been uncommon for studies to rely on
Theoretical Framework pre-K teachers’ reports in pretest-posttest designs, thus introducing strong
evaluator bias. None of the studies examined used random assignment. (p.
873)
Source: From Gormley, W. T., Jr., Gayer, T., Phillips, D., & Dawson, B. (2005). The effects of
universal pre-k on cognitive development. Developmental Psychology, 41(6), 872–884.

Identifying Contradictory Findings

APA Style
Results of research on the effects of immediate feedback on anxiety during

Literature Review
testing have not been consistent. Some researchers have found immediate
• Evaluate the Literature feedback to be associated with decreases in anxiety. . . . On the other hand,
• Thematic Analysis Grid researchers have also frequently observed increases in anxiety . . . as well as
• Write the Literature reductions in test performance. (p. 313)
Source: From DiBattista, D., & Gosse, L. (2006). Test anxiety and the immediate feedback
assessment technique. Journal of Experimental Education, 74(4), 311–327.

Literature reviews are like an essay in that they have an introduction, body and
APA Style conclusion.
Literature Review
Introduction Body Paragraphs Conclusion
• Organize the Literature Define the topic, providing an
Summarise the main ideas from the
• Thematic Analysis Grid appropriate context for reviewing the Include a main idea (topic sentence)
body
literature
Evaluate the current research
• Write the Literature Point out overall trends in what has Provide evidence from research to pointing out any gaps, inconsistencies
been published about the topic; support / argue this idea. or areas that should be studied
Theoretical Framework further.
Establish writer's reasons (point of Student analysis of the research
Your overall view of the topic
view) for reviewing the literature. literature where appropriate.
Conceptual Framework Explain the organization of the review Summing up and linking to the next
(sequence) idea (paragraph).
Each body paragraph should deal with
State what literature is and is not
a different theme that is relevant to
included (scope)
your topic.
Each paragraph should start general
and become specific

Example - Introduction
APA Style
Many theories have been proposed to explain what motivates human Topic Sentence
Literature Review behaviour. Although the literature covers a wide variety of such
• Locate the Literature theories, this review will focus on five major themes which emerge Scope
• Organize the Literature repeatedly throughout the literature reviewed. These themes are:
• Thematic Analysis Grid incorporation of the self-concept into traditional theories of
motivation, the influence of rewards on motivation, the increasing
importance of internal forces of motivation, autonomy and self-control
Conceptual Framework as sources of motivation, and narcissism as an essential component of

motivation. Although the literature presents these themes in a variety
of contexts, this paper will primarily focus on their application to self- Thesis
Statement
motivation.

APA Style
Example - Body
Literature Review Researchers A and B both state X is true but differ on its effects. Firstly, Topic Sentence
• Locate the Literature researcher A(2009) suggests that X is true due to reasons 1 and 2.
• Organize the Literature Researcher B(2010) also argues that X is true, but points out that the Supporting
• Thematic Analysis Grid Evidence
effects of X may be different from those suggested by Researcher A.
B(2010) explains that these effects are caused because of the
difference in X’s circumstances. Therefore while A and B agree that X is Sum up and
Link to next
Conceptual Framework true they disagree on the effects of X. idea

APA Style
Example - Body
Literature Review Researchers generally state Motivation theory is true but differ on its Topic Sentence
• Locate the Literature effects. There seems to be general agreement on this theory (Black,
• Organize the Literature 1978; Brown, 1980; Green, 1975; White, 1987). However, Green Supporting
(1975) sees motivation as a consequence of a positive working
environment while Black (1978) puts money as a cause of motivation.
While Green's work has some limitations in that it fails to consider Student
Analysis
Conceptual Framework other circumstances, its main value lies in the fact it inspired further
studies in this field. This early research and agreement about money Sum up and
Link to next
and motivation then led to more specialised research on its effects in idea
the 1990s.

APA Style
Example - Body
Literature Review Researchers generally state Motivation theory is true but differ on its Topic Sentence
• Locate the Literature effects. There seems to be general agreement on this theory (Black,
• Organize the Literature 1978; Brown, 1980; Green, 1975; White, 1987). Green (1975) sees Supporting
motivation as a consequence of a positive working environment while
Black (1978) puts money as a cause of motivation. While Green's work
has some limitations in that it fails to consider other circumstances, its Student
Analysis
Conceptual Framework main value lies in the fact it inspired further studies in this field. This
early research and agreement about money and motivation then led to Sum up and
Link to next
more specialised research on its effects in the 1990s. idea

Example - Body
APA Style
Most early theories of motivation were concerned with need Topic Sentence
Literature Review satisfaction. Robbins, Millett, Cacioppe and Waters – Marsh (1998)
• Locate the Literature argued that motivation relies on what a person needs and wants. Supporting
• Evaluate the Literature Evidence
• Organize the Literature Similarly the early theories of Maslow and Macgregor (Robbins et al.
• Thematic Analysis Grid 1998) focused on personal needs satisfaction as the basis for
motivational behaviour. However recent studies outlined by Leonard, Contrasting
Theoretical Framework Theories
Beauvais, and Scholl (1999) suggest that personality and disposition
Conceptual Framework play an equally important role in motivation. Current thinking does not
Sum up and
discount these theories, but simply builds on them to include a self – Link to next
idea
concept.

Example - Body
APA Style
By its very nature, motivation requires a degree of individual
Topic Sentence
satisfaction or narcissism. Robbins, Millett, Cacioppe and Waters –
Literature Review
Marsh (1998) suggest that motivation has as its very basis the need to
• Locate the Literature Supporting
• Evaluate the Literature focus on, and please the self. This is supported by Shaw, Shapard and Evidence
• Thematic Analysis Grid Waugman (2000) who contend that this narcissistic drive is based on
• Write the Literature the human effort to find personal significance in life. It can be argued
Theoretical Framework that the desire to improve one’s status is a highly motivational force, Student
Analysis
and is central to the idea of narcissistic motivation. The narcissistic supported by
Conceptual Framework the Literarture
motivational strategies put forward by Shaw et al. (2000) are
concerned with motivation for life in general, but may also have
applications in the context of work. These strategies, with their focus Sum up and
Link to next
on personal needs, demonstrate that narcissism is an essential idea
Fall 2021-2022 | Dr. Hiba Dandachi component of motivation. 192

APA Style
Example - Conclusion
Literature Review
In conclusion, Cacioppe and Waters (1998) and Shaw, Shapard and Summary of
• Evaluate the Literature Waugman (2000) all agree that internal motivation is important but main ideas
disagree on how much is. Shaw et al. (2000) studied this area and gave
Evaluation
• Write the Literature the opinion that it varies according to circumstances. However all the
Theoretical Framework research done has failed to fully evaluate motivation in terms of
personality. Therefore, while the literature provides many answers to
Conceptual Framework Writer’s views
what causes motivation and its varying effects, more is needed to give
a clear idea of what can cause it.

Often, African American and Hispanic parents do not attend school functions. Consequently,
there is a widely held belief among educators in poor and urban schools that those parents
do not care about their children’s education (Delpit, 1995; Flores, Tefft- Cousin, & Diaz,
Introduction
1991; Poplin & Weeres, 1992; Thompson, 2002). Moreover, in its Schools and Staffing
Surveys for 1990–1991 and 1993–1994, The Digest of Education Statistics (U.S. Department
of Education, 1999) reported that lack of parent involvement was a great concern for many
public school teachers.

Some researchers have found that there is a mismatch between teachers’ perceptions of
parent and guardian involvement and reality (Flores et al., 1991; Poplin & Weeres, 1992).
For example, Thompson (2002) conducted a study of the K–12 schooling experiences of
nearly 300 African American students in a southern California region that had many
underperforming schools. Although there was a widespread assumption among educators in

the region that the parents and guardians of most children of color were apathetic about
their children’s formal education, Thompson found that when the African American students
in her study were asked to rate the level of their parents’ involvement, the majority of
students rated it as excellent or good. The students’ ratings were compared later with data
Body
from African American parents in the same region. The overwhelming majority of the
parents also rated their involvement in their children’s education as excellent or good
(Thompson, 2003). Furthermore, in their examination of the National Education
Longitudinal Study data, Cook and Ludwig (1998) found that African American parents were
as involved in their children’s education as were White parents from similar socioeconomic
backgrounds. These findings are similar to those of other researchers who found that
educators are not always the most reliable judges of parent involvement (Flores et al., 1991;
Poplin & Weeres, 1992).

Furthermore, some researchers have specifically described the positive correlation between
parent involvement and the schooling experiences of African American students. . . . Floyd
(1995) examined variables that contributed to the academic success of a group of lower
socioeconomic status (SES) African American high school students. She found that good
parental relationships or positive relationships with other adults played an important role in
the students’ academic success. Wilson and Allen (1987) studied African American adults to
Body
identify links between educational attainment and family practices. They concluded that
parents play a significant role in their children’s education. Clark (1983) studied the home
environments of high- and low-achieving poor African American high school seniors and
found that parents of high achievers used regular routines to assist their children
academically. Conversely, the parents of low achievers were so overwhelmed by adversity
that they made few positive contributions to their children’s formal schooling. . . .

Relation to Current Study

A logical first step is for educators to begin to listen to the voices of parents in order to hear
their concerns. In an effort to begin this discussion, I sought to provide educators with
feedback from African American parents about their children’s schooling experiences. In this
study, I examined variables that predict how African American parents and guardians of
school-aged children rate their children’s elementary and secondary school teachers, and the
public school system as a whole. (pp. 278–279)
Source: From Thompson, G. L. (2003). Predicting African American parents’ and guardians’ satisfaction
with teachers and public schools. Journal of Educational Research, 96(5), 277–285, (2003) Reprinted with
permission of the Helen Dwight Reid Educational Foundation. Published by Heldref Publication, 1319
Eighteenth St., NW, Washington, DC 20036-1802.

APA Style
Literature Review

Guidelines
APA Style
Think of the review as a funnel in which you:
Literature Review • Start at a more general level before narrowing down to your specific research
• Locate the Literature question(s) and objectives;
• Organize the Literature • Provide a brief overview of key ideas and themes;
• Thematic Analysis Grid • Summarise, compare and contrast the research of the key authors;
• Narrow down to highlight previous research work most relevant to your own
research;
Conceptual Framework • Provide a detailed account of the findings of this research and show how they
are related;
• Highlight those aspects where your own research will provide fresh insights;
• Lead the reader into subsequent sections of your project report, which explore
these issues.
APA Style Chronological Literature Review
The simplest approach is to trace the development of the topic over

Literature Review time. However, if you choose this strategy, be careful to avoid simply
• Locate the Literature listing and summarizing sources in order. Try to analyze patterns,
• Evaluate the Literature turning points and key debates that have shaped the direction of the
• Organize the Literature field. Give your interpretation of how and why certain developments
• Thematic Analysis Grid occurred.

APA Style Methodological Literature Review
If you draw your sources from different disciplines or fields that use a
Literature Review variety of research methods, you might want to compare the results
• Locate the Literature and conclusions that emerge from different approaches. For example:
• Organize the Literature • Look at what results have emerged in qualitative versus
• Thematic Analysis Grid quantitative research
• Write the Literature • Discuss how the topic has been approached by empirical versus
Theoretical Framework theoretical scholarship
• Divide the literature into sociological, historical, and cultural source

APA Style Study by Study Literature Review
The study-by-study review of the literature provides a detailed

Literature Review summary of each study that includes the elements of an abstract (cf.
• Locate the Literature organize literature). Authors link summaries (or abstracts) by using
• Evaluate the Literature transitional sentences and organize the summaries under
• Organize the Literature subheadings that reflect themes and major divisions.
• Write the Literature This form of review typically appears in journal articles that summarize
Theoretical Framework the literature and in dissertations and theses.

Example:
APA Style
Literature Review
The researcher provided a detailed description of the study to include the
research problem (whether the scale measures change), an implied question
(whether men and women differ on the scale), the data collection (i.e., 35
participants in the study), and a summary of the results (men and women
endorse items differently depending on their stage of development).

Quantitative Research Qualitative Research

Literature extensively discussed at the The authors mention the literature at
beginning of a study. the beginning of the study to document
or justify the importance of the research
APA Style problem.
It justifies the importance of the However, authors do not typically
Literature Review research problem, and it provides a discuss the literature extensively at the
rationale for the purpose of the study beginning of a study. This allows the
and research questions or hypotheses. views of the participants to emerge
Theoretical Framework without being constrained by the views
of others from the literature.
Conceptual Framework In many quantitative studies, the In many qualitative projects, researchers
authors include the literature in a often cite the literature at the end of the
separate section titled “Review of the study as a contrast or comparison with
Literature” to highlight the important the major findings in the study.
role it plays.
The authors also incorporate the
literature into the end of the study,
comparing the results with prior
predictions or expectations made at the
beginning of the study.
Task 3: Create a Synthesis Matrix
Google Doc
Create a synthesis matrix that can be used to organize your Literature review.

Road Map

APA Style
Literature Review
In the literature The theoretical framework The concepts are the ’tools’.
review you is the ’toolbox’.
highlighted the A theory contains a number
Conceptual Framework problem that needs You need to critically argue of concepts. Which will you
‘fixing’. why you are adopting this be drawing upon? Why these
particular theory and how it ones? How are your concepts
relates to the gap in the related? Are you using them
literature. as hypotheses?
(Describe the shape of the toolbox (Describe the tools that you will
and how it helps in fixing the use to address the problem).
problem).

Guidelines
APA Style • A theoretical framework to guide your project and give it good structure. It
establishes grounds for your study.
Literature Review • Teamed with a tightly drawn theoretical framework, the research questions
or hypotheses become a “directional beam for the study.” In essence, the
research questions or hypotheses should flow directly from the
preceding theoretical framework.
Conceptual Framework • An excellent theoretical framework should include related variables that you
will measure and specific relationships that you want to understand.
• One way to select an appropriate theoretical framework for your study is to

review the related literature. As you review the literature, ask yourself: Is there
a theory, or a variation of some theory to which my study has reference?

1. Identify the Theory Cluster:

There are several different Theories about Learning Style: Major Theories Relevant to The
Study
• Experiential Learning Theory Model (Kolb, 1984, 2015)
• Dunn and Dunn Learning Style Model (Dunn, Dunn, & Price, 1984)
• Kolb’s (2015) theory holds that individuals show a preference for one 2. Present the Major Hypotheses
of four learning styles –accommodating, converging, diverging, and of these Theories
assimilating – and each style has a certain set of characteristics.
• Dunn and Dunn’s theory (Dunn et al., 1984) offers five stimulus areas –
environmental, emotional, sociological physiological- and each of these
five areas are associated with certain elements.
These style and characteristics/elements would need to be summarized along with any
other major propositions or hypotheses of the theory.

• The researcher is investigating whether student standardized test 3. Select the Theory that is Most
scores vary according to the time of day students are tested in relation Relevant to the Study
to their preferred learning style.
• The researcher has shown that the Dunn and Dunn theory has explicit
propositions with regard to time of day (physiological element) as a
factor in learning, whereas the Kolb theory does not.
• Therefore, the researcher selects the Dunn and Dunn theory for
inclusion in the theoretical framework.
4. Situate the Proposed Study

• Present a review on the physiological element of time of day in Dunn and within the Theory
Dunn’s theory.

Guidelines
• You may not find a specific theory to guide your study; however, you will
APA Style discover a variety of interrelated core concepts and subconcepts from
which to frame your study.
Literature Review • The conceptual framework describes the relationship between the main
concepts of a study. It is arranged in a logical structure to aid provide a picture
Theoretical Framework or visual display of how ideas in a study relate to one another
• A good conceptual framework must also be expressed in writing for it to be

Conceptual Framework understood clearly. This means that after a researcher has craftily produced a
diagrammatic representation of the main variables of the study, s/he has to
explain the relations among them and how their complementation helps in
answering the major research problem defined.
• It is a researcher's own constructed model that s/he uses to explain the

relationship that exists between the main variables in his/her study. It can also
be an adaptation of a model in an existing theory which a researcher adapts to
suit his/her research purpose.
In line with Kyriakides et al. (2009) and Baumert et al. (2010), teacher and teaching variables at the class level are
hypothesized to be most important for student learning. The conceptual framework focuses on relations between the
national, school, class, and student level. The model shows how the national level is hypothesized to influence the school
and teacher levels, as well as student outcomes in the five studies of this report. These relations may be both direct and
indirect.

Figure: Conceptual framework of determinants of student outcomes.
Checklist
❑ Provide a background for your research.

APA Style
❑ Include up-to-date relevant literature.
Literature Review ❑ Discuss conflicts amongst contradictory previous research.
❑ Contextualize your research: Show how your research questions relate to previous
Theoretical Framework research reviewed.
Conceptual Framework ❑ Highlight areas where new research (yours) is needed.
❑ Organize the literature review thematically around the ideas contained in the
research being reviewed rather than the researchers.
❑ Use subheadings within the literature review to help guide your reader.
❑ Discuss relevant theories and concepts that underpin your research.

Task 4: Write Chapters 1 and 2
Google Doc
Revisit Chapter 1.
Write Chapter 2 (Literature Review and Theoretical Framework).

Road Map

Chapter 4: Results

Introduction
Guidelines
Research Design
• In the introduction, you provide an overview of the chapter.
Participants
• The overview provides the reader with the structure of the chapter.
Instruments
• In some dissertations, the student restates the research questions or
Data Collection hypotheses that were presented in Chapter One. In others, the student
Data Analysis simply makes reference to the research questions or hypotheses presented
earlier.
Summary

Introduction Example
Research Design
The primary goal of this study was to test the research questions that relate to
Participants
transformational leadership, student achievement, and selected school district financial
Instruments
and demographic factors as stated in Chapter I. Separate instruments to measure these
Data Collection
variables were utilized to this end. The methodology employed to test the research
Data Analysis questions is presented in this chapter. The chapter is organized into four sections: (a)
selection of participants, (b) instrumentation, (c) data collection, and (d) data analysis.
Summary
(Wooderson-Perzan, 2000, p. 58)

Introduction
Research Design Checklist
Participants ❑ Includes both a restatement of the research focus and the Purpose Statement for
the study from Chapter 1.
Instruments
❑ Reintroduce reader to the need for the study.
Data Collection ❑ Outline the expectations for this chapter.
Data Analysis
Summary

Introduction
Research Design
Participants What does Ph.D. stand for?

Instruments
Doctor of Philosophy
Data Collection
Data Analysis
If you do not pay attention to the “philosophy”
Summary part, the “doctor” part is not going to happen.

Introduction
Answer the following questions:
Research Design
• Research Philosophy 1. Is there one or multiple realities in your research study?
• Research Approach
• Research Design Ontological Assumptions
A system of belief that reflects an interpretation by an individual about what constitutes a fact.
Participants
2. How are you going to build knowledge (reality/ies) in your research study?
Instruments
Epistemological Assumptions
Data Collection It reflects the researcher’s beliefs about his or her role during the research process.
Data Analysis
3. To what extent your values (role) are going to influence your research process?
Summary Axiological Assumptions

It consists of the values that the researcher will be guided by as s/he conduct the study.
Introduction
Ontology
Research Design
The science or study of being
• Research Philosophy (ontos = being ; logos = science)
• Research Design
Epistemology
Participants (epistḗmē = knowledge) Methodology
Instruments
Axiology
Data Collection
(axios = worthy ; logos = science)
Data Analysis
Summary A well-though out set assumptions (research paradigms) will constitute a

credible research philosophy which will underpin you methodological choice
and to design a coherent research project.
Ontology (What is reality?)
Objective: Mildly Subjective: Subjective:
-There is a single reality -Reality is imperfect and truth is not -Multiple realities: each person
experienced by social absolute but probable. experiences and perceives reality
actors(=people). differently.
-Social reality exists independently
-Reality is universal: the of human thoughts and beliefs, but -Reality is socially constructed.
interpretation and experiences of humans do experience and interpret Individuals with their own varied
social actors do not influence social the sensations and images of the real backgrounds, assumptions and
and physical phenomena. world. experiences contribute to the on-
going construction of reality.
- Researchers see organisations and
other social entities as real in the
same way as physical objects and
natural phenomena are real.
Positivism Critical Realism Interpretivism

223
Epistemology (How do you know the reality?)
Observable Phenomena: Observable phenomena: Subjective meanings:
- Only factual knowledge gained -Credible data and facts are needed. -The researcher will construct
through observation (the senses) knowledge socially to account for
and measurement measure would -We need to explain what we see different social realities of different
lead to the production of credible within a context. The aim of realist social actors.
and meaningful data. research is to avoid the shortcomings
of positivism. -He will study a situation in detail to
-The researcher maintains minimal understand what is happening or
interaction with the participants how realities are being experienced.
when carrying out the research.
- What you see is what you get: what

we experience through our senses
portrays the world accurately.

224
Axiology (What is the role of values in research?)
Value Free: Value-laden: Value-bound (Biased):
-Researchers remain detached from -Researchers cannot detach

what is researched and from their -Researcher acknowledges bias by themselves from their own values.
own values and beliefs throughout world views, and strives to be
a rigorous scientific research process aware of the ways in which his -Interpretivists recognise that their
in order not to bias their findings. sociocultural background and interpretation of research materials
E.g. In a questionnaire, the questions experiences might influence his and data, and thus their own values
are asked in exactly the same way. research. and beliefs, play an important role
The researcher values do not in the research process.
influence the answers given by the -Researcher tries to be as objective E.g. In an in-depth interview, the
respondent. as possible in order to minimise researcher frames the questions in
bias and errors. relation to each participant and uses
his judgements to interpret their
answers.

225
Introduction
Pragmatism
John Dewey
Positivism
Research Design Francis Bacon
It strives to reconcile both objectivism and
• Research Philosophy The label positivism refers to the
subjectivism and recognize that no single
point of view can ever give the entire
• Research Approach importance of what is ‘posited’ –i.e. ‘given’. picture.
• Research Design Working with an observable social reality It focuses on making a difference to
to produce law-like generalisations. organisational practice.
Participants
Objective Subjective
Instruments
Interpretivism
Critical Realism Max Weber
Data Collection Roy Bhaskar
Humans are different from physical

Reality is external and independent, phenomena.
Data Analysis but not directly accessible through our
observation. Rich insights into different social
realities are lost if we reduce
Sometimes are senses deceive us. experiences to a series of law-like
Summary generalizations.

Introduction
Research Design
• Research Philosophy
• Research Design
Participants
Instruments
Data Collection
Data Analysis
Summary

Introduction
Research Design
• Research Design
Participants
Instruments
Data Collection
Data Analysis
Summary Saunder’s Research Onion

Just like peeling the onion, researchers should go from the outer
layer to the inner layer of the research onion.
Introduction
Research Design
• Research Design
Research philosophy is positioned at the outer layer of the ‘research
Participants
onion, accordingly it is the first topic to be clarified in research
methodology chapter of your dissertation.
Instruments
Data Collection
Data Analysis
Summary

Introduction
Research Design 1.Start with an existing theory

• Research Philosophy • Low cost airlines always have delays
• Research Design
2.Formulate a hypothesis based on existing theory
Participants
• If passengers fly with a low cost airline, then they
will always experience delays
Instruments
3.Collect data to test the hypothesis
Data Collection • Collect flight data of low-cost airlines
Data Analysis
4.Analyse the results: does the data reject or support
the hypothesis?
Summary • 5 out of 100 flights of low-cost airlines are
delayed = reject hypothesis
Introduction
Research Design
3. Develop a theory
• Research Philosophy • Low cost airlines always have delays
• Research Design
Participants
Instruments
2. Observe a pattern
Data Collection • Another 20 flights from low-cost airlines are
delayed
Data Analysis
Summary 1. Observation
• A low-cost airline flight is delayed

Introduction
Deductive Method Inductive Method

Research Design
• Research Philosophy This research approach tends to flow If you want to create your own theory,
• Research Approach from generic to specific. Any then you use the inductive method. This
• Research Design researcher using deductive reasoning type of reasoning or approach is often
would start with theory and move on used or helpful when there is little
Participants to research question or hypothesis research available on a topic.
which is tested through data collection
Instruments afterwards. In the end, findings would
either confirm or reject the research
question or hypothesis.
Data Collection
Positivism Interpretivism
Data Analysis
Summary
Fall 2021-2022 | Dr. Hiba Dandachi Start with the test of theory in Theory does not precede 232
the form of hypotheses. collecting data but follows it.
Activity
Sara decided to conduct a research project on violence at work and its effects on the stress
levels of staff.
Advise her on how to proceed if she would like to adopt:
1. the deductive approach: A theory is already existing – The study is designed to test a
hypothesis.
2. the inductive approach: A theory is developed as a result of data analysis.
3. the abductive (retroduction) approach: Moving back and forth form/to data to theory.
Data are used to modify an existing theory which is subsequently tested.

If she adopted a deductive approach to her reasoning, she would have to:
1. start with the hypothesis that staff working directly with the public are more likely to
experience the threat or reality of violence and resultant stress;
2. decide to research a population in which she would have expected to find evidence of violence,
for example, a sizeable social security office;
3. administer a questionnaire to a large sample of staff in order to establish the extent of violence
(either actually experienced or threatened) and the levels of stress experienced by them;
4. standardise the stress responses of the staff, for example, days off sick or sessions with a
counsellor.

If she adopted an inductive approach, then she should have to:

1. interview some staff who had been subjected to violence at work.
2. She might have been interested in their feelings about the events that they had experienced, how
they coped with the problems they experienced and their views about the possible causes of the
violence.

If she adopted an abductive approach, she might have:

1. developed a conceptual model on the basis of her interview.
2. She might then have used this model to develop a series of hypotheses and designed a
questionnaire to collect data with which to test these hypotheses.
3. Based on analyses of these data she might then have refined her conceptual model.

Introduction
Research Design
• Research Approach “Not everything that can be counted
• Research Design counts. And not everything that
Participants
counts can be counted.”
Instruments
William Bruce Cameron (Sociologist)
Data Collection
Data Analysis
Summary

Introduction Quantitative Research Qualitative Research
In philosophical terms, the quantitative In philosophical terms, the qualitative

Research Design approach is called positivism. approach is called interpretivism.
Quantitative research is deductive: The qualitative method is inductive:
• Research Design
Inquiry begins with a specific plan—a set of Inquiry begins with broad, general questions
Participants
detailed questions or hypotheses. The results about the area under investigation.
from data collection and analysis allow
Instruments
researchers to either support or fail to support
Data Collection their hypothesis.
They collect data that are primarily Qualitative research is closely associated with
Data Analysis numerical and result from surveys, tests, words, sounds, feeling, emotions, colors and
experiments, and so on. other elements that are non-quantifiable.
Summary They make observations, conduct in-depth,
open ended-interviews, or look at written
documents. 238
Introduction Quantitative Research Qualitative Research Mixed Research

In philosophical terms, the quantitative In philosophical terms, the qualitative Two philosophical positions
Research Design approach is called positivism. approach is called interpretivism. that are often associated with
mixed methods designs:
• Research Philosophy Quantitative research is deductive: The qualitative method is inductive: pragmatism and critical
• Research Approach Inquiry begins with a specific plan—a set of Inquiry begins with broad, general questions realism.
detailed questions or hypotheses. The results about the area under investigation.
• Research Design
from data collection and analysis allow It is a popular framework that
Participants researchers to either support or fail to support
attempts to complement
their hypothesis.
quantitative data with
They collect data that are primarily numerical Qualitative research is closely associated with qualitative data in order to
Instruments and result from surveys, tests, experiments, words, sounds, feeling, emotions, colors and overcome the limitations of
and so on. other elements that are non-quantifiable. They
each individual method.
make observations, conduct in-depth, open
Data Collection ended-interviews, or look at written documents.
The basic premise of this
methodology is that such
Data Analysis integration permits a more
complete and synergistic
utilization of data than do
Summary separate quantitative and
qualitative data collection and
analysis.
Introduction
Mono-method
Research Design In the mono-method, you gather only one type of information from qualitative and
• Research Philosophy quantitative.
• Research Design Multi-methods
Multi-methods helps you in researching with the use of the qualitative as well as
Participants quantitative information. However, your focus stays on the one source only. This
means that both qualitative and quantitative data collection techniques are used.
Instruments However, analysis of the collected data is done using one perspective only.
Mixed-methods
Data Collection It allows you to use both qualitative and quantitative methods. The researcher
collects both quantitative data and qualitative data with an intention to use those
Data Analysis equally in the research study, data collection and analysis.
Summary

Introduction
Research Design
• Research Philosophy Research Design Research Strategy
• Research Approach True Experimental research
• Research Design Experimental Research
• Quantitative Design Quasi-experimental research
• Qualitative Design Quantitative Ex-post facto research
• Mixed Design Non-experimental research Correlational research
Participants Survey research
Instruments
Data Collection
Data Analysis
Summary

Introduction
Research Design
• Research Design
• Quantitative Design
• Qualitative Design
• Mixed Design
Participants
Instruments
Data Collection
Data Analysis
Summary
Fall 2021-2022 | Dr. Hiba Dandachi Source: Introduction to Research in

242
Education, 8th Edition, Page 28
Introduction
Experimental Research
Research Design
• Research Philosophy • The purpose of an experiment is to study the probability of a change in an
• Research Design independent variable (IV) causing a change in another, dependent variable
• Qualitative Design (DV).
• Mixed Design
• A mediating variable (MV) is a variable located between the independent
Participants
and dependent variables, which transmits the effect between them (IV → MV
Instruments
Data Collection → DV)
Data Analysis
Summary

Introduction
True Experimental Research
Research Design
• Research Philosophy • In a true experiment, a sample of participants is selected and then randomly
• Research Design assigned to either an experimental group or to the control group.
• Qualitative Design • In the experimental group, some the planned intervention will be tested.
• Mixed Design
• In the control group, no intervention is made.
Participants
• Each group should be similar in all aspects relevant to the research other than
Instruments
Data Collection other than the planned intervention.
Data Analysis • In assigning the members to the groups randomly, you try to eliminate
Summary threats to internal validity (control (=remove) the possible effects of an
alternative explanation to the planned intervention).

Topic: The effect of promotions on purchasing behaviour.
Step 2: Planned intervention is made to the experimental group only:

➔ a ‘buy two, get one free’ promotion.
Any difference between the

experimental and control
groups for the purchasing
behaviour is attributed to the
intervention of the ‘buy two,
get one free’ promotion.
Step 1: Pre-test measure of the DV: Step 3: Post-test measure of the DV:
➔ Purchasing behaviour (DV) is measured for members ➔ Purchasing behaviour (DV) is measured for members
of both the experimental group and control group of both the experimental group and control group after
before any intervention occurs. the intervention.

Introduction Quasi-Experimental Research
Research Design
• In a quasi-experiment, participants are only available in pre-existing groups
• Research Approach and hence cannot be randomly assigned to the experimental and the control
• Research Design
• Quantitative Design group.
• Mixed Design • Differences in participants between groups may be minimised by the use of
Participants
matched pairs.
Instruments
• Matched pair analysis leads to a participant in an experimental group is
Data Collection
paired with a participant in the control group based on matching factors
Data Analysis
(such as age, gender, occupation, length of service, grade etc.) to try to
Summary
minimise the effect of extraneous variables on the experiment’s
Fall 2021-2022 | Dr. Hiba Dandachi outcomes. 246

Example
The researcher was allowed to use two sections of freshman English at a high school for a
study on vocabulary development, without disrupting the classes organization to
accommodate his research study.
The researcher selected two sections that at least appear to be similar (for example, he did
not choose a remedial class and an advanced class). Although subjects cannot be randomly
assigned, he flipped a coin to determine which of the two intact groups will be the
experimental group and which will be the control group. The researcher gave a vocabulary
pre-test to both classes, administered a program designed to improve vocabulary to the
experimental group only, and then gave a vocabulary post-test to both groups.
Example
If the experimental group shows significantly greater achievement on the post-test, can the
researcher conclude that the new program was effective?
Without random assignment of subjects, you do not know if the groups were equivalent
before the study began.
The pre-test enables you to check on the equivalence of the groups on the dependent
variable before the experiment begins.
• If there are no significant differences on the pre-test, you can discount selection
bias as a serious threat to internal validity and proceed with the study.
• If there are some differences, the investigator can use ANCOVA to statistically adjust
the post-test scores for the pre-test differences.

Introduction Ex-post facto Research
Research Design • The researcher does not manipulate variables:

• Research Approach • The investigation involves attribute independent variables that the researcher
• Research Design
• Quantitative Design cannot manipulate.
• Mixed Design • The variable actually could be manipulated but is not because it would be
Participants unethical to do so.
Instruments
• The researcher simply compares groups differing on the pre-existing independent
Data Collection
variable to determine any relationship to the dependent variable.
Data Analysis
• This method is sometimes called causal comparative because its purpose is to
Summary
investigate cause-and-effect relationships between independent and dependent
Fall 2021-2022 | Dr. Hiba Dandachi variables. 249

Example
• To study the effect of part-time work on school achievement of high school students, you
would not manipulate the lives of high school students by having some take part-time
jobs and others not; instead, you would identify students who already work part-time
and compare their achievement with that of students who do not work.
• To study the effect of retention on subsequent achievement, you would not want to
randomly assign some children to be retained and others to be promoted.

Consider the following RQ, then compare the below two research strategies.
What is the effect of students’ anxiety on their examination performance?
Example 1 Example 2
The research measured the already existing The investigator randomly assigned subjects to two exam
anxiety level at the time of the examination conditions that are identical in every respect except that one
and then comparing the performance of is anxiety arousing and the other is neutral. The experimenter
“high anxious” and “low anxious” students. induced anxiety by telling the subjects in the experimental
group that that they may find the test to be extremely difficult.
Ex-post Facto Research True Experimental Research

Introduction
Correlational Research
Research Design
• It deals with one group of individuals and seeks to determine relationships
• Research Design
between variables.
• Mixed Design
Participants
Instruments
Data Collection
Data Analysis
Summary

Example
You can follow the correlational research strategy to answer the following RQs:
• “What is the relationship between performance on a language aptitude test and
success in a high school foreign language course.”
• What is the relationship between math performance and achievement in science
among high school students?

Introduction
Survey Research
Research Design
• It is a quantitative method whereby a researcher poses some set of
• Research Design
predetermined questions to a large number of respondents, allowing easy
• Qualitative Design comparison.
• Mixed Design
Participants • A survey researcher may want to investigate associations between
Instruments respondents’ characteristics such as age, education, social class, race, and their
Data Collection current attitudes toward some issue.
Data Analysis • The survey strategy allows you to collect data which you can analyse
Summary quantitatively using descriptive and inferential statistics.

Example
You can follow the survey research strategy to answer the following RQ:
“What is the highest degree or level of school you have completed?”

Introduction
Research Design
• Research Philosophy Research Design Research Strategy
• Research Approach Basic Interpretive Studies
• Research Design Case Studies
Document or Content Analysis
• Mixed Design Ethnography
Qualitative
Participants Grounded Theory
Historical Studies
Instruments
Narrative Research
Data Collection Phenomenological Study
Data Analysis
Summary

Introduction
Research Design Type Major Question
• Research Philosophy Basic Interpretive Studies How are events, processes, and activities perceived by the participant?
• Research Approach Case Study What are the characteristics of this individual, organization, or group?
• Research Design Document Analysis What can be learned about this phenomenon by studying certain
• Quantitative Design documents?
• Qualitative Design Ethnography What are the culture and perspectives of this group of people in its
• Mixed Design natural setting?
Grounded Theory What theory can be derived inductively about a phenomenon from the
Participants data collected in a particular setting?
Historical Studies What insights or conclusions can be reached about this past event?
Instruments
Narrative Inquiry What insights and understandings about an issue emerge from
Data Collection examining life stories?
Phenomenological Study What does this experience mean for the participants in the
Data Analysis experience?
Summary

Introduction
Basic Interpretive Studies
Research Design
• Interpretive studies focus on: (1) how people interpret their experiences, (2)
• Research Design
how they construct their worlds, and (3) what meaning they attribute to their
• Qualitative Design experiences.
• Mixed Design
Participants • This strategy developed by Thorne and her colleagues (Thorne, Kirkham, &
Instruments MacDonald, 1997) would draw on experience and evidence from practice,
Data Collection and translate easily back into the practice setting.
Data Analysis • Research reports and products should relate directly to applications in the
Summary practice setting.

Introduction
Basic Interpretive Studies
Research Design
• Researchers are often embedded within the social context that they are
• Research Design
studying, and are considered part of the data collection instrument in that they
• Qualitative Design must use their observational skills, their trust with the participants, and their
• Mixed Design
Participants ability to extract the correct information. Further, their personal insights,
Instruments knowledge, and experiences of the social context is critical to accurately
Data Collection interpreting the phenomenon of interest. At the same time, researchers must
Data Analysis be fully aware of their personal biases and preconceptions, and not let such
Summary biases interfere with their ability to present a fair and accurate portrayal of the

phenomenon.
259
Examples of Topics
• A Basic Interpretative Study of Educators in the Childcare Profession: Collegiality as a
Base of Job Satisfaction
• A Basic Interpretive Study of the Experiences of University Students Who Have Dropped
or Failed an Online Course

Introduction
Case Studies
Research Design
• A case study is an in-depth inquiry into a topic or phenomenon within its
• Research Design
real-life setting.
• Qualitative Design • The ‘case’ in case study research may refer to a person (e.g. a student), a group
• Mixed Design
Participants (e.g. a work team), an institution (e.g. a school), a change process (e.g.
Instruments restructuring a company), an event (e.g. an annual general meeting).
Data Collection • Case study research draws on data, often both qualitative and quantitative,
Data Analysis from a range of sources to understand fully the dynamics of the case.
Summary

Introduction
Case Studies
Research Design
• A single case is often used where it represents a critical, a typical or unique
• Research Design
case.
• Qualitative Design • A case study strategy can also incorporate multiple cases, that is, more than
• Mixed Design
Participants one case. The rationale for using multiple cases focuses on whether findings
Instruments can be replicated across cases. Cases will be carefully chosen on the basis that
Data Collection similar results are predicted to be produced from each one.
Data Analysis
Summary

The Caring Teacher: A Multiple Case Study That Looks at What Teachers Do and
Believe about Their Work With At-Risk Students
▪ The central research question that this study aims to answer was:
▪ What is a caring teacher?
▪ This study will also addressed these sub-questions:
▪ What are the qualities or characteristics of caring teachers?
▪ What do teachers do to show they care?
▪ What fundamental beliefs and values underlie their caring attitudes?
Thompson, Sarah Whitney, "The Caring Teacher: A Multiple Case Study That Looks at What Teachers Do and Believe about Their
Work With At-Risk Students" (2010). Public Access Theses and Dissertations from the College of Education and Human Sciences.
77. http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cehsdiss/77
Introduction
Guidelines
Research Design
• Research Philosophy To choose the appropriate mixed methods research design by answering
• Research Approach four overarching questions:
• Research Design
• Quantitative Design 1. Do our qualitative and quantitative strands interact?
• Qualitative Design This question asks if the two strands are independent of one another, or does one
• Mixed Design influence the other?
Participants 2. What is the priority of our strategy?

Equal priority design - quantitative priority - qualitative priority?
Instruments
3. What is the timing (i.e., the sequence) of our strands?
Data Collection Sequential (running one before or after) – Concurrent (at the same time)
Data Analysis
4. When are the strands mixed?
Mix them during data collection or during interpretation.
Summary

Introduction
Research Design
• Research Design
• Mixed Design
Participants
Instruments
Data Collection
Data Analysis
Summary

E.g. To what extent are zeros used in

Introduction grading, and what is the effect on
student motivation?
Research Design ➔ Concurrent interviews and
• Research Philosophy surveys of both teachers and
students.
• Research Design
• Quantitative Design E.g. Teachers use zeros extensively in
• Qualitative Design grading students. Why do teachers use
zeros? How does this affect student
• Mixed Design motivation?
Participants ➔ Teacher interviews followed by a
survey of student motivation.
Instruments
Data Collection E.g. What are teachers’ grading

practices? How do teachers determine
Data Analysis how much weight is given to each
component that determines the grades?
Summary ➔ Survey of teachers’ grading practices,

followed by teacher interviews
concerning reasons for the weight given
Fall 2021-2022 | Dr. Hiba Dandachi each component. 266
Introduction
Example
Research Design
In this quantitative study, the non-experimental ex-post facto research design
Participants
was used. At variance with the correlational design, the ex-post facto is a causal-
Instruments comparative method that seeks to establish a causal relationship between a
Data Collection preexisting independent variable and a dependent variable. The ex-post facto
research design was employed to compare the inductive thinking of students who
Data Analysis
have been through the abacus program with that of a matched group of students
Summary
who have never been through the abacus program.

Introduction
Research Design
Every truth has four corners: as a teacher I give you one corner,
Participants
and it is for you to find the other three.
Instruments
Confucius
Data Collection
For more details regarding the design that fits your study, refer to the following
Data Analysis books:
• Introduction to Research in Education, 8th Edition, Ary, Jacobs and Sorensen.

Summary • Educational Research, Creswell
• Writing a Proposal for your dissertation, Terrel, Chapters 5, 6, 7

Introduction
Research Design Checklist
Participants ❑
Provide the rationale for selecting the particular methodology.
Instruments
❑ Support decisions with scholarly peer-reviewed sources.
Data Collection
Data Analysis
Summary

Introduction Sample Vs. Population
Research Design
• Your sample is the group of individuals
Participants
• Sample and Population who actually participate in your study.
• Sampling in
Quantitative Research
• Sampling in Qualitative
Research • Your population is the broader group
• Sample Size
• Description of the of people to whom you intend to
participants
Instruments generalize the results of your study.
Data Collection
Data Analysis • Your exact population will depend on

Summary
the scope of your study.

Introduction
Quantitative Research Qualitative Research
Research Design
Participants • Random Sampling • Non-random Sampling

• Sample and Population
• Sampling in (aka probabilistic sampling) (aka non-probabilistic sampling)
Research
• Sample Size • Select representative individuals • Select people or sites who can
• Description of the
participants to generalize from sample to the best help us understand our
Instruments
population phenomenon to develop a detailed
Data Collection
understanding.
Data Analysis
Summary

Introduction
Research Design
Participants
• Sampling in
Research
• Sample Size
participants
Instruments
Data Collection
Data Analysis
Summary

Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pTuj57uXWlk 272
Introduction
Research Design
Simple random sampling
Participants
• Sampling in
Research
• Sample Size
participants
Instruments
Data Collection
Data Analysis
Summary
One way would be the lottery method.
Introduction
Research Design
Stratified sampling
Participants
• Sampling in
Research
• Sample Size
participants
Instruments
Data Collection
Data Analysis
Summary
The population is divided into groups, based on some characteristic.
Then, within each group, a probability sample (often a simple random sample) is selected.
Introduction Multistage Sampling

Research Design
Participants
• Sampling in
Research
• Sample Size
participants
Instruments
Data Collection
▪ First-stage sampling included a simple random sample to select 6 secondary schools in
Data Analysis
the region (6 of the 16 available clusters were randomly sampled).
Summary
▪ The second stage of sampling selected 12 teachers from each of these schools, who
were then administered questionnaires (12 units from each cluster were randomly
sampled.). 275
Introduction
Research Design
Participants
• Sampling in
Research
• Sample Size
participants
Instruments
Data Collection
Data Analysis
Summary

Introduction
Research Design
Before Data Collection After Data Collection
Participants
• Sampling in Maximal Variation Sampling Opportunistic Sampling
Extreme Case Sampling Snowball Sampling
Research
• Sample Size
• Description of the Typical Sampling Confirming and Disconfirming Sampling
participants
Instruments Homogeneous Sampling
Data Collection
Data Analysis
Summary

Introduction
Research Design
Before Data Collection
Participants
• Sampling in Maximal Variation Sampling
• Sampling in Qualitative In maximum variation sampling, units are included that maximize
Research
differences on specified characteristics. For example, a study of U.S.
• Sample Size high school students might include students from schools that differ
• Description of the in location, student characteristics, parental involvement, and other
participants
factors. This type of sampling reveals differences but may also identify
Instruments commonalities across the units.
Data Collection
Data Analysis
Summary

Introduction
Research Design
Participants
• Sampling in Extreme Case Sampling
Research Extreme case sampling selects units that are atypical, special, or
• Sample Size unusual. For example, you might choose to study a high-poverty, inner-
• Description of the city elementary school that has achieved exemplary reading and
participants mathematics test scores.
Instruments
Data Collection
Data Analysis
Summary

Introduction
Research Design
Participants
• Sampling in Typical Sampling
• Sampling in Qualitative Typical case sampling selects units that are considered typical of the
Research
phenomenon to be studied. In a study of an elementary school, you
• Sample Size would select a school considered typical rather than a very high
• Description of the achieving school or a very low achieving school. This approach
participants
highlights what is normal or average.
Instruments
Data Collection
Data Analysis
Summary

Introduction
Research Design
Participants
• Sampling in Homogeneous Sampling
Research You select certain sites or people because they possess a similar trait,
characteristic, attitudes, experiences, and so on. For example, you might
• Sample Size
choose only a sample of special education teachers from a population
participants of teachers. This approach may be used with focus group interviewing.
Instruments
Data Collection
Data Analysis
Summary

Introduction
Research Design
After Data Collection
Participants
Opportunistic Sampling
• Sampling in
Research Opportunistic or emergent sampling occurs when the researcher makes
sampling decisions during the process of collecting data. When little is known
• Sample Size
about a phenomenon or setting, a priori sampling decisions can be difficult.
participants As the observer gains more knowledge of a setting, he or she can make
sampling decisions that take advantage of events, as they unfold.
Instruments
Data Collection
Data Analysis
Summary

Introduction
Research Design
Participants
Snowball Sampling
• Sampling in
Research The researcher asks participants to recommend other individuals who would
be appropriate for the sample. Researchers may pose this request as a
• Sample Size
question during an interview or through informal conversations with
participants individuals at a research site. For example, a researcher might ask one
teacher who has been nominated for an environmental science teaching
Instruments award to name another teacher who he or she considers to be an exemplary
Data Collection environmental educator.
Data Analysis
Summary

Introduction
Research Design
Participants
Confirming and Disconfirming Sampling
• Sampling in
Research Identification of confirming and disconfirming case occurs after some portion
of data collection and analysis has already been completed. Confirming and
• Sample Size
disconfirming cases allow the evaluator to further refine and test initial
participants findings. Both types of cases are important, confirming cases serve as
additional examples that lend further support, richness and depth to patterns
Instruments emerging from data analysis and disconfirming cases to test and highlight the
Data Collection limitations of the findings.
Data Analysis
Summary

Introduction
Sample Size
Research Design
Participants • In quantitative studies large sample size is needed in order to generalize the
• Sampling in results. Qualitative studies strive in-depth information, hence smaller sample
• Sampling in Qualitative size are needed.
Research
• Sample Size • Researchers use four major ways of making the decision:
participants (a) heuristics
Instruments
(b) literature review
Data Collection
(c) Formulas
Data Analysis
(d) power analysis.
Summary

Introduction
Heuristics
Research Design
Participants • For qualitative research, use from 1 to 20 participants;

• Sample and Population • for survey research, drawn from very large populations use 800 or more
• Sampling in
Quantitative Research participants;
• Sampling in Qualitative • for correlation research, use approximately 30 participants;
Research
• for causal-comparative research, use more than 30 participants;
• Sample Size
• Description of the • for experimental research, use 30 or more participants (approximately 15
participants
participants in each group);
Instruments
• for factorial statistical designs, at least 15 participants is required per
Data Collection
cell;
Data Analysis • for multiple regression statistical designs, use at least 10 participants for each
Summary variable.

Introduction
Literature Review
Research Design
Participants • Pay attention to past studies that employed the same method of research
• Sampling in as yours and that used similar variables to the study you are planning.
Research
• Sample Size
participants
Instruments
Data Collection
Data Analysis
Summary

Introduction
Formulas
Research Design
Participants Krejcie and Morgan (1970) generated a model of appropriate sample size (S)
• Sampling in required for given population sizes (N) (See Table):
• Sampling in Qualitative • For N = 100 or fewer, there is little point in sampling; survey the entire
Research
• Sample Size population.
participants • If the population size is around 500 (give or take 100), 50% should be
Instruments
sampled.
Data Collection
• If the population size is around 1,500, 20% should be sampled.
Data Analysis
• Beyond a certain point (about N = 5,000), the population size is
Summary
almost irrelevant and a sample size of 400 will be adequate.
Introduction
Formulas
Research Design
Participants
• Sampling in
Research
• Sample Size
participants
Instruments
Data Collection
Data Analysis
Summary

Introduction
Power Analysis
Research Design
Participants • A fourth and more precise method of determining an appropriate sample size
• Sampling in for your research is to calculate a power analysis.
• Sampling in Qualitative • Cohen (1988) and Olejnik (1984) explain how to calculate power analyses.
Research
• Sample Size
participants
Instruments
Data Collection
Data Analysis
Summary

Research Design
Your description should include the following:
Participants
• Sampling in 1. The specific type of sampling used, such as probability sampling (random,
systematic, stratified, cluster) or nonprobability sampling (purposive,
Research expert).
• Sample Size
2. The number of individuals included and where they are located.
participants 3. Description of the demographics of the sample (e.g., gender, race, age,
Instruments experience, education).
Data Collection 4. Why you selected this particular number.
Data Analysis 5. The criteria you used for inclusion in the sample.
6. A step-by-step account of exactly how you went about selecting your
Summary
sample.
Research Design
Participants
• Sampling in
Research
• Sample Size
participants
Instruments
Data Collection
Data Analysis
Summary

Research Design
Participants
• Sampling in
Research
• Sample Size
participants
Instruments
Data Collection
Note that Blair stratified her sample based on school ratings of “Exemplary,” “Recognized,”
Data Analysis “Acceptable,” and “Low Performing.” The goals of her research were to (a) determine relationships
between principals’ leadership styles and student achievement as evidenced by school ratings, and (b)
Summary examine relationships between the amount of time principals spend on instructional leadership and
management tasks and school ratings. Therefore, her sample of principals needed to be stratified by school
ratings to determine the relationships tested.
Introduction
Checklist
Research Design
❑ Describe the general population (i.e., students with disabilities), target
population (i.e. students with disabilities in one specific district - geographic
Participants
location) and the study sample (students with disabilities in the district that
participated in the study - actual study sample).
Instruments Describe the study sample size. Provide evidence that justifies the sample
❑
size adequate for the research design.
Data Collection ❑ Define and describe the sampling procedures (such as convenience,
purposive, snowball, random, etc.) supported by scholarly research sources.
Data Analysis
Summary

Introduction Qualitative researchers generally use text-based observations or interviews to collect

qualitative data.
Research Design
Forms of Qualitative Data Collection
Participants Forms of Data Collection Definition
Field notes and drawings taken during observations

Instruments Observations
by the researcher.
Data Collection Interviews Transcriptions of open-ended questions.
Discussion among a group of people about a topic to

Data Analysis Focus Groups
gather opinions.
Questionnaires
Open-ended questions on questionnaires.
Summary
Documents Notes from meetings or records from journals.
Pictures, photographs, videotapes, objects, sounds

Audio-visual materials
recorded by the researcher or someone else.
Introduction
Quantitative research calls for numerically based methods such as tests, surveys,
opinion polls.
Research Design
Forms of Quantitative Data Collection
Participants
Forms of Data Collection Definition
Instruments
The observer functions like a camera or recording
Data Collection Observations device to provide a record of the occurrence of the
behavior in question.
Data Analysis Situation in which variables are controlled and

Experiments manipulated to establish cause-and-effect
relationships.
Summary
Questionnaires List of closed questions that is distributed to a sample.

Introduction
Research Design
Aptitude tests
Participants
Instruments
• Tests Aptitude tests attempt to measure general ability or potential for learning a body of
• Scales knowledge and skills. Educators have found aptitude tests useful and generally
• Questionnaires
• Interviews valid for the purpose of predicting school success (e.g. Scholastic Assessment Test)
• Observations
• Validity
Achievement Tests
• Reliability
• Developing a new
instrument
Achievement tests are developed to measure the actual performance (extent of
Instruments acquired knowledge) in a specific subject area (e.g., Stanford Achievement Test (SAT)).
Data Collection
Data Analysis
Summary
Introduction
Research Design
Scales
Participants
Instruments
• Tests • Scales are used to measure attitudes, values, opinions.
• Scales
• Questionnaires • Scales differ from tests in that the results of these instruments, unlike those of
• Interviews
• Observations tests, do not indicate success or failure, strength or weakness. They measure the
• Validity
• Reliability degree to which an individual exhibits the characteristic of interest.
instrument • For example, a researcher may use a scale to measure the attitude of college
Instruments students toward technology.
Data Collection
Data Analysis
Summary
Introduction
Research Design
Surveys
Participants
Instruments
• Tests • Surveys are used to gather information about people and can be used to measure
• Scales
• Questionnaires almost anything (e.g. Course Satisfaction Survey - in addition to the scale rankings,
• Interviews
• Observations the survey includes a comment section).
• Validity
• Reliability
instrument
Instruments
Data Collection
Data Analysis
Summary
Introduction
Research Design
Ethics
Participants
Instruments
• Tests • Respondents cannot be coerced into completing a questionnaire. They might be
• Scales
• Questionnaires strongly encouraged, but the decision whether to become involved and when
• Interviews
• Observations (and if ) to withdraw from the research is entirely theirs.
• Validity
• Reliability
instrument
Instruments
Data Collection
Data Analysis
Summary
Introduction Letter
Research Design
Participants The covering letter should:
Instruments
• Provide a title to the research;
• Tests
• Scales • introduce the researcher, giving her/his name, address, organization, contact
• Questionnaires telephone/fax/email address, together with an invitation to feel free to
• Interviews
• Observations contact the researcher for further clarification or details;
• Validity • indicate the purposes of the research;
• Reliability
• indicate the importance and benefits of the research;
instrument • indicate why the respondent has been selected for receipt of the
Instruments questionnaire;
Data Collection • provide assurances of confidentiality, anonymity and non- traceability;
Data Analysis • indicate how the results will and will not be disseminated, and to whom;
Summary • thank respondents in advance for their cooperation.
Introduction
Research Design
Example of a cover letter
Participants
Instruments
• Tests
• Scales
• Questionnaires
• Interviews
• Observations
• Validity
• Reliability
instrument
Instruments
Data Collection
Data Analysis
Summary
Introduction
Research Design
Scales of Data
Participants
Instruments
• Tests • Nominal data indicate categories (e.g. gender)
• Scales
• Questionnaires
• Interviews • Ordinal data indicate order (‘high’ to ‘low’, ‘first’ to ‘last’, ‘smallest’ to ‘largest’,
• Observations
‘strongly disagree’ to ‘strongly agree’, ‘not at all’ to ‘a very great deal’);
• Validity
• Reliability
• Developing a new • Interval data indicate continuous values (e.g. IQ scores)
instrument
Instruments • Ratio data indicate continuous values and a true zero (e.g. marks in a test, number
Data Collection
of attendance per year, hours spent on study)
Data Analysis
Summary
Introduction
Research Design
Questionnaires Items
Participants
Instruments
• Tests • Open-ended questions: Here the questionnaire puts the open-ended questions
• Scales
and leaves a space (or draws lines) for a free response.
• Questionnaires
• Interviews
• Observations Example (prompt):
• Validity
‘Please indicate the most important factors that reduce staff
• Reliability
participation in decision making’;
instrument
• Description of the Example (sentence- completion):
Instruments
Data Collection ‘Please complete the following sentence in your own words: The
main things that I find annoying with disruptive students are …’
Data Analysis
Summary
Introduction
Research Design
Questionnaires Items
Participants
Instruments
• Tests • Closed questions: Closed questions (dichotomous, multiple choice, rating
• Scales
ordering, rank scales, constant sum and ratio data questions) are quick to complete
• Questionnaires
• Interviews and straightforward to code (e.g. for computer processing).
• Observations
• Validity
• Reliability
instrument
Instruments
Data Collection
Data Analysis
Summary
Introduction
Research Design Closed questions – Dichotomous questions
Participants
Instruments
• Tests • There are only two categories of response. For example:
• Scales
• Questionnaires • gender (male/female),
• Interviews
• Observations • type of school (elementary/secondary),
• Validity
• type of course (vocational/non- vocational).
• Reliability
instrument
Instruments
Data Collection
Data Analysis
Summary
Introduction
Research Design Closed questions – Multiple Choice questions
Participants
Instruments • Guidance has to be given on the completion of the multiple-choice, clarifying,
• Tests
• Scales for example, whether respondents are able to tick only one response (a single
• Questionnaires answer mode) or a constrained number of choices (e.g. three priorities from a
• Interviews
list of ten possible choices) or a free choice (tick as many as you wish from the
• Observations
• Validity list).
• Reliability
instrument
Instruments
Data Collection
Data Analysis
Summary
Introduction
Research Design Closed questions – Rating ordering
Participants
Instruments • Likert scale (five or seven point scale): strongly disagree/disagree/neither
• Tests
• Scales agree nor disagree/ agree/strongly agree.
• Questionnaires • Other scales: semantic differential scales, Thurstone scales and Guttman
• Interviews
scaling.
• Observations
• Validity
• Reliability
instrument
Instruments
Data Collection
Data Analysis
Summary
Introduction
Research Design Closed questions – Rank Scales
Participants
Instruments • It asks respondents to identify priorities.
• Tests
• Scales
• Questionnaires
• Interviews
• Observations
• Validity
• Reliability
instrument
Instruments
Data Collection
Data Analysis
Summary
Introduction
Research Design Closed questions – Constant sum questions
Participants
Instruments • In this type of question respondents are asked to distribute a given number of
• Tests
• Scales marks (points) between a range of items
• Questionnaires
• Interviews
• Observations
• Validity
• Reliability
instrument
Instruments
Data Collection
Data Analysis
Summary
Introduction
Research Design Closed questions – Ratio data questions
Participants
Instruments • Ratio data questions deal with continuous variables where there is a true zero.
• Tests
• Scales • Here no fixed answer or category is provided, and the respondent puts in the
• Questionnaires numerical answer that fits his/her exact figure.
• Interviews
• Observations
• Validity
• Reliability
instrument
Instruments
Data Collection
Data Analysis
Summary
Introduction
Research Design
Participants Question Type Level of Data
Instruments
Dichotomous questions Nominal
• Tests
• Scales
Multiple choice questions Nominal
• Questionnaires
• Interviews Ranks ordering Ordinal
• Observations
• Validity Rating Scales Ordinal
• Reliability
• Developing a new Constant sum questions Ordinal
instrument
• Description of the Ratio data questions Ratio
Instruments
Data Collection Open-ended questions Word-based data
Data Analysis
Summary
Introduction
Research Design
Participants
Instruments For more details:
• Tests
• Scales • Research Method in Education, Cohen, Manion, and Morison, Chapter 24.
• Questionnaires
• Interviews
• Observations
• Validity
• Reliability
instrument
Instruments
Data Collection
Data Analysis
Summary
Introduction
Research Design
Participants
Instruments
• Tests
• Scales
• Questionnaires
• Interviews
• Observations
• Validity
• Reliability
instrument
Instruments
Data Collection
Data Analysis
Summary
Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cGQz8hZQ8fU 314
Research Design
Participants • Qualitative researchers often use open-ended interviews (i.e., questions are
Instruments
• Tests asked but respondents are not provided choices to use as answers, such as
• Scales
• Questionnaires Likert scales, multiple choice, yes/no). Typically, these are semi-structured
• Interviews
• Observations questions. That is, some questions are developed in advance. Follow-up
• Validity
• Reliability questions are developed as the interview progresses based on participant
instrument responses.
Instruments
Data Collection
Data Analysis
Summary
Research Design
Participants
Instruments The interview should be framed by a briefing before the interview commenced, and a
• Tests debriefing afterwards:
• Scales
• The researcher starts off the interview by briefly explaining the aim of the interview
• Questionnaires
• Interviews and emphasizing the confidentiality, anonymity and the voluntary nature of the
• Observations study. The interviewee is then given a consent form which should be signed off by
• Validity
• Reliability both this person and the researcher. With the participant’s permission, each
• Developing a new interview should be recorded. Each interview should last no more than one and a
instrument
• Description of the half hours.
Instruments • After each interview, a debriefing should be performed during which the
Data Collection
practitioners are given the opportunity to ask questions, make comments or add
Data Analysis
any information that was not discussed during the interview.
Summary
Introduction Conducting Interviews

Research Design
Participants There are several kinds of question:
Instruments • introductory questions (to introduce the topic of that part of the interview, e.g. ‘can you tell me
• Tests
• Scales about …?’);
• Questionnaires • follow-up questions (e.g. ‘can you tell me a little more about …?’; ‘can you give me an example
• Interviews of …?’);
• Observations
• direct questions (e.g. with a ‘yes/no’ answer);
• Validity
• indirect questions (to try to obtain the interviewee’s real opinion);
• Reliability
• Developing a new • probing questions (to go deeper into a topic);
instrument • specifying questions (e.g. ‘what happened next?’);
Instruments • structuring questions (those that move the interview on to the next topic);
Data Collection • interpreting questions (to check your understanding, e.g. ‘do you mean that …?’; ‘Am I right in
Data Analysis thinking that …?’);
Summary • silence (indicating that you are giving the interviewee the opportunity to expand on a topic or

answer).
317
Introduction
Research Design
Participants Ponder this
Instruments
• Tests Talk is dynamic – a quality it loses as soon as it is collected in any way. It is
• Scales
• Questionnaires somewhat … like catching rain in a bucket for later display. What you end up with
• Interviews
• Observations is water, which is only a little like rain.
• Validity
• Reliability Powney and Watts, 1987, p. 16
instrument
Instruments Transcribe the interview recording, noting not only the literal
Data Collection statements but also non-verbal and paralinguistic communication.
Data Analysis
Summary
Introduction Transcribing
Research Design
Participants The researcher might need to ensure that different kinds of data are recorded in the transcript of the recording,
Instruments for example:
• Tests • what was being said;
• Scales • the tone of voice of the speaker(s) (e.g. harsh, kindly, encouraging);
• Questionnaires • the inflection of the voice (e.g. rising or falling, a question or a statement, a cadence or a pause, a
• Interviews
summarizing or exploratory tone, opening or closing a line of enquiry);
• Observations
• emphases placed by the speaker;
• Validity
• pauses (short to long) and silences (short to long);
• Reliability
• Developing a new • interruptions; the mood of the speaker(s) (e.g. excited, angry, resigned, bored, uncomfortable, enthusiastic,
instrument committed, happy, grudging);
• Description of the • the speed of the talk (fast to slow, hurried or unhurried, hesitant to confident);
Instruments • how many people were speaking simultaneously;
Data Collection • whether a speaker was speaking continuously or in short phrases;
Data Analysis • who is speaking to whom;
Summary • any other events that were taking place at the same time that the researcher can recall.

Research Design
Participants If you plan to use observations, consider asking yourself the following questions to help you write
Instruments
• Tests this section of your dissertation or master’s thesis:
• Scales (a) What will I be observing;
• Questionnaires
• Interviews (b) who will I be observing;
• Observations
• Validity (c) when and where will my observations take place;
• Reliability (d) how will I record the observations;
instrument (e) how long will I observe;
Instruments (f) will I solicit feedback from my participants?
Data Collection
Data Analysis
Summary
Devices for recording Observations

Introduction
Research Design
Checklists
Participants
This device presents a list of the behaviors that are to be observed. The observer then checks
Instruments
• Tests whether each behavior is present or absent.
• Scales
• Questionnaires For example, a researcher studying disruptive behavior would prepare a list of disruptive behaviors that might occur in
• Interviews a classroom. An observer would then check items such as “Passes notes to other students” or “Makes disturbing noises”
• Observations each time the behavior occurs.
• Validity
• Reliability Rating Scales
Typically, rating scales consist of three to five points or categories.
instrument
Instruments For example, an observer studying teachers’ preparation for presentation of new material in a classroom might use a
Data Collection scale with the following points: 3 (very well prepared), 2 ( prepared), or 1 (not well prepared).
Data Analysis
Coding Systems
Summary
Each time one of the behaviors occurs, the observer codes the happening in the appropriate category.
Research Design
Participants • Validity is the degree to which your instrument truly measures what it is
Instruments
• Tests supposed to measure. In other words, can you trust that findings from your
• Scales
• Questionnaires instrument are true?
• Interviews
• Observations • There are three main types of validity:
• Validity
• Reliability (a) construct validity.
instrument (b) content validity.
Instruments (c) criterion-related validity (concurrent validity)
Data Collection
Data Analysis
Summary
Introduction Construct Validity

Research Design
Participants • It attempts to answer the question, “What is this test really measuring?”
Instruments • Construct validity defines how well a test measures up to its claims. It refers to
• Tests
• Scales whether the operational definition of a variable actually reflect the true
• Questionnaires theoretical meaning of a concept.
• Interviews
• Observations Example: If you develop a questionnaire to diagnose depression, you need to know: does the
• Validity questionnaire really measure the construct of depression? Or is it actually measuring the
respondent’s mood, self-esteem, or some other construct? The questionnaire must include
• Reliability
only relevant questions that measure known indicators of depression based on existing
• Developing a new psychological research and theory.
instrument
Instruments • To achieve construct validity, you have to ensure that your indicators and
Data Collection measurements are carefully developed based on relevant existing knowledge. It
Data Analysis isn’t that easy to measure construct validity–several measures are usually required
Summary to demonstrate it, including pilot studies.
Introduction Content Validity

Research Design
Participants • It asks the question “Is the entire content area I want to measure covered?”
Instruments • To produce valid results, the content of a test, survey or measurement method must
• Tests
cover all relevant parts of the subject it aims to measure. If some aspects are
• Scales
• Questionnaires missing from the measurement (or if irrelevant aspects are included), the validity is
• Interviews threatened.
• Observations
• Validity Example 1: A mathematics teacher develops an end-of-semester algebra test for her class. The
• Reliability test should cover every form of algebra that was taught in the class. If some types of algebra
• Developing a new are left out, then the results may not be an accurate indication of students’ understanding of
instrument the subject. Similarly, if she includes questions that are not related to algebra, the results are no
longer a valid measure of algebra knowledge.
Instruments
Example 2: Most standardized achievement tests have good content validity. A test score
Data Collection cannot accurately reflect a student’s achievement if it does not measure what the student
Data Analysis was taught and was expected to learn.
Summary
• Content validity is determined by expert judgment.
324
Introduction Criterion Validity

Research Design
• It is concerned with how well the results of a survey or test you develop
Participants
correlate with a previously validated instrument.
Instruments
• Tests • To evaluate criterion validity, you calculate the correlation between the results of
• Scales your measurement and the results of the criterion measurement. If there is a high
• Questionnaires correlation, this gives a good indication that your test is measuring what it intends to
• Interviews measure.
• Observations
• Validity Example 1: A university professor creates a new test to measure applicants’ English writing
ability. To assess how well the test really does measure students’ writing ability, she finds an
• Reliability existing test that is considered a valid measurement of English writing ability, and compares the
• Developing a new results when the same group of students take both tests. If the outcomes are very similar, the new
instrument test has a high criterion validity.
Instruments Example 2: If a group of researchers were trying to develop a test for business English to be
Data Collection administered primarily in Lebanon, they might decide to administer their new test and the Test
of English for International Communication TOEIC® to a fairly large group of students and then
Data Analysis calculate the degree of correlation between the two tests. If the correlation coefficient between
Summary the new test and the TOEIC turned out to be high, that would indicate that the new test was
arranging the students along a continuum of proficiency levels very much like the TOEIC does –
Fall 2021-2022 | Dr. Hiba Dandachi a result that could, in turn, be used to support the validity of the new test. 325
Research Design
Participants • Reliability is the degree to which your instrument consistently measures
Instruments
• Tests something from one time to another. If you measured the same thing again,
• Scales
• Questionnaires would you find the same results?
• Interviews
• Observations • There are three different types of reliability, each of which deals with a different
• Validity
• Reliability kind of instrument consistency:
instrument (a) test-retest reliability
Instruments (b) equivalent-forms reliability (parallel forms reliability)
Data Collection
(c) internal consistency reliability
Data Analysis
Summary
Introduction Test-retest Reliability

Research Design
Participants • The procedure for determining test-retest reliability is as follows:
Instruments • Administer the instrument to an appropriate group.
• Tests
• Scales • After about two weeks has passed, administer the same instrument to the same
• Questionnaires group.
• Interviews
• Correlate the two sets of scores.
• Observations
• Validity • Evaluate the results.
• Reliability • If the resulting coefficient is high, the instrument has good test-retest
instrument reliability.
Instruments Example: You devise a questionnaire to measure the IQ of a group of participants (a property
that is unlikely to change significantly over time).You administer the test two months apart to
Data Collection
the same group of people, but the results are significantly different, so the test-retest reliability
Data Analysis of the IQ questionnaire is low.
Summary
Introduction Equivalent Forms Reliability

Research Design
Participants • Equivalent forms of an instrument are two instruments that are identical in every way
Instruments except for the actual items included.
• Tests
• The procedure for determining equivalent-forms reliability is as follows:
• Scales
• Questionnaires • Administer one form of the test to an appropriate group.
• Interviews • At the same session, or shortly thereafter, administer the second form of the
• Observations
• Validity instrument to the same group.
• Reliability • Correlate the two sets of scores.
instrument • Evaluate the results.
• Description of the • If the resulting coefficient of equivalence is high, the instrument has good
Instruments
equivalent- forms reliability.
Data Collection
Data Analysis Example: In educational assessment, it is often necessary to create different versions of tests to
Summary ensure that students don’t have access to the questions in advance. Parallel forms reliability
means that, if the same students take two different versions of a reading comprehension test,
Fall 2021-2022 | Dr. Hiba Dandachi they should get similar results in both tests. 328
Introduction Internal Consistency Reliability

Research Design
Participants • Internal consistency assesses the correlation between multiple items in a test
Instruments
• Tests that are intended to measure the same construct.
• Scales
• Questionnaires • Two common methods are used to measure internal consistency:
• Interviews
• Observations a) Split-half reliability.
• Validity
• Reliability b) Average inter-item correlation.
instrument
Instruments
Data Collection
Data Analysis
Summary
Introduction Split-half Reliability

Research Design
Participants
Instruments
• Tests
• Scales
• Questionnaires
• Interviews
• Observations
• Validity
• Reliability
instrument
Instruments
Data Collection
Data Analysis
Summary
Introduction Split-half Reliability

Research Design
Participants • Split-half reliability involves breaking a single instrument into two halves.
Instruments • The procedure for determining split-half reliability is as follows:
• Tests
• Scales • Administer the total test to a group.
• Questionnaires • Divide the test into comparable halves, most commonly by dividing the
• Interviews
instrument into odd and even numbered subtests.
• Observations
• Validity • Compute each subject’s score on the two halves; each subject will have a score
• Reliability for the odd items and a score for even numbers.
instrument • Correlate the two sets of scores.
• Description of the • Apply the Spearman-Brown correction formula.
Instruments
Data Collection • Evaluate the results.
Data Analysis • If the coefficient is high, the instrument has good split-half reliability.
Summary
Introduction Average inter-item correlation

Research Design
Participants • Kuder-Richardson (KR) and Cronbach’s alpha estimate internal consistency
Instruments reliability by determining how all items on an instrument relate to all other
• Tests
• Scales instrument items and to the total instrument.
• Questionnaires • An internal consistency coefficient of .80 is acceptable for an instrument
• Interviews
containing 40 items. If an instrument contains subscales, internal
• Observations
• Validity consistency coefficients should be obtained for each subscale. Instruments
• Reliability containing fewer items and subscales will typically have smaller reliability
instrument coefficients.
• Description of the • Values of these coefficients range from zero (i.e., low reliability) to 1.0 (high
Instruments
Data Collection reliability). In short, the larger the reliability coefficient, the more
Data Analysis comfortable you would feel about having consistent results .
Summary
Introduction
Research Design
Participants
Instruments
• Tests
• Scales
• Questionnaires
• Interviews
• Observations
• Validity
• Reliability
instrument
Instruments
Data Collection
Data Analysis
Summary
Introduction Interrater Reliability

Research Design
Participants • Check on the consistency between raters, or between a rater and an expert. It
Instruments measures the degree of agreement between different people observing or assessing
• Tests
• Scales the same instrument.
• Questionnaires • This information is necessary when measurement involves subjective
• Interviews
interpretation, such as open-ended questions.
• Observations
• Validity • To measure interrater reliability, different researchers conduct the same
• Reliability measurement or observation on the same sample. Then you calculate the
instrument correlation between their different sets of results. If all the researchers give similar
• Description of the ratings, the test has high interrater reliability.
Instruments
Data Collection Example: A team of researchers observe the progress of wound healing in patients. To record
Data Analysis the stages of healing, rating scales are used, with a set of criteria to assess various aspects of
wounds. The results of different researchers assessing the same set of patients are
Summary compared, and there is a strong correlation between all sets of results, so the test has high
interrater reliability.
Introduction Interrater Reliability

Research Design
Participants
Instruments
• Tests
• Scales
• Questionnaires
• Interviews
• Observations
• Validity
• Reliability
instrument
Instruments
Data Collection
Data Analysis
Summary
Introduction
Research Design Which type of reliability applies to my research?
Participants
Instruments What is my methodology? Which form of reliability is
• Tests relevant?
• Scales
• Questionnaires Measuring a property that you expect to stay the Test-retest
• Interviews same over time.
• Observations
• Validity Using two different tests to measure the same Equivalent Forms
• Reliability thing.
instrument Using a multi-item test where all the items are Internal consistency
• Description of the intended to measure the same variable.
Instruments
Data Collection Multiple researchers making observations or Interrater
Data Analysis ratings about the same topic.
Summary
Introduction
Research Design
Participants
Instruments
• Tests Reliability is necessary for validity.
• Scales
• Questionnaires
• Interviews
• Observations An instrument that does not provide reliable measures cannot
• Validity provide valid ones.
• Reliability
instrument
Instruments
Data Collection
Data Analysis
Summary
Introduction
Research Design
Participants
Instruments
• Tests
• Scales In qualitative studies, techniques such as
• Questionnaires triangulation, and interrater reliability are used
• Interviews to validate findings.
• Observations
• Validity
• Reliability
instrument
Instruments
Data Collection
Data Analysis
Summary
Introduction Triangulation
Research Design (in qualitative designs)
Participants
▪ Utilizing multiple data collection
Instruments
• Tests methods leads to an acceptance of
• Scales reliability and validity when the
• Questionnaires
• Interviews data from the various sources are
• Observations comparable and consistent.
• Validity
• Reliability
Triangulation
• Developing a new ▪ Lots of different views, lots of data!
instrument
Each method is used in a way which
Instruments is appropriate for it, and when
Data Collection
combined they allow a degree of
Data Analysis
cross checking.
Summary
Introduction
Research Design Example
Participants
Instruments
• Tests Here is an example of how one researcher reported triangulated data. She
• Scales
• Questionnaires validated interview information with archival data.
• Interviews
• Observations
• Validity
• Reliability
instrument
Instruments
Data Collection
Data Analysis
Summary
Introduction
Research Design In Qualitative Design, instead of reliability and validity, we focus on the overall
Participants trustworthiness of our study.
Instruments
• Tests
• Scales This is a function of four factors (Cohen & Crabtree, 2006; Lincoln & Guba, 1985):
• Questionnaires
• Interviews
• Observations a. Credibility: when we establish credibility, we are stating that our study results
• Validity are believable or credible from the perspective of a participant in the study.
• Reliability
b. Transferability: attempting to demonstrate that your research findings are
instrument applicable in other contexts.
Instruments c. Dependability: it refers to the consistency and the replicability of the results.
Data Collection d. Confirmability: the researcher discusses how he or she ensured his or her
Data Analysis neutrality in the study
Summary
For more details: Writing a Proposal for your dissertation, Terrel, p. 173-175
Research Design
Participants This section includes a description of all instruments used to collect data. The
description should include the following key points (Heppner & Heppner, 2004):
Instruments
• Tests
1. Name of the instrument.
• Scales 2. Acronym.
• Questionnaires 3. Author(s).
• Interviews 4. Key references.
• Observations 5. Purpose of the instrument (What it measures).
• Validity 6. Appropriateness of the instrument for your population and setting.
• Reliability 7. Number of items.
• Developing a new 8. Type of response categories—rating scales, check lists, ranking, and so on.
instrument 9. How the instrument is administered and scored.
• Description of the 10. The validity and reliability of the instrument.
Instruments 11. If you develop a new instrument, you should also recount how it was
Data Collection developed and include a description of the field tests that were conducted
Data Analysis and the subsequent revisions.
12. Place in the appendix a copy of all instruments used.
Summary
Research Design
Participants • If you are unable to locate a satisfactory instrument that adequately measures
Instruments
• Tests your study's variables or concepts, you may either modify an existing validated
• Scales
• Questionnaires instrument or create your own instrument.
• Interviews
• Observations • It is appropriate to change the wording or eliminate questions when modifying
• Validity
• Reliability an instrument for a different population. However, keep in mind that the
instrument changes you make may affect the reliability and validity of the instrument. If
Instruments you modify an instrument, it is your responsibility to justify the changes made
Data Collection
and to provide information about the reliability and validity of the revised
Data Analysis
Summary instrument.
Introduction Field Testing

Research Design
Participants • Anytime you create your own instrument or modify an existing one, it must be field
Instruments tested. You can select from five to 10 people to test the instrument and to make
• Tests
• Scales judgments about its validity. The people selected should not be involved in the study
• Questionnaires but should be like those in the study.
• Interviews
• Look for the following in pretesting an instrument:
• Observations
• Validity • Understandable instructions.
• Reliability • Clear wording.
instrument • Adequate answers.
• Description of the • Sufficient detail.
Instruments
Data Collection • Difficult sections.
Data Analysis • Irrelevant questions.
Summary • Length.
Fall 2021-2022 | Dr. Hiba Dandachi • Convenience. 344
Introduction
Research Design Field Testing
Participants
Instruments • Connelly (2008) suggests that a pilot study sample should be 10% of the sample
• Tests projected for the larger parent study.
• Scales
• Questionnaires • Treece and Treece (1982) suggested 10% of the project sample size.
• Interviews • Isaac and Michael (1995) suggested 10 – 30 participants.
• Observations
• Hill (1998) suggested 10 to 30 participants for pilots in survey research.
• Validity
• Reliability
• Developing a new ➔ 10 would be a minimum, and 30 might be considered in your project sample size is
instrument
expected to be 300.
Instruments Connelly, L. M. (2008). Pilot studies. Medsurg Nursing, 17(6), 411-2.
Data Collection Hill, R. (1998). What sample size is “enough” in internet survey research? Interpersonal Computing and Technology: An Electronic Journal for the
21st Century, 6(3-4).
Isaac, S., & Michael, W. B. (1995). Handbook in research and evaluation. San Diego, CA: Educational and Industrial Testing Services.
Data Analysis Treece, E. W., & Treece, J. W. (1982). Elements of research in nursing (3rd ed.). St. Louis, MO:Mosby.
Summary
Research Design
Participants
Instruments
• Tests
• Scales
• Questionnaires
• Interviews
• Observations
• Validity
• Reliability
instrument
Instruments
Data Collection
Data Analysis
Summary
Research Design
Participants
Instruments
• Tests
• Scales
• Questionnaires
• Interviews
• Observations
• Validity
• Reliability
instrument
Instruments
Data Collection
Data Analysis
Summary
Introduction Translating Instruments

Research Design
Participants • Back-translation: It is undertaken by bilinguals or those with a sound ability in
the second as well as the first language.
Instruments
• Tests
• Here the original version of the instrument (say, a questionnaire in English) is
• Scales translated into the other language required (say, Arabic).
• Questionnaires • Then the Arabic version is given to a third party who does not have sight of the
• Interviews original English version, and that third party translates the Arabic version back
• Observations into English.
• Validity • The two English versions (the original and the resultant back-translation) are
• Reliability then compared to check whether the meanings (and, in a few cases, the exact
• Developing a new language) are the same.
instrument • If the meanings in the two English versions are the same (semantic
• Description of the equivalence) then the Arabic version is said to be acceptable.
Instruments • If the meanings in the two English versions are discrepant then there may be a
Data Collection problem in the Arabic, and the Arabic translation is revisited to make changes
Data Analysis to it.
Summary • Or use professional translators instead of simply back-translation.

Introduction Translating Instruments

Research Design
Participants • Translated instruments should be piloted to determine their suitability for the target
Instruments population.
• Tests • Evaluate the content and concurrent validity of the instrument using bilingual participants to
• Scales check whether they are answering both versions in the same way, and to check the
• Questionnaires
appropriateness of the instrument (using between twenty and thirty participants).
• Interviews
• Observations Participants answer both versions of the instrument (i.e. both languages).
• Validity • Content validity can be assessed qualitatively (expert review) and concurrent validity can
• Reliability be assessed quantitatively (e.g. by difference testing or correlational analysis).
instrument • Evaluate the construct validity of the instruments (through factor analysis, inter- scale
• Description of the correlations and to test the hypothesis that stems from theory).
Instruments
• Conduct a reliability analysis to check for internal validity and stability over time (looking for
Data Collection
high reliability coefficients: Cronbach alphas and correlations respectively), and to check the
Data Analysis
suitability of the instrument. Remove items with low reliability.
Summary
Cronbach Alpha
The Cronbach alpha (alpha coefficient of reliability) provides a coefficient of inter-
item correlations.

Cronbach Alpha

Watch the tutorials
1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OdIhhtg-3LE
2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pVfByfoQ1lU

Research Design
Participants This section includes a description of all instruments used to collect data. The
description should include the following key points (Heppner & Heppner, 2004):
Instruments
• Tests
1. Name of the instrument.
• Scales 2. Acronym.
• Questionnaires 3. Author(s).
• Interviews 4. Key references.
• Observations 5. Purpose of the instrument (What it measures).
• Validity 6. Appropriateness of the instrument for your population and setting.
• Reliability 7. Number of items.
• Developing a new 8. Type of response categories—rating scales, check lists, ranking, and so on.
instrument 9. How the instrument is administered and scored.
• Description of the 10. The validity and reliability of the instrument.
Instruments 11. If you develop a new instrument, you should also recount how it was
Data Collection developed and include a description of the field tests that were conducted
Data Analysis and the subsequent revisions.
12. Place in the appendix a copy of all instruments used.
Summary
Research Design
Participants The name of the instrument, its purpose, the number of items on the instrument,
Instruments sample items, the type of scale used and the reliability of the instrument are all
• Tests
• Scales provided. In addition, the creator of the survey and the date of the original publication
• Questionnaires are provided.
• Interviews
• Observations
• Validity
• Reliability
instrument
Instruments
Data Collection
Data Analysis
Summary
Research Design
The first instruments in my study were semi-structured, open-ended interviews, with 15
Participants
respondents from the five school districts. Merriam (1998) defined semi-structured interviews
Instruments as interviews that evolve from inquiry composed of a mix of both structured and
• Tests unstructured questions. The unstructured questions were open-ended to allow the respondents
• Scales (participants) more freedom and creativity to respond to the questions (Sowell & Casey,
• Questionnaires 1982).
I used semi-structured, open-ended interviews with the five superintendents and semi-
• Interviews structured, open-ended interviews with board members and central office administrative
• Observations team members. The semi- structured interview approach provided reasonably standard data
• Validity across participants but also allowed me the flexibility to probe answers more deeply and
• Reliability gather more information than is found in a structured interview (Gall et al., 1996). To relate
my study to previous work with SLT, questions from the revised Organizational and Leadership
Effectiveness Inventory (OLEI) were reviewed to create the interview questions. Three sets of
instrument
interview questions were developed: one set for the superintendents, one set for the board
• Description of the members, and one set for central office administrative team members (see Appendixes A, B,
Instruments and C for interview questions). All the interview questions were directly correlated to the
Data Collection research questions and based upon the four factors of the Synergistic Leadership Theory.
Questions were designed to allow participants an opportunity to reflect upon the five
Data Analysis
superintendents’ leadership styles and how they relate to the SLT. (Bamberg, 2004, pp. 51–52)
Summary
Checklist
Introduction
❑ State the name of the instrument(s).
❑ Discuss appropriateness to the current study (i.e., why is this the best
Research Design
instrument to use for measuring the variables/constructs?)
❑ Provide a detailed discussion of the instrumentation which includes validity
Participants and reliability of the data.
❑ Provide specific validity and reliability information. Include citations from
Instruments original publications by instrument developers (and subsequent users as
appropriate).
❑ Discuss concept(s) measured by the instrument(s).
Data Collection
❑ Describe the structure of each data collection instrument and data sources
(tests, questionnaires, interviews, observations data bases, media, etc.).
Data Analysis Specify the type and level of data collected with each instrument.
❑ Describe how scores are calculated and what the scores mean.
Summary Identify where in appendices the instrument(s) (or copy of permission to use
❑
instrument or purchase is (are) located). [Copies of the instrument may not
be reproduced in an Appendix without written permission.]
356
Introduction
Research Design
Guidelines
Participants
• This section describes in detail all of the steps taken to conduct your study and
Instruments
the order in which they occurred. Your description should state how and when
Data Collection
the data were collected.
Data Analysis
Summary

Introduction
Example 1
Research Design
Participants
Instruments
Data Collection
Data Analysis
Summary

Introduction Example 2
Research Design • Here is an example description of research procedures from the study by Gardner et
al. (2004). As you can see, the researchers indicated how many times the
Participants
participants were tested, which tests were completed and when they were
Instruments administered, and the approximate amount of time required to complete each test.
Participants were tested on six different occasions throughout the academic year in their
Data Collection
regularly scheduled French classes. During the first session in September, they completed the
AMTB (adapted from Gardner, 1985), a questionnaire asking for demographic information, and a
Data Analysis form requesting their permission to obtain their grades from their instructors. Administration of
these measures required about 20 min. The second, third, fourth, and fifth testing sessions
were conducted in October, November, January, and March and took approximately 5 min each to
Summary answer six questions dealing with state motivation and state anxiety halfway through each class.
The final session required 20 min, during which time the AMTB was re-administered. This last
session took place near the end of March, approximately three weeks after the fifth testing session
...

Introduction
Research Design
Checklist
Participants
❑ Describe the procedures for the actual data collection that would allow replication
of the study by another researcher.
Instruments
❑ Describe the procedures for obtaining informed consent and for protecting the
Data Collection rights and well-being of the study sample participants.
Data Analysis
Summary

Introduction
Guidelines
Research Design
Participants • This section includes an explanation of how you analyzed the data as well
as your rationale for selecting a particular analysis method.
Instruments
• If your study is quantitative, report the descriptive or inferential statistical

Data Collection
tests and procedures you used, how they were treated, and the level of
Data Analysis statistical significance that guided your analysis. Since statistical tests may
vary by research question, you should explain your tests and procedures for
Summary each question.

Introduction
Example
Research Design Quantitative analysis of the data included numerical ratings obtained from items 10–79 on
the Organizational and Leadership Effectiveness Inventory. Responses ranging from 1 to 4
were input into SPSS 9.0 for each of the 243 respondents along with their demographic data.
Participants
Data were analyzed by using the SPSS 9.0 program to run statistical tests. Tests of statistical
analysis were performed to determine theory validation. The frequency and percentage of
Instruments responses to items 10–79 on the inventory were displayed using descriptive statistics and
tables. A table showing the demographic breakdown of the sample was obtained from the SPSS
program. An item analysis indicated the mean response of males and females for each of the 70
Data Collection items on the Organizational and Leadership Effectiveness Inventory. Then, a t test for
independent means was performed on each item, 10–79, for males and females to
determine any differences between male and female response on each item. A t value of
Data Analysis
−1.96 or less indicated statistical significance at p = .05. A two-sample t test for independent
means was calculated to compare male and female responses on all 70 items for statistical
differences as well.
Summary
Finally, mean responses were determined for females from each of the four levels of
management, and then a one-way analysis of variance was conducted to determine any
statistical differences between female administrators at different levels of management. The
level of significance was set at p = .05 for the ANOVA.

Introduction
Guidelines
Research Design
Participants • If your study is qualitative, provide a description of matrices used to display

the data and identify the coding processes used to convert the raw data
Instruments
into themes or categories for analysis. Your description should include
specific details about how you managed the large amount of data associated
Data Collection
with qualitative analysis.
Data Analysis • Include information about use of software, sticky notes, index cards, or
other processes used. This helps readers understand how you reduced or
Summary transformed the data.

Introduction
Example
Research Design
The qualitative analysis of data was comprised of analysis for similarities and differences,
coding and categorizing, and constant comparison. Twenty-two of the 243 inventories
Participants
returned included open-ended responses under the further comments section of the OLEI and
Instruments were analyzed for similarities and differences. The 12 telephone interviews were taped
and transcribed word for word. Using the constant comparative method, interviews were
Data Collection compared to each other as they were collected to determine similarities and differences.
Categories were formed, coded, and triangulated for both the open-ended response data
Data Analysis and the telephone interview data by using a color code representing different themes that
emerged from the data. Themes were determined for each research question and those themes
Summary were compared to each other for further analysis. Additionally, themes from the data were
compared to existing literature on leadership theory, characteristics of feminine leadership
style, and the Synergistic Leadership Theory.

Introduction
Research Design
Checklist
Participants
❑
Identify and provide justification for the appropriate data analysis procedure.
Instruments
❑ Describe the data management practice including how the raw data was organized
Data Collection and prepared for analysis.
Data Analysis
Summary

Introduction
Guidelines
Research Design
Participants • The last section of Chapter Three is titled “Summary.” The summary should be
Instruments substantive in nature; that is, it should repeat the contents of the headings that
appeared in the body of the chapter (“Selection of Participants,”

Data Collection
“Instrumentation,” “Data Collection,” and “Data Analysis”) but in a condensed
Data Analysis
form.
Summary • The summary should conclude with a transition sentence such as, “The following
chapter contains a presentation and analysis of data.”

Introduction
Example
Research Design
This chapter restated the purpose of this research and presented the research questions. The
participants were chosen through a stratified random sample of public school superintendents
Participants
and their respective school boards in the United States. The selection of the 2,000 participant
Instruments sample from the target population was discussed. In addition, the validity and reliability
of the instrument was presented, including the tests of reliability of the revised instrument.
Data Collection Data reliability tests (see Table II) performed on the pilot study of the revised OLEI indicated
the instrument was reliable. The data collection procedures and response rates were also
Data Analysis discussed in this chapter. Finally, the methods of data analysis for each of the research
questions were presented, followed by a discussion of statistical power analysis. Results of the
Summary data analysis are presented in the following chapter. (Hernandez, 2004, p. 122)

Introduction
Research Design
Checklist
Participants
❑
Summarize key points presented in Chapter 3.
Instruments
❑ Present alignment of the strategic points in the three first chapters.
Data Collection
❑ End Chapter 3 with a transition to Chapter 4.
Data Analysis
Summary

Road Map
Final Project: Submit your proposal

Chapter 4: Results

Chapter 4: Results
Analyzing Quantitative
Data Data Entry
• SPSS Software
• Descriptive Statistics
• Inferential Statistics • Open the Word Document “SPSS questionnaire on mathematics”.
Analyzing Qualitative • Analyze the types of variable in the questionnaire.

Data
• Open the SPSS file “Test results for mathematics”.
Presenting the Results –
Quantitative Research • Check the variable tab.
• Check the data view tab.

Qualitative Research

Chapter 4: Results
Data
• SPSS Software Descriptive statistics do exactly what they say: they describe and present data.
• Inferential Statistics This includes:
• the mode (the score obtained by the greatest number of people);
Central Tendency
Analyzing Qualitative • the mean (the average score);
Data • the median (the score obtained by the middle person in a ranked group
of people, i.e. it has an equal number of scores above it and below it);
Presenting the Results – • minimum and maximum scores; the range (the distance between the
Quantitative Research highest and the lowest scores);
• the variance (a measure of how far scores are from the mean);
• the standard deviation (a measure of the average of all the individual
deviations of scores from the mean);
Dispersion
• the standard error (the standard deviation of sample means);
• the skewness (how far the data are asymmetrical in relation to a
‘normal’ curve of distribution);
• kurtosis (a measure of how steep is the slope or spread of data around
the peak).
Chapter 4: Results
Data
• SPSS Software Numerical Data Categorical Data
• Inferential Statistics
Analyzing Qualitative
Data



Chapter 4: Results
Data
• SPSS Software Displaying Numerical Data
Data


Histogram: Box plot:

Histograms, similar to bar graphs, use Box plots graphically represent the Five
rectangular bars whose heights correspond to Number Summary: minimum, 1st quartile,
frequency. However, histograms plot numerical median, third quartile, and maximum. In
data and are continuous (no gaps). addition, if outliers are present, boxplots will
Fall 2021-2022 | Dr. Hiba Dandachi typically show them. 374
Chapter 4: Results
Data
• SPSS Software Displaying Numerical Data
Data


Scatter plot:
These graphs have an x-variable and a y-variable.
The data points are plotted to see if there is an
association between the two variables.
Chapter 4: Results
Data
• SPSS Software Displaying Categorical Data
Data


Bar chart: Pie chart:
Bar charts use rectangular bars to Pie charts are circular graphs in which
plot qualitative data against its various slices have different arc lengths
quantity. depending on its quantity.

Chapter 4: Results
Data Descriptive Statistics on SPSS
• SPSS Software
• Descriptive Statistics • Open the SPSS file ‘test results for mathematics’: The file contains a range of
different kinds of data.
Data • Variable-Pre-test score (Numerical Data):
• Calculate the mean.

• Present data in a histogram, a box plot, a scatter plot (pre-/post-test).
Presenting the Results – • Variable-School (Categorical Data):

• Calculate the frequency.
• Present data in a bar graph, a pie chart.

Chapter 4: Results
Data
• SPSS Software
• Descriptive Statistics Watch the video
Descriptive Statistics and Data Visualization
Data
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=txNvZ3Zndak


Chapter 4: Results
Data
• SPSS Software Guidelines
Analyzing Qualitative Inferential statistics strive to make inferences and predictions based
Data
on the data gathered. They infer or predict population
Quantitative Research parameters or outcomes from simple measures.


Chapter 4: Results
Data Parametric and non-parametric data
• SPSS Software
• Inferential Statistics Parametric Data Non-parametric Data
Data Definition: Definition:
Parametric data assume knowledge Non- parametric data are those which
of the characteristics of the make no assumptions about the
Presenting the Results – population, in order for inferences
Quantitative Research population, because the
to be able to be made securely. characteristics (numerical
Parametric data tend to be derived parameters) of the population are
Presenting the Results – from experiments and tests (e.g. unknown. Non-parametric data are
Qualitative Research examination scores). often derived from questionnaires
and surveys
In practice:
Interval and ratio data are often In practice:
considered to be parametric data Nominal and ordinal data are often
(unless, for example, the data are considered to be non- parametric.
Fall 2021-2022 | Dr. Hiba Dandachi skewed). 380
Chapter 4: Results
Data
• SPSS Software
Data



Chapter 4: Results
Data
• SPSS Software
Data



Chapter 4: Results
PURPOSE NOMINAL ORDINAL INTERVAL RATIO
Frequencies Incidence
   
Analyzing Quantitative Modes The ‘front runner’
Data Mean Averages
   
 
• SPSS Software Crosstabulations Present nominal data (in rows) with ordinal, interval, ratio
and data (columns)    
Identify where differences may lie
Chi-square See if data are significantly distributed
Analyzing Qualitative Spearman correlation Correlate nominal and ordinal data
   
Data  
Pearson correlation Correlate interval and ratio data
 
Mann-Whitney Compare two independent groups on ordinal data
Presenting the Results – 
Quantitative Research Kruskal-Wallis Compare three or more independent groups ordinal data

t-tests AND Tukey test Compare two independent groups on interval and ratio
data  
Presenting the Results – ANOVA Compare three or more independent groups on interval
Qualitative Research and ratio data  
Regression Predict the effect of an independent variable on a

dependent variable for interval and ratio data  
Factor analysis Identify underlying factors from a range of interval and

(principal components analysis) ratio data  
(eigenvalues > 1) Eigenvalues measure the
amount of variation in the total sample
accounted for by each factor.
Chapter 4: Results
Data
• SPSS Software
Data



Chapter 4: Results
Data
• SPSS Software
Data



Chapter 4: Results
Data
• SPSS Software
Data



Chapter 4: Results
Questionnaire item Analysis

Data
Open Questions Coding
• SPSS Software
• Descriptive Statistics Closed – dichotomous questions Such nominal data can then be processed using the chi-
• Inferential Statistics square statistic, the binomial test, the G- test and cross-
tabulations
Analyzing Qualitative Closed – Multiple Choice questions As with the dichotomous variable, the listing of several
Data categories or elements of a variable enables nominal data
to be collected and processed using the chi-square
statistic, the G- test and crosstabulations. Multiple-
Presenting the Results – choice questions are treated as nominal data
Closed – Rank Ordering Rankings do not enable sophisticated statistical analysis
to be conducted
Presenting the Results – Closed - Constant sum data Constant sum data are ordinal, and this means that non-
Qualitative Research Questions parametric analysis can be performed on the data
Closed – Ratio Data Questions This enables averages (means), standard deviations,
range and high- level statistics to be calculated, for
example, regression, factor analysis, structural equation
modelling
Chapter 4: Results
RQ: How do Chinese and non-Chinese Students differ in their intelligence quotient?
H0: There is no statistically significant difference in the intelligence quotient of Chinese and non-
Chinese students.
H1: There is a statistically significant difference in the intelligence quotient of Chinese and non-
Chinese students.

Chapter 4: Results
Step 1 – Select the Appropriate Test

Variable 1 - Identity: Nominal
Variable 2 – IQ: Scale (Interval)
Purpose: Compare two independent samples (Chinese – Non-Chinese) on interval data (IQ scores).
Parametric Test: Independent Samples T-test

Chapter 4: Results
Step 2 - Safety Check: Assumptions of Tests

The t-test requires several ‘safety checks’:
❑ Random sampling;
❑ Parametric continuous data with the dependent variable at interval or ratio level;
❑ Normal distribution of the data (though large samples often overcome this): Shapiro-Wilk Test.
❑ Equality of variance (similarity/equality of variance in each group: ‘homogeneity of variance’), though
the Levene’s test can overcome problems here, and SPSS calculates this automatically.
If these safety requirements are not met then the researcher should use a non-parametric difference
test (Mann-Whitney U test), even if the data are interval or ratio.

Chapter 4: Results

❑ Normal distribution of the data (though large samples often overcome this);
Inferential statistics are premised on a normal, Gaussian curve of distribution.

Chapter 4: Results

The Shapiro-Wilk and the Kolmogorov- Smirnov tests of normality can be used to identify outliers in
SPSS. Many researchers prefer the Shapiro-Wilk test here as being more reliable.
• Null Hypothesis: The distributions are not statistically significant different from a normal distribution.
• Alternative Hypothesis: The distributions are statistically significant different from a normal
distribution.

Chapter 4: Results

P-value Result
less than 0.05 The null hypothesis is rejected.

=> the data are not normally
distributed .
is greater than 0.05 Then the null hypothesis is not
rejected.
=> the data are normally
distributed .
P-values is less than 0.05

=> non-normal distribution.
Chapter 4: Results

❑ Equality of variance (similarity/equality of variance in each group: ‘homogeneity of variance’).
Levene’s test:
• Null Hypothesis: The is no statistically significant difference between the population

variances of group 1 and 2.
• Alternative Hypothesis: The is a statistically significant difference between the population

variances of group 1 and 2.

Chapter 4: Results

❑ Equality of variance (similarity/equality of variance in each group: ‘homogeneity of variance’).
P-value Result
less than 0.05 The null hypothesis is rejected.

=> the population variances are not equal.
P-values is greater than 0.05 is greater than 0.05 Then the null hypothesis is not rejected.
 Equal variances. => the population variances are equal.
Chapter 4: Results

Chapter 4: Results

The t-test requires several ‘safety checks’:
❑ Random sampling;
❑ Parametric continuous data with the dependent variable at interval or ratio level;
❑ Normal distribution of the data (though large samples often overcome this): Shapiro-Wilk Test.
❑ Equality of variance (similarity/equality of variance in each group: ‘homogeneity of variance’): Levene’s
test (SPSS calculates this automatically).
Use the non-parametric difference test: Mann-Whitney U test.

Chapter 4: Results
Step 3 – Test the Null Hypothesis

H0: There is no statistically significant difference in the intelligence quotient of Chinese and non-
Chinese students.
H1: There is a statistically significant difference in the intelligence quotient of Chinese and non-
Chinese students.

Chapter 4: Results

P-value Result
less than/ equal to 0.05 The null hypothesis is rejected.
is greater than 0.05 Then the null hypothesis is not rejected.
• Sample Size
• The Ranks table is useful because it indicates the • The Mann-Whitney test statistic will tell us whether
group with the highest mean rank . this difference is big enough to reach significance.
• There is a difference between the mean ranks of • P-values is less than 0.05 ➔ Null hypothesis is
Fall 2021-2022 | Dr. Hiba Dandachi Chinese and Non-Chinese students. rejected. 399
Chapter 4: Results

Incorrect Choice of Test Incorrect Results
P-values is greater than 0.05

 Null hypothesis is not rejected.
Chapter 4: Results
Further Practice
Do the following using this SPSS files shared with you, as appropriate:
1. Calculate the frequencies for every variable, including raw scores and percentages;
2. Calculate the modal scores of all the ordinal data;
3. Calculate the mean and standard deviation for ratio data;
4. Present results bar charts, pie charts, histograms, line charts using SPSS;
5. Edit these charts/graphs;
6. Save results into a Word file;
7. Construct a Spearman correlation matrix of ordinal data and write what the data show, referring to statistically significant results at two levels of significance (0.05 and
0.01);
8. Construct a Pearson correlation matrix of ratio data and write no more than 200 words on what the data show, referring to statistically significant results at two levels
of significance (0.05 and 0.01);
9. Identify positive and negative correlation coefficients;
10. Run and report the alpha reliability coefficients, including the identification of differences made to the alpha if identified variables are removed;
11. Calculate the Mann-Whitney statistic for the nominal variables in relation to ordinal variables;
12. Construct a crosstabulation, with the row percentages included, and calculate and present the chi-square statistic;
13. Calculate the Kruskal-Wallis statistic for the nominal variables in relation to ordinal variables;
14. Run a t-test with ratio data and identify variables for which there are statistically significant differences between groups;
15. Run ANOVA and the Tukey hsd test on ratio data to identify variables in which statistically significant differences lie between groups, and indicate where those
differences lie and what they show;
16. Construct a scatter graph and the line of best fit to run a simple linear regression for an independent and dependent ratio variable;
17. Run a multiple regression for several independent ratio variables onto a dependent variable and report the betas and collinearity (if it is found);
18. Recode a large number of sub-groups into a smaller number of sub-groups;
19. Using the Transform function, construct a new variable that is made up of the mean of several variables;
20. Using the Select Cases function, run statistics for either males only or females only;
21. Run a principal components analysis on the data, with varimax rotation and a scree plot. Identify the Eigenvalues over 1.00 and write a report of no more than 250
words to indicate what the factor analysis shows.
For all the analyses, write up what the results show.

Chapter 4: Results
Data One- tailed and two-tailed tests
• SPSS Software
Data


• A one- tailed test is used with a directional hypothesis.

• A two- tailed test is used with a non- directional hypothesis.
Chapter 4: Results
Data
• SPSS Software
How confident are you in inferring that the results
• Descriptive Statistics were not obtained by a random chance, and thus
• Inferential Statistics are acceptable for the population?
Data



Chapter 4: Results
Data
Confidence Intervals
• SPSS Software
Data


• Many statistics packages have a default setting of returning a 95 per cent
confidence interval (Significance level : α=0.05).
• The confidence interval is set at 95% which tells you that if you did this
study 100 times, 95 out of 100 times, the true measure would lie between
the two confidence intervals.
Chapter 4: Results
Data
Significance level
• SPSS Software
• Significance level (α) = 1- confidence level
Data • If your confidence level is 95%, then the corresponding significance level
Presenting the Results – is 0.05.

• Alpha sets the standard for how extreme the data must be before we can
Presenting the Results – reject the null hypothesis.

Chapter 4: Results
Analyzing Quantitative P-value

Data
• SPSS Software • The p-value indicates how extreme the data are. We compare the p-value with the
• Inferential Statistics alpha to determine whether the observed data are statistically significantly different
from the null hypothesis:
Data
P-value Result
less than/ equal to 0.05 We reject the null hypothesis.

Quantitative Research is greater than 0.05 We fail to reject the null hypothesis.
Presenting the Results – • A p-value (between 0 and 1), or probability value, is a number describing how likely it
is that your data would have occurred by random chance (i.e. that the null hypothesis
is true).
• The smaller the p-value, the stronger the evidence that you should reject the null
hypothesis.
Chapter 4: Results
Data
• SPSS Software
Data



Chapter 4: Results
Qualitative data analysis is similar to completing a

Analyzing Quantitative jigsaw puzzle for which there is no picture.
Data
Data



Chapter 4: Results
Jigsaw puzzle Qualitative data analysis

Data
Get a friend to give you the contents of a jigsaw in

Analyzing Qualitative a bag without the box (without the picture).
Data
✓ We have no idea how the pieces fit together ✓ We may not be clear about how, or
or what the picture will be! even if, the data we have collected
can form a clear picture.
✓ Turn all of the pieces picture side up. Think
about how you will categorise these data ✓ These pieces of data and the
Presenting the Results – that lie in front of you. You will be likely to relationships between them help us
Qualitative Research group pieces with similar features such as as researchers to create a picture of
those of a particular colour together. what we think the data are telling us!
Completing jigsaws reinforces a sense of there being an external reality

‘out there’, so all we need to do is reveal it!
Chapter 4: Results
Guidelines
Data
• Unlike quantitative research where analysis occurs after data collection,
Analyzing Qualitative qualitative research often involves the concurrent collection, analysis and
Data interpretation of data.
• Thematic Analysis involves a researcher coding her or his qualitative data to
Quantitative Research identify themes or patterns for further analysis, related to his or her research
question.
Qualitative Research • Most qualitative studies will include 30–50 initial codes.
• According to Patton (2002), " On average, a one-hour interview will yield
10 to 15 single-spaced pages of text; 10 two-hour interviews will yield
roughly 200 to 300 pages of transcripts" (p. 440).

Chapter 4: Results
Data
Verbal Data Textual Data Visual data
Data Passages of spoken words
Notes from interviews or
Drawings
observations

Quantitative Research Audio recorded Documents Digital images
Presenting the Results – These data are likely to be

Qualitative Research transcribed and turned into text Video
(verbatim)

Chapter 4: Results
Analyzing Quantitative Familiarize yourself with the data

Data
Data


Get a sense of the whole. Read all the transcriptions carefully.

Perhaps jot down some ideas as they come to mind.

Chapter 4: Results
Data Create your initial codes
Data


Highlight using the same color similar topics. Abbreviate the topics as codes
and write the codes next to the appropriate segments of the text.

Chapter 4: Results
Data Collate codes with supporting data
Data


Group together all the excerpts associated with a particular code. If

you’re using pen and paper, cut out the excerpts and group them
together by code.
Chapter 4: Results
Analyzing Quantitative Group codes into themes

Data
Data


Now that you have a set of initial codes, sort the codes into potential
themes. See how various codes can be combined, and see if there are
themes that can be made into sub-themes.

Chapter 4: Results
Review and revise themes

Data
Data


Consider merging together themes that are similar, and removing

themes that don’t have enough data to back them up.

Chapter 4: Results
Data Write your narrative
Data



Chapter 4: Results
Data
Data



Chapter 4: Results

Chapter 4: Results

Chapter 4: Results

Chapter 4: Results

Chapter 4: Results

Chapter 4: Results
Data
Data



Chapter 4: Results
Data Guidelines
Analyzing Qualitative • Open with a sentence that briefly describes the problem and then
Data explain the chapter's organization.

• Introduction
• Findings
• Additional Analyses
• Conclusion

Chapter 4: Results
Data Example
Analyzing Qualitative This study intended to investigate the effects of student, teacher, and school factors on
Data PIRLS reading achievement for both English-language majority and minority students,
and it intended to investigate school and teacher factors that moderated the student
Presenting the Results – effects including the language achievement gaps and students’ reading attitudes in the
Quantitative Research United States and Singapore. The purpose of this study was achieved by examining the
• Introduction explanatory power of the combined models with student, teacher, and school factors
• Descriptive Statistics on the students’ reading achievement in the United States and Singapore. This chapter
• Findings presents the results of the data analysis for the four stated research questions.
The descriptive statistics including univariate and bivariate statistics were first
• Conclusion
reported followed by the results of unconditional models and the HLM model overview
Presenting the Results – for the change of students’ mean reading achievement and language achievement gaps
Qualitative Research across the five HLM models. The presentation of the findings is arranged by the four
research questions. The HLM student background models (Model 2) and the final
student models were used to answer research question one: “To what extent do
student factors have a direct impact on students’ reading achievement for both
English-language majority and minority students in the United States and Singapore?”
Chapter 4: Results
Data Example - Continued
Data The HLM school models (Model 4) provided the findings for research questions two
and three: “To what extent do school and teacher background variables influence
Presenting the Results – students’ reading achievement for both English-language majority and minority
Quantitative Research students in the United States and Singapore?” and “To what extent do school and
• Introduction teacher classroom instructional factors have a direct impact on students’ reading
• Descriptive Statistics achievement for both English-language majority and minority students in the United
• Findings States and Singapore?” The HLM full school models were used to answer research
• Additional Analyses question four: “To what extent do school and teacher classroom instructional factors
have differential effects on both English- language majority and minority students’
• Conclusion
reading achievement and on students’ reading attitudes in the United States and
Presenting the Results – Singapore?”

Chapter 4: Results
Data Guidelines
Data • The next heading that typically appears in the Results Chapter is titled
Presenting the Results – “Descriptive Statistics.”

• Here you summarize the univariate statistics of your study. The most
• Introduction
frequently used statistics for this purpose are the mean (M), standard
• Findings
• Additional Analyses deviation (SD), median, mode, frequency, and percentages.
• Conclusion

Chapter 4: Results
Data Example
Analyzing Qualitative Student Achievement Variables

Data
The TEA Snapshot for the years 1999 and 2000 was used to gather student
Presenting the Results – achievement information. These data on student achievement are utilized to study the
Quantitative Research achievement of the students in each district included in this study. Student
• Introduction achievement is defined in this study as the percentage of a district’s total student
• Descriptive Statistics population who passes the TAAS test in reading, writing, and mathematics across all
• Findings grade levels tested. Tables 1 and 2 report the mean percentage and standard deviation
• Additional Analyses for student achievement by subject in all school districts included in this study.
• Conclusion

Chapter 4: Results
Analyzing Qualitative Demographic Variables

Data
Demographic information is another relevant data source related to the type of
Presenting the Results – students who attend each of the school districts. These data include the demographic
Quantitative Research variables relating to the ethnicity of the student population of a district. Tables 4 and 5
• Introduction demonstrate the percentage of total African American, Hispanic, White, or Other
• Descriptive Statistics students in each district in this study. This information comes from data collected for
• Findings the two years of information included in this study by the Texas Education Agency
• Additional Analyses regarding ethnicity.
• Conclusion

Chapter 4: Results
Analyzing Qualitative Expenditure Variables

Data
District function level expenditures data was taken from the Public Education
Presenting the Results – Information Management System (Texas Education Agency, 2000). Each of these
Quantitative Research expenditures is characterized by their functional group. Each are summarized into a
• Introduction per pupil expenditure. This amount is calculated by dividing the total functional
• Descriptive Statistics expenditure by the total number of students in each given district. Tables 9 and 11
• Findings depict the mean per pupil expenditures and standard deviation for each of the eight
• Additional Analyses functional categories for all districts in this study for the academic years of 1998–1999
and 1999–2000.
• Conclusion

Chapter 4: Results
Data Guidelines
Data • Findings are presented in a narrative format supplemented by tables or
Presenting the Results – figures.

• Introduction
• You can organize your data chronologically, by variable, by hypotheses, by
• Findings
• Additional Analyses research questions, by themes and patterns, or by any other approach
• Conclusion
Presenting the Results – appropriate for your study. Too often, students erroneously use
questionnaire responses as their organizational structure.

Chapter 4: Results
Data
Guidelines
Data • Organizing your data by research question is a good way to clearly discuss
Presenting the Results – your findings and to maintain consistency among chapters. The research
• Introduction questions become the headings—not necessarily the research question itself,
• Findings but rather a heading that describes the question. Then, under each heading,
• Conclusion present all the findings related to that question— the narrative and the
Presenting the Results – various statistical analyses.


Chapter 4: Results
Guidelines
Data
Use the following steps to report the results of each research question (or hypothesis).
Data
• Restate the first research question (or hypothesis) exactly as it appeared in
Chapter One of your dissertation or master’s thesis.
Quantitative Research • Reference the table or figure in the text that contains the statistics related to
• Introduction the research question (or hypothesis).
• Findings • Discuss the highlights of the data contained in the table or figure.
• Conclusion • State the outcome of the analysis for research question or hypothesis one, together
with the statistical procedure used.
• State the disposition of the research question (or hypothesis).

Chapter 4: Results
Data Example
Analyzing Qualitative Testing the Research Questions

Data
Descriptive and inferential statistics were used to investigate the four research
Presenting the Results – questions of this study. To investigate the first research question, Analysis of Variance
Quantitative Research (ANOVA) was used to compare the amount of variance between group AEIS school
• Introduction district ratings of exemplary, recognized, acceptable, and low performing and the
• Descriptive Statistics eight functional expenditure categories of (a) instruction and instructional related
• Findings services, (b) school leadership, (c) student support services, (d) general
• Additional Analyses administration, (e) non-student services, (f) ancillary services, (g) debt services, and
(h) facilities acquisition resources per pupil. The other three research questions were
• Conclusion
studied using regression analysis. The first of three regressions tested the correlation
Presenting the Results – between student scores on the TAAS test and each district’s functional expenditures.
Qualitative Research The last two research questions also compare the eight functional groups to financial
and demographic factors. The level of significance .05 was used for each statistical
analysis used in this study. This is consistent with commonly used statistical practices
(Gall, Borg & Gall, 1996).

Chapter 4: Results
Example - Continued
Data
Research Question One
Question 1: Is there a significant difference in gender distribution among conflict
Data
management modes of superintendents? The first research question examined the
results of the TKI. On each of the 30 questions, participants were asked to respond to a
Presenting the Results – forced choice item to indicate how they would handle a conflict scenario. Each of the 30
questions represented one of the conflict management modes and were assigned
• Introduction nominal values of 1 to 5. All 30 questions were analyzed to answer research question
• Descriptive Statistics one using cross-tabulation and nonparametric statistics. Chi square analysis and
• Findings Cramer’s V were used to identity if statistically significant relationships existed
• Additional Analyses between the number of males and females in each of the five conflict management
• Conclusion modes. The magnitude of association for this research question was reported using
Cramer’s V.
Cramer’s V measures the strength of the relationship between variables and reflects
how closely variables are related (Gall, Borg, & Gall, 1996.) Cramer’s V, symbolized by
V, is based on measures of association from 0 to 1. Rutgers (2003) established that
when the measure of V is between (a) 0 to .10, a weak relationship exists between
variables; (b) .11 to .29, a moderate relationship exists between variables; and (c) .30
Fall 2021-2022 | Dr. Hiba Dandachi to 1, a strong relationship exists between variables. 436
Chapter 4: Results
Example - Continued
Data
Table 5 illustrates the cross-tabulation results of the number of males and females in
each conflict management mode. The number of males in each conflict management
Data
mode was recorded as follows: 44 for competing, 28 for collaborating, 56 for
compromising, 28 for avoiding, and 7 for accommodating. The number of females in
Presenting the Results – each conflict management mode was divided as follows: 8 competing, 25 collaborating,
95 compromising, 22 avoiding, and 6 accommodating.
• Introduction
• Findings
• Conclusion

Chapter 4: Results
Example - Continued
Data
A significant relationship χ2 (4, N = 319) = 35.826, p = .001, was found to exist

between gender and conflict management modes of superintendents. No cells in the
Data
cross-tabulation analysis had expected counts less than five. The minimum expected
count in each cell was 6.36. The magnitude of the association of the relationship as
Presenting the Results – described by Cramer’s V is V = .335 indicating a large effect size of gender as being a
factor in conflict management modes (Rutgers, 2003). Table 6 illustrates the results of
• Introduction the chi square test and Cramer’s V degree of relationship.
• Findings
• Conclusion

Chapter 4: Results
Example - Continued
Data
One-sample t tests were also performed on the TKI data to analyze the gender
distribution of males and females in each of the conflict management modes. Two of
Data
the conflict management modes, competing and compromising, had significant
differences in gender distribution. There was a significant difference between the
Presenting the Results – number of males and females in the competing conflict management mode, t (51) =
−6.852, p = .000. The difference between the gender distribution of superintendents
• Introduction with a compromising conflict management mode was also significant, t (150) = 3.274,
• Descriptive Statistics p = .001. Table 7 illustrates the results of the one-sample t tests for each conflict
• Findings management mode.
• Conclusion

Chapter 4: Results
Data
Guidelines
Data
• Sometimes it may be necessary for a student to discuss the assumptions of the
Presenting the Results – statistical tests used, particularly when the data may not be normally distributed.
Quantitative Research The placement of this discussion should precede each research question (or
• Introduction hypothesis) to which the statistical procedure applies.
• Findings
• Conclusion

Chapter 4: Results
Analyzing Quantitative Example

Data
Analyzing Qualitative The first stage in any data analysis is to explore the data collected to get ideas of any
Data patterns. In addition, it is important to see whether the data meet the criteria
necessary for the statistical procedures used (Field, 2000). Since many of the statistical
Presenting the Results – tests used are parametric, it is important to check the assumptions required of
Quantitative Research parametric tests. Using a parametric test when the data are not parametric increases
greatly the risk of inaccurate decisions. Parametric tests are based on the normal
• Introduction
distribution and have four basic assumptions that must be met for the test to be
accurate: (a) normally distributed data, (b) homogeneity of variance, (c) interval data,
• Findings and (d) independence (Field, 2000).
• Conclusion Normally Distributed Data
Presenting the Results – In addition to using histograms to determine normality, my study extends the
Qualitative Research inspections of normality to include measures of kurtosis and skewness. All variables
revealed normal distributions with the exception of two: (a) Hispanic graduation rates
and (b) African American graduation rates. Both of these data sets were positively
skewed, revealing lower than normal graduation rates. The Spearman’s rho correlation
test, which is appropriate for non-parametric data, was used with these two
distributions, and the Pearson correlation test was used with the normal distributions.
Chapter 4: Results
Analyzing Quantitative Example - Continued

Data
Analyzing Qualitative Homogeneity of Variance

Data Variances should not change systematically throughout the data. A thorough analysis of
the data revealed similar stable variances across all of the variables.
Quantitative Research Interval Data
Data must be at the interval scale to be analyzed with parametric tests. Pearson
• Introduction
correlation was used with all parametric data, and variables not meeting parametric
assumptions were analyzed with Spearman’s rho correlations. All variables with
• Findings significant relationships were subjected to multiple regression analysis.
• Conclusion Independence
Presenting the Results – This assumption was met in all data. Simply, to meet independence, no individuals can
Qualitative Research be counted in more than one variable or influence the effect on another participant.
Each university and its students in this study were independent of other students and
universities.

Chapter 4: Results
Data
Clarity and Consistency
Data
Be monotonously repetitive
Decide on a particular sentence structure that most clearly presents the results
of a particular statistical procedure, and use that structure for all similar results.
• Introduction For example,
• Findings Suppose you wanted to examine the influence of teachers’ collective efficacy and
• Additional Analyses community pressure for academic achievement (two independent variables) on
• Conclusion students’ academic achievement in reading, writing, and mathematics (three
Presenting the Results – dependent variables). You will use a 2 (high/low teacher efficacy) × 2 (high/low
Qualitative Research community pressure) × 1 ANOVA that involves three dependent variables (student
achievement in reading, writing, and mathematics). Conduct three separate
ANOVAs, one for each dependent variable. To achieve clarity and consistency, you
would present the results for each dependent variable (reading, writing, and math
achievement) in exactly the same way.

Chapter 4: Results
Analyzing Quantitative Clarity and Consistency

Data
Analyzing Qualitative Be monotonously repetitive

Data Another way to achieve clarity is to place the statistics related to a result at
the end of the sentence.
Quantitative Research For example,
• Introduction
• Descriptive Statistics “Females were more humanistic in pupil control ideology than males (M
• Findings females = 48.1; M males = 53.4), F(1,924) = 6.84 < .01.”
Compare this statement with the following: “The mean for the females on the
• Conclusion
PCI Form was 48.1, which the ANOVA F(1,924) = 6.84, p < .01, revealed to be
Presenting the Results – significantly lower than the males’ mean of 53.4.”
Note how the first example is much easier to read than the second example.
Moreover, in the first example, reference is made to the dependent variable (pupil
control ideology) when comparing females and males, and not the instrument
used to measure it.
Chapter 4: Results
Data
Tables
Tables typically contain five major parts: (a) number, (b) title, (c) headings, (d) body,
Data
and (e) notes (Rudestam & Newton, 2007).

Number. Every table must be numbered with Arabic numbers in the order in which
• Introduction they first appear in the text (American Psychological Association, 2001).
• Findings Title. Every table must have a title. Generally, a good title provides the name
• Additional Analyses of the major variable(s) and type of analysis.
• Conclusion
Headings. Every table must have a heading. Headings include the variables and
Qualitative Research statistics presented in the table. Common abbreviations are permissible: M (mean),
SD (standard deviation), df (degrees of freedom), f (frequency), % (percent), N
(number in sample). Avoid using mnemonics for variables and acronyms for
describing instruments. Include a note indicating their meaning at the bottom of
the table.

Chapter 4: Results
Data
Tables
Tables typically contain five major parts: (a) number, (b) title, (c) headings, (d) body,
Data
and (e) notes (Rudestam & Newton, 2007).

Body. The body of the table contains the data. Consider readability; that is, allow
• Introduction sufficient space between entries, align columns of numbers on decimal points, and
• Descriptive Statistics do not present data beyond two decimal points. Enter a dash (—) when cells of a
• Findings table are empty.
• Conclusion Notes. Two kinds of notes may appear at the bottom of a table: general notes and
probability notes. General notes include the meaning of symbols or abbreviations.
Qualitative Research Probability notes indicate the outcome of significance tests. Asterisks indicate the
probability levels as follows: * p < .05. ** p < .01. *** p < .001.

Chapter 4: Results
Data
Tables
Analyzing Qualitative The generally accepted rules concerning how to present the results of
Data statistical tests have been documented in the fifth edition of the Publication
Manual of the American Psychological Association (2001).
Quantitative Research The general rule when presenting inferential statistics in the text is to
present the symbol of the statistic followed by the degrees of freedom, such
• Introduction
as, F(1, 924), then the value of the statistic (e.g., 6.84), and finally the
• Descriptive Statistics probability level (e.g., p < .01); thus, from the previous example: F(1, 924)
• Findings = 6.84, p < .01.
• Conclusion When a chi square is used, the degrees of freedom and sample size are
Presenting the Results – reported in parentheses: χ2 (4, N = 319) = 35.83, p < .001.
When correlation is used, the statistical statement indicates both the strength
of the relationship and its significance: r (62) = .484, p < .01. The 62 in
parentheses following the r is the degrees of freedom associated with the
statistical test and is one less than the sample size (i.e., N − 1).
The APA manual provides more details.
Chapter 4: Results
Data
Tables
Data Following are examples of tables taken from the dissertations of Clark (2002),
Truslow (2004), and Creighton (2006) to illustrate ANOVA, χ2, and r, respectively.
• Introduction
• Findings
• Conclusion

Chapter 4: Results
Data
Tables
• Introduction
• Findings
• Conclusion

Chapter 4: Results
Data
Tables
• Introduction
• Findings
• Conclusion

Chapter 4: Results
Data
Tables
Data Statistical significance does not deal with the power of a relationship between
variables (called effect size). Include measures of effect size in all tables when
Presenting the Results – presenting the results of statistical tests. It is not enough to discuss effect size in
Quantitative Research the narrative preceding the insertion of the table.
• Introduction
• Findings
• Conclusion

Chapter 4: Results
Analyzing Quantitative Guidelines

Data
Analyzing Qualitative • This section of your dissertation or master’s thesis is reserved for data not covered
Data by the research questions (or hypotheses) in a quantitative study. The heading for
Presenting the Results – this section in your Results Chapter is typically “Additional Analyses”
• Introduction
• Assume that you found that, as a result of your factor analysis, several items of
• Findings the instrument(s) you used in your study produced low reliability and validity, or
• Additional Analyses the items of a multidimensional instrument did not load as in previous research,
• Conclusion
and therefore you choose to eliminate those items from the questionnaire(s).
Qualitative Research You decide to retest the research questions (or hypotheses) using the modified
paper-and-pencil instrument. You cannot place the results of these analyses in
the section titled “Testing the Research Questions (or Hypotheses),” but you
place these additional analyses in the section titled “Additional Analyses.”
Chapter 4: Results
Analyzing Quantitative Guidelines

Data
Analyzing Qualitative • Furthermore, suppose you decide to perform statistical analyses of

Data demographic variables (e.g., gender, race/ethnicity, grade level taught) with each
Presenting the Results – of the independent variables (i.e., self-efficacy, locus of control, and pupil-control
Quantitative Research orientation), but these variables were not the subject of the research questions (or
• Introduction
hypotheses). As a result of these analyses, you found some interesting things. You
• Findings found differences between elementary and secondary school levels on one or more
• Additional Analyses of the independent variables (self-efficacy, locus of control, pupil-control
• Conclusion
orientation). The placement of the results of these additional analyses belong in
Qualitative Research the “Additional Analyses” section of the Results Chapter.

Chapter 4: Results
Data
Guidelines
Data
Presenting the Results – • Write a paragraph that summarizes all of your key findings and explains what you
• Introduction discovered. Then direct the reader to the following chapter.
• Findings
• Conclusion

Chapter 4: Results
Analyzing Quantitative Example

Data
In this chapter, an introduction was given regarding the analysis and statistical tests that were to
Analyzing Qualitative be discussed and in which order they would be addressed. This was followed by a demographic
Data analysis of the sample, an item analysis with individual t tests of items 10–79 from the
Organizational and Leadership Effectiveness Inventory, results of a t test for overall difference
Presenting the Results – between groups, and results of an ANOVA between four levels of management.
Results from the first quantitative research question revealed that although there were slight
• Introduction statistical differences between males and females on how they perceived the leadership behavior
• Descriptive Statistics factor of the Synergistic Leadership Theory, male and females perceived the leadership
• Findings behaviors included in the leadership behavior factor of the theory to be statistically reflective or
• Additional Analyses non-reflective of their leadership styles thus yielding construct validity to the factor. Similarly,
female leaders at different levels of management acknowledged the validity of the leadership
• Conclusion
behavior factor of the Synergistic Leadership Theory. Further, the factor was validated by a strong
Presenting the Results – level of internal consistency of scores on the OLEI which measured the factor at ∝ = .928. The
Qualitative Research quantitative findings contradicted current literature that only females exhibit feminine leadership
behaviors or that only males exhibit masculine behaviors.
The next chapter will present and analyze the qualitative data obtained from the open-ended
response section of the Organizational and Leadership Effectiveness Inventory and the telephone
interviews.
Chapter 4: Results
Guidelines
Data
• Qualitative dissertations may use alternative formats to the traditional five-
Data chapter dissertation model we propose.
Presenting the Results – • Instead of using research questions (or hypotheses) to organize the presentation of
results in your qualitative study, consider using major themes (emerging from
codes) as headings in your Results Chapter.

Chapter 4: Results
Example
Data
Within the taxonomy of unsettled talk, there were five topics: (1) power-
understood as control or dominance, (2) overt silencing, (3) negative consequences
Analyzing Qualitative for being direct, (4) barriers that blocked their ability to perform the verbal
Data responsibilities of role, and (5) the need to use others as mouthpieces. Clearly,
inequality because of gender bias was a consistent part of these women’s experiences.
Presenting the Results – When the women broke the normative cultural rules governing gender-appropriate
Quantitative Research behavior, they faced negative consequences.
Presenting the Results – Within the taxonomy of settled talk, the women shared experiences that fell within the
Qualitative Research traditional normative behavior of women in culture. The five topics of talk within the
settled taxonomy were: (1) power as shared, (2) positive silence-listening, (3) positive
consequences for having a soft approach— being a “lady,” (4) finding ways to be
verbally responsible in spite of barriers, and (5) working for equality of voice for
everyone. (Brunner, 2000, p. 106)

Chapter 4: Results
Data Recommended theses:
Christensen’s entire nine-

Analyzing Qualitative chapter, 274-page qualitative
Data
dissertation (2003):
• Christensen’s dissertation was
Presenting the Results – organized according to themes.
Quantitative Research • This dissertation used the case
study method.
Presenting the Results – • Data were analyzed following
Qualitative Research the eight-step strategy we
recommended for organizing
the results of qualitative data.

Chapter 4: Results
Analyzing Quantitative Recommended theses:

Data
Bamberg’s entire nine-
Analyzing Qualitative chapter, 462-page qualitative
Data dissertation (2004):
• Bamberg’s dissertation was
organized according to
participants.
• This dissertations used the
case study method.
Presenting the Results – • Data were analyzed following
Qualitative Research the eight-step strategy we
recommended for organizing
the results of qualitative data.

Chapter 4: Results

Introduction
Summary of the Study
Discussion of the
Findings
Implications
Recommendations
Conclusion

Introduction
Guidelines
• As in previous chapters, you begin the Discussion Chapter with an
Discussion of the
Findings introduction, which contains one or two paragraphs.
• In it, you provide an overview of the chapter, an advance organizer. The advance
Implications
organizer lays out the structure of the chapter; it prepares the reader for what is to
Recommendations
follow.
Conclusion

Introduction
Example
In the preceding chapter, the presentation and analysis of data have been reported.
Discussion of the Chapter V consists of a summary of the study, discussion of the findings, implications
Findings
for practice, recommendations for further research, and conclusions. The purpose of
the latter sections is to expand upon the concepts that were studied in an effort to
Implications
provide a further understanding of their possible influence on leadership practice, and
Recommendations to present suggestions for further research targeting the understanding oft rust and
principal leadership behaviors and their impact on teachers’ sense of efficacy. Finally, a
Conclusion synthesizing statement is offered to capture the substance and scope of what has been
appempted in this research. (Azodi,2006, p. 347)

Introduction
Guidelines
• In this section, briefly restate the problem and purpose of your study, the
Discussion of the
Findings theoretical framework, research questions or hypotheses, methodology, and
findings.
Implications
• The findings are the most important part of the dissertation and should receive the
Recommendations
heaviest emphasis. The summary of the study should be brief, containing two or
Conclusion three pages.

Introduction
Example
This chapter begins with a summary of the purpose and structure of the study and is
followed by the major findings related to the Synergistic Leadership Theory.
Discussion of the
Findings Conclusions from the findings of this study are discussed in relation to the definition,
function, and characteristics of a good theory. Finally, implications for practice and
recommendations for further research are presented and discussed.
Implications
The purpose of this study was to validate a feminine-inclusive leadership theory, the
Synergistic Leadership Theory, by analyzing the perceptions of male and female
Recommendations educational administrators across the United States through quantitative and
qualitative research.
Conclusion

Introduction Example - Continued
The Organizational and Leadership Effectiveness Inventory (OLEI), a self-report

Summary of the Study inventory related to the four factors of the Synergistic Leadership Theory developed in
a previous study by Irby et al. (1999), was revised for this study with face validity
established by a group of university professors and educators. Participants were asked
Discussion of the
Findings to score items 10–79 of the leadership behavior factor of the OLEI because this data
could most effectively measure agreement or disagreement with the leadership
behavior factor of the theory. Reliability was established for the leadership behavior
Implications factor studies at ∝ = .98. By scoring their own leadership behaviors and effectiveness,
respondents indicated their perceptions of the leadership behavior factor of the
Synergistic Leadership Theory. Scores from the OLEI were used as quantitative data
Recommendations and were used to determine theory validity.
Respondents also wrote comments to an open-ended question of the OLEI, which were
Conclusion
included in the qualitative analysis. Additionally, telephone interviews were conducted
with administrators to determine their perceptions of how the four factors of the
Synergistic Leadership Theory interacted and whether they perceived the theory as
valid. Respondents often related real-life experiences to illustrate how the four factors
of the model interacted.
Example - Continued
Introduction
The study included 243 participants (65 superintendents, 67 assistant superintendents, 52
secondary principals, and 57 elementary principals) randomly selected from a computer
Summary of the Study database compiled by the Market Data Retrieval Company (2000) for the quantitative
sample. A demographic breakdown was provided for gender, ethnicity, management level,
Discussion of the and years of experience. Additionally, a qualitative sample of 34 was composed of 12
Findings educational leaders chosen from those who did not reply to the OLEI and 22 participants
who added comments on the OLEI. This study included four research questions:
Implications
Quantitative
To what extent do differences exist between male and female educational leaders regarding
Recommendations the leadership behavior factor of the Synergistic Leadership Theory?
To what extent do differences exist among female educational leaders at different
management levels regarding the leadership behavior factor of the Synergistic Leadership
Conclusion Theory?
Qualitative
In what ways do male and female leaders perceive the four factors of the Synergistic
Leadership Theory to be interactive?
2. How do female leaders at different levels of management perceive the interaction of the
four factors of the Synergistic Leadership Theory? 467
Introduction
Example - Continued
Summary of the Study Questions one and two were answered quantitatively from the data obtained from
participant scores on the leadership behavior factor of the OLEI. Question one was
answered using the results from a t test for independent means comparing means of
Discussion of the male and females’ scores for each item and for group differences. To answer question
Findings
two, an ANOVA was performed comparing means of females in the four different
management levels. The quantitative results addressed only one of the four factors of
Implications the Synergistic Leadership Theory, the leadership behavior factor.
To answer the two questions to the qualitative phase of the study, data were obtained
Recommendations from telephone interviews as well as responses to the open-ended questions of the
OLEI. Data were categorized, coded, and triangulated to determine levels of
management. Where quantitative research questions addressed only one factor of the
Conclusion Synergistic Leadership Theory, the qualitative questions addressed possible
interactions of all four factors of the Synergistic Leadership Theory.

Introduction
Guidelines
• In Chapter One, “Introduction,” you presented the theoretical framework
undergirding your study. In Chapter Two, “Review of the Literature,” you presented
Discussion of the other empirical studies that were related to your study.
Findings
• In a theory-driven study, you present your interpretation of your results by
Implications linking them with the theoretical framework and the existing literature:
• As you discuss your results, you evaluate what your results mean, how they fit
Recommendations with your theoretical framework and the literature you reviewed earlier, and
what you can conclude about the research questions or hypotheses you posed
at the outset. Of course, you will need to cite some of the relevant studies that
Conclusion you discussed previously in Chapter Two.
• Research questions (or hypotheses), variables, or themes can be used to

organize this section. Present them in the same order they were presented in
the Results Chapter.

Introduction
Guidelines
1. Briefly restate each research question (or hypothesis), variable, or theme.
Discussion of the 2. Examine the extent to which the data answered your research questions.
Findings
3. Identify any confounding or mediating variables that may have affected the
Implications results.
4. Indicate how the results of your study support, contradict, or extend the knowledge
Recommendations base in your discipline.
Conclusion

Example
Introduction
Previous researchers (Astin, 2005; Goenner & Snaith, 2003; Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005) studied
extensively what phenomena affect and ultimately predict a student’s decision to remain in school or
Summary of the Study not. The goal of my study was to predict what factors were statistically significant at 63 UCEA public
universities. This section discusses the implications of the findings for each of the nine research
questions and two prediction models.
Discussion of the
Findings Research Question One
Is there a relationship between graduation rates at University Council for Educational Administration
public universities and student SAT scores?
Implications
The findings resulting from research question one indicate a positive and significant relationship
between graduation rates for the universities in this sample at the four-, five-, and six-year
graduation level and student SAT scores. This finding speaks to the selectivity of the colleges and
Recommendations universities regarding their admission criteria and the curriculum in which the students are enrolled.
Universities that are highly selective in their admission policies (e.g., accepting only those students
achieving higher than average scores on the SAT test) may raise graduation rates. An institution
Conclusion requiring an average SAT score greater than 1100 should expect a higher graduation rate than a less
selective required SAT score that is in the range of less than 990.
Students who meet the admission requirements of highly selective universities already come
possessing the attributes for academic success; thus, it is imperative that colleges and universities
offer academic programs and support services to ensure the continued success of these students.
The graduation rate performance of students is an indicator that the university’s programs and
policies are perhaps meeting the needs of students better than those colleges and universities
471
evidencing lower graduation rates.
Research Question Two

Summary of the Study Is there a relationship between graduation rates at University Council for Educational Administration
public universities and students graduating in the top 10% of their high school class?
As in research question one, the findings for research question two revealed a significantly positive
Discussion of the relationship between graduation rates at the sample universities and students graduating in the top
Findings 10% of their high school class. This finding is consistent with previous research (Astin, 1991, 1993,
1997, 2005; Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005; Tinto, 1999) which indicated that one of the most accurate
Implications predictors of graduation rates was the percentage of students enrolled in the university who had
graduated in the top 10% of their high school class. The implication here is that students, by virtue of
their high academic ranking in high school, are equipped to handle the separation from family and
high school friends, make a successful transition from high school to college, and become
Recommendations successfully integrated into the society of the college. A note of caution is warranted in interpreting
this finding: it may be that not all high schools maintain the same standard of rigor in their academic
curriculum. In addition, some students may have achieved this status because of inflated grading
Conclusion procedures and may not in reality have the ability to assimilate into the society of the college that
this ranking would imply; however, the results of the statistical test used to analyze this factor
indicates a positive relationship between students’ high school class rank and graduation rates.

Introduction
Causes of unexpected results
• In some cases, your results may not have turned out as expected. You must
Discussion of the
Findings explain why this happened. Consider several explanations.
Implications
• Causes of unexpected results usually fall into three major categories:
Recommendations
(a) sampling
Conclusion (b) instrumentation
(c) research design

Introduction
a. Sampling
One problem that may limit your results is sampling, including inadequate sample size,
Discussion of the
Findings low consent rates, high percentage of nonresponse from participants, participants
dropping out of the study, use of volunteers, and improper sampling procedures. Lack
Implications
of representativeness of a sample can bias the results of a quantitative study. You
Recommendations
should examine these issues to determine if sampling has affected your results.
Conclusion

Introduction
b. Instrumentation
Another problem that could affect the results of your study is instrumentation.
Discussion of the
Findings Perhaps the instruments you used did not adequately operationalize the variables
you measured. Other instrument issues include lack of validity and reliability of your
Implications
instruments, unreliable ratings or observations, missing data, and possible biases.
Recommendations
Review the appropriateness of each instrument concerning these issues.
Conclusion

Introduction
c. Research Design
The design of your study involves issues of internal validity, including confounding
Discussion of the
Findings variables, and many others. You can review specific issues concerning internal validity
associated with particular research designs by consulting Campbell and Stanley

Implications
(1963) and Cook and Campbell (1979). They provide detailed descriptions of internal
Recommendations
validity issues for experimental and quasi-experimental designs. Bogdan and
Conclusion Biklen (2007), Creswell (2007), and Denzin and Lincoln (2005) provide information
on issues of research design for qualitative studies.

Guidelines
Introduction
• The section on implications is your opportunity to suggest how the results of your
study may be applied to practice. It is also important to indicate how your results
Discussion of the contribute to the advancement of any practical issues in the field.
Findings
• More than likely, your findings have practical implications for professional
Implications
practice. In Chapter 1, you included section titled "Significance of the Study."
While preparing for this significance section, you considered who will likely
Recommendations
benefit from your study, what they will learn from it, and why they will gain
Conclusion from this knowledge .

• This section from Chapter 1 now becomes the basis for preparing your
implications for action. In other words, what would you tell people to do
differently as a result of your findings? Remember that the actions you
Fall 2021-2022 | Dr. Hiba Dandachi recommend must be based on your findings, not on personal biases. 477
Example
Introduction
The era of school accountability in the United States started several years ago (Murphy, 1990).
Many community members as well as law- makers have called for greater accountability for
Summary of the Study schools. State and federal legislatures have answered the call and are investing large amounts of
financial resources into schools. These agencies are closely examining how this investment in
Discussion of the education is being utilized by the country’s school districts. Many reports have shown that this
Findings increase in funds has not significantly improved student achievement (Barry & Hederman, 2000;
Coate & VanderHoff, 1999).
Implications The findings of this study have far-reaching implications for many persons interested in the United
States educational system. This study identified several links between school district expenditure
patterns and student achievement. Persons interested in school finance, policy, and research will
Recommendations find the evidence of links between expenditures of educational resources and student achievement
very useful.
For educational administrators, this study offers insight into what resource allocation strategies
Conclusion are more likely to positively influence student achievement. It will also give the administrator a
good idea of which strategies may negatively influence student achievement. In particular, this
study suggests expenditures for instructional purposes can help boost student outcomes. Research
questions one and two demonstrate these phenomena. In both research questions using different
methodologies, instructional expenditures were identified as significant predictors of student
achievement.
This study will also be useful to persons interested in school finance research and policy
Summary of the Study development. Many researchers have indicated that the money spent on schools does not matter
when looking at student achievement. These studies, in most cases, looked at school district
spending in the aggregate. This study looked at the actual functional expenditure areas in which
Discussion of the school districts expend their resources. The information contained in this study indicates that the
Findings money spent on education does make a difference in student outcomes. What really matters is how
and to what activities or programs the resources are directed. Another important finding that
relates to policymakers is the discovery that resource allocation strategies can positively or
Implications
negatively effect student achievement. Many state school allocation systems are designed to
equalize funding to school districts. These equalization-funding systems are designed to give every
school district substantially equal funding in order to give every student the same level of
Recommendations education. This study implies that equalization strategies may not work to enable students to
achieve at higher levels. The data suggests that even though school districts may receive the same
funding, the way they expend their financial resources may not result in equal educational
Conclusion environments for students. This information should have a direct effect on the way state education
agencies allocate resources. For example, the data suggest that the allocation of more money for
instruction will increase student achievement. State agencies that want to increase student
achievement could require specific percentages of state funds be used for instructional related
activities.

Introduction
Guidelines
You are expected to present recommendations for ways that your study can be
Discussion of the
Findings improved upon and for how future studies might contribute to the field. These
Implications recommendations may arise from constraints imposed on your study, conditions
you could not or chose not to control, or your insights regarding different
Recommendations
populations, different questions, or further confirmation of your findings.
Conclusion

Introduction
Guidelines
Summary of the Study Such recommendations can be valuable to other researchers, particularly other
graduate students, who are seeking ideas for research topics.
Discussion of the
Findings As you ponder how you might improve or extend your study, ask yourself the
following questions:
Implications • What additional independent variables need further study?
• What important dependent variables should be studied?
• What methodological improvements are needed?
Recommendations
• What questions remain unanswered?
• These questions and others prompt recommendations for further research. Data
Conclusion gaps, such as these, may have weakened your study and may have caused
qualifications in the support of some of your predictions.
Be certain that your recommendations are based on your results and not on opinion.
Recommendations should not be generalized beyond the scope of your study.

Introduction
Example
Summary of the Study The goal of this study was to investigate the effect resource allocation strategies had on student
achievement. Data was collected to test four research questions relating to this goal.
Discussion of the The information was studied and many significant findings resulted from the examination of the data.
Findings The findings, although significant, have some limitations. One limitation is that the findings explain
only a small proportion of the activities that are affecting any individual student’s academic
achievement. Another limitation is the design of the study. The study focused on aggregate functional
Implications expenditures. By only using functional level expenditures, the researcher could not explain in any
detail what actual expenditures caused the significant effects discovered by this study. Based on the
inadequacies of the study design, as well as the lack of statistical evidence in explaining a large part of
Recommendations the variance in test scores, suggestions are made for further research. The first two research
questions examined the relationship between a school district’s student achievement and their
allocation of financial resources by functional expenditures. It was found that higher budget
Conclusion allocations for instructional purposes were significantly related to higher student achievement. It was
also found that some budgetary expenditures have a negative effect on student achievement. The
problem is that the statistical methods used to analyze the data could not provide complete answers
to the complex relationships between budget allocations and student achievement.

Example - Continued
Introduction
Further research along these lines should use a variety of data collection methods. Quantitative
analysis can identify relationships between school district expenditure patterns and student
Summary of the Study achievement in reading, writing, and mathematics, as well as school district ratings. Qualitative
studies can be used to map specific examples of relationships among the variables. A study in this
format could go beyond simply discovering what expenditure functions have an effect on instruction.
Discussion of the It would allow researchers who have discovered a relationship to delve far deeper into the factors
Findings causing the relationship. This could include case studies or interviews with school personnel who are
intimately involved in the allocation of financial resources.
Implications Future research into this subject should also include more detailed expenditure information. This
study broke information down into expenditure functions. Functional level expenditure data is much
more detailed than earlier studies looking only at total district expenditures. The problem is that the
Recommendations information is not detailed enough. Future studies should break financial expenditure data down to
the object level. Object level expenditure information is a disaggregate of functional expenditures. It
provides detailed spending information at a more detailed level than expenditures at the aggregate
Conclusion functional level. At this level of detail, the researcher would be able to tell what instructional level
expenditure was having the greatest effect on student achievement. For example, if this study had
utilized functional level expenditure information, the results would be able to show more than the fact
that instructional level expenditure increased student achievement. It would also be able to show if
higher teacher compensation or greater expenditures for instructional supplies were significant
factors in this increase.
Example - Continued
Introduction
Another avenue of research could be to institute a case study of several successful districts to discover
their unique allocation practices. The information from the case studies could be combined to
Summary of the Study ascertain if there are common practices successful school districts are using. These practices could
include financial as well as nonfinancial information. This type of research could also be used to study
Discussion of the successful student instructional programs or strategies. The researchers could study successful
Findings programs that create structures allowing the researchers to report the amount of student academic
gain for each unit of monetary resources.
Implications This study has shown that it is not enough to simply assume that increasing the dollars spent on
education will improve the existing system. It has shown that the allocation of resources within a
school district does have a limited impact on student achievement. The one factor that was shown to
Recommendations have a strong positive impact on student achievement was expenditures for instruction. This was
shown to be the single strongest indicator of a district’s success in improving student achievement.
This is not to say that simply throwing money at school districts will not ensure increased student
achievement. There are many other factors that affect student learning. The data indicate that the
Conclusion amount of school district expenditures is not the only factor that is related to student achievement. In
other words, the keys to excellence in student achievement may lie outside of conventional measures
of increasing the overall monetary investment in instructional expenditures. Money must be targeted
toward specific programs that are designed to meet the specific needs of individual students. The data
also strongly indicated that other factors not included in this study had a stronger impact on a
student’s achievement than money.
Introduction
Guidelines

• It is the summative statement of the researcher’s study. Its function is similar to the
Discussion of the summaries provided at the end of each chapter, except that the conclusions section is
Findings
the conclusion of the whole study. It provides closure to the entire project.
Implications
Every dissertation and master’s thesis should end with conclusions.
Recommendations • By reading your conclusions, readers discover to what extent research questions
posed have been answered or to what extent hypotheses are sustained or not
Conclusion
sustained. Thus, conclusions address issues that support or fail to support your
theoretical framework.

• A common error found in the conclusions section is that what are supposedly
conclusions are actually summaries. Conclusions like the following can be found in
Discussion of the
Findings numerous dissertations and master’s theses:
Implications “Mean scores for males and females were not significantly different.”
Recommendations
The statement merely recalls a finding derived from analyzing the data. This finding
Conclusion needs to be interpreted in a way that will lead to a conclusion about what it means in
terms of your research questions or hypotheses.

Introduction
Example
Summary of the Study The findings of this study expanded the work of previous researchers in the area of leadership style
and brain dominance characteristics. This investigation revealed that persons in the top executive
level educational administration position (school superintendents) are characterized by a brain
Discussion of the dominance style, which prefers the logical, analytic, organized, and controlled processes of the left
Findings hemisphere. A further assessment of the brain dominance results found in this study showed
school superintendents generally lacking intuitive, conceptualizing right-brained skills required of
leaders administering in a setting characterized by the need for risk-taking and acceptance of
Implications
change. Business chief executive officers, on the other hand, are more right brained, preferring
more intuitive, conceptual, interpersonal, and holistic processes. Significant differences were also
found between the brain dominance mean scores for male and female leaders, with each group
Recommendations showing a stronger preference for left and right hemispheres, respectively.
The management/leadership literature indicates that most American organizations are

Conclusion experiencing dramatic change processes due to changes in technology, financial resources, and
retrenchment of organizational structures and the people who work in them. The literature
suggests a need for executive leadership that is able to visualize images of the future and articulate
that vision to the followers in ways that empower them to change.

Chapter 4: Results

Appendices
References
Chapter 5
Chapter 4
Front Matter Chapter 3
Chapter 2
Chapter 1
List of Figures
List of Tables
Table of Contents
Acknowledgments
End Matter
Abstract
Approval Page
Blank Page
Title Page
489
Title Page Abstract Acknowledgments

• State the main topic and the • Less formal, more personal
• Dissertation title
purpose of your research • No longer than a page
• Your name
• Describe the methodology • Thank people who helped
• Type of document
you used you complete your
• Department and institution
• Summarize the main results dissertation
• Degree program
• State your conclusions • E.g. supervisors, friends and
• Date of submission
• Not an introduction but a family…
summary
• Block text format
• Keywords under the
abstract.
Table of Contents List of Tables/ Figures
• Include if your dissertation

• Lists all sections that come
has a lot of tables and
after it
figures
• Can be auto-generated in
• Tables and figures listed
Word
and numbered separately
• Clear, consistent headings
• Make sure all tables and
figures are included
• List in the order they
appear in the text
490
Chapter 1: Chapter 2: Chapter 3: Chapter 4: Chapter 5:

Introduction Literature Review Methodology Discussions
Results
(Quantitative)
Findings
(Qualitative)
References to literature should be in the

past tense because that research was done In the introduction and discussion sections,
and reported in the past. the present tense is used for certain types of
statements.
• Writing about the paper is in the present
(uses present tense).
Reporting methods, results, and conclusions should be written in the • Writing about research refers to something
past tense, describing what was done. past (uses past tense).
If this is written in the present tense, it is changed from a research
finding into a statement of generally accepted knowledge.
491
References Appendices
• Lists all sources cited in your dissertation • Present additional data or documents not
• Includes full and accurate details of each included in your main text. E.g. interview
source transcripts, survey questions, tables of data
• Format varies depending on style guide (e.g. • If there’s just one, title it “Appendix.” If you
APA, MLA) have multiple appendices, they are numbered
• Citation generators can help (Appendix 1, Appendix 2…)
• Also give each appendix a clear subtitle—for
example “Appendix 1: Interview transcripts.”
• Required Appendices:
• IRB Approval Letter
• Informed Consent
• Copy of Instruments and Permissions
Letter to Use the Instruments.
492


References
Starting Your Research
1. Creswell, J. W. (2012). Chapter 4. Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and
qualitative research. Boston, MA: Pearson.
2. McMillan, J. H., & Schumacher, S. (2014). Chapter 2. Research in education: Evidence-based inquiry. Harlow, England:
Pearson.
3. Saunders, M. N. K., Lewis, P., & Thornhill, A. (2019). Chapter 2. Research methods for business students, Chapter 2.
Harlow: Financial Times/Prentice Hall.
Chapter 1 - Introduction
1. Writing a Proposal for your Dissertation, Steven R. Terrell, Chapter 2

2. Writing Dissertations and Theses, Neil Murray and David Beglar, Chapter 5
3. The Dissertation Journey, Carol M. Roberts, Chapter 11
4. Educational Research, John W. Creswell, Chapter 4
Chapter 2 – Literature Review

2. Educational Research, John W. Creswell, Chapter 3
3. Article: Theoretical And Conceptual Framework: Mandatory Ingredients Of A Quality Research
4. APA Manual, 6th Edition, Chapter 6
References
Chapter 3 - Research Philosophy
1. The Research Design Maze: Understanding Paradigms, Cases, Methods and Methodologies (Philosophical Dimensions –
Research Paradigms)
2. Understanding and Applying Research Paradigms in Educational Contexts (1, 2, 3, 4)
Chapter 3 – Research Methodology

2. Writing a Successful Thesis or Dissertation, Lunenburg and Irby, Chapter 8
3. Educational Research, Creswell, Chapter 5 and 7
4. Writing a Proposal for your Dissertation, Terrel, Chapter 5, 6 and 7
5. Research Method in Education, Cohen, Manion, and Morison, Chapter 24.
6. Writing a Graduate Thesis or dissertation, Lorrie Blair, Chapter 6
7. Educational Research, Creswell, Part 3.

References
Chapter 4 - Results
1. Research Method in Education, Cohen, Manion, and Morison, Chapter 38.

2. The dissertation Journey, Carol M. Roberts, Part V: Final Preparations for the Peak
Chapter 5 - Discussions

Research

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Research Methodology and Dissertation Preparation

Fall 2021-2022 | Dr. Hiba Dandachi 1

Take-home Midterm (40%) Research Proposal Critique

Final Project (40%) Proposal

Fall 2021-2022 | Dr. Hiba Dandachi 2

Chapter 2: Literature Review

Preparing the Manuscript for Submission

Fall 2021-2022 | Dr. Hiba Dandachi 3

Choose the Topic

Identify the Variables

Fall 2021-2022 | Dr. Hiba Dandachi 4

Choose the Topic Quantitative Design Qualitative Design

Identify the Variables

Fall 2021-2022 | Dr. Hiba Dandachi 5

Report Element Quantitative Design Qualitative Design

Read Articles 1. Title and Authors ✓

Read Articles General Tip

Identify the Variables

Fall 2021-2022 | Dr. Hiba Dandachi 7

The Effects of Computer-Assisted Instruction on First Grade

Charlotte Boling, The University of West Florida

Identify the Variables

Fall 2021-2022 | Dr. Hiba Dandachi 8

Discuss the following

Choose the Topic Eugene Geist

Identify the Variables

Fall 2021-2022 | Dr. Hiba Dandachi 10

Discuss the following

Read Articles Ponder this

Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland.

it will be difficult to plan how you are going to research it.

Fall 2021-2022 | Dr. Hiba Dandachi 12

Choose the Topic

Identify the Variables

Fall 2021-2022 | Dr. Hiba Dandachi 13

Techniques for generating research ideas

interests • Exploring personal preferences

Identify the Variables interests • Relevance trees

• Looking at past project titles • Brainstorming

• Searching existing literature

• Scanning the media

• Looking at past project titles

• Scanning the media

Read Articles Searching existing literature

Choose the Topic

Identify the Variables

Fall 2021-2022 | Dr. Hiba Dandachi 16

Read Articles Searching existing literature

Choose the Topic

Fall 2021-2022 | Dr. Hiba Dandachi 17

Read Articles Searching existing literature

Choose the Topic

Fall 2021-2022 | Dr. Hiba Dandachi 18

Read Articles Scanning the media

Where real-life crises provide valuable lessons

Fall 2021-2022 | Dr. Hiba Dandachi 19

Read Articles Critical Thinking

• Keeping a notebook of your ideas

Choose the Topic

Fall 2021-2022 | Dr. Hiba Dandachi 21

Fall 2021-2022 | Dr. Hiba Dandachi 22

Choose the Topic

Fall 2021-2022 | Dr. Hiba Dandachi 24

Choose the Topic