Reseach Module

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Institute of Technology
DEPARTMENT OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
RESEARCH METHODS AND TECHNICAL WRITING IN

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY (Course Code)
Distance Module
Compiled by:
Abdellah Behri
Lecturer, Werabe University
Editor :
Akmel Aman
September, 2021
Werabe, Ethiopia
TABLE OF CONTENTS page
MODULE INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................III
Module Objectives.........................................................................................................................III
Assessment and Evaluation Methods............................................................................................IV
How to Use the Module.................................................................................................................IV
CHAPTER 1: THE NATURE AND SCOPE OF RESEARCH......................................................1
1.1 what is research.................................................................................................................2
1.2 Research and theory..........................................................................................................3
1.3 Stages of research process.................................................................................................3
1.4 Components of a research proposal..................................................................................4
1.5 Types of research............................................................................................................11
CHAPTER 2: FORMULATION OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM..........................................20
2.1 Selection of a general topic..................................................................................................21
2.1 literature review and exploratory study...............................................................................26
2.3 Specifications of objectives and hypotheses........................................................................30
2.3.1 Research Objectives......................................................................................................30
2.3.2 Research Hypothesis.....................................................................................................31
2.4 concepts and variables.........................................................................................................33
2.4.1 Concept..........................................................................................................................33
2.4.2 Variables........................................................................................................................34
CHAPTER 3: THE RESEARCH PROCESS................................................................................41
3.1 Problem Definition...............................................................................................................43
3.2 Selection of Research Design..............................................................................................46
3.3 Finalization of Research Instruments...................................................................................53
3.4 Data collection.....................................................................................................................58
3.5 Data Processing and Analysis..............................................................................................61
3.6 Preparation of report............................................................................................................62
CHAPTER 4: THE RESEARCH DESIGN...................................................................................67
4.1 Research Design...................................................................................................................67
4.2 Types of Research Designs.............................................................................................69
4.3 Sampling Methods..........................................................................................................71
I
4.4 Classification of Sampling..............................................................................................73
4.5 Measurement........................................................................................................................81
4.5 Instrument Design...........................................................................................................82
CHAPTER 5: ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION OF DATA..................................................89
5.2kinds of data analysis............................................................................................................89
5.1 The Data Analysis Process..............................................................................................89
5.2 kinds of data analysis......................................................................................................93
5.2.1 Descriptive analysis.................................................................................................93
5.2.2 Inferential analysis.................................................................................................100
5.3 Interpretation of data..........................................................................................................102
CHAPTER 6: CURRENT RESEARCH TOPICS IN INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY........106
6.1 Choose an interesting topic...........................................................................................106
6.2 Sources of ideas for research topic...............................................................................108
6.3 Current research areas...................................................................................................109
CHAPTER 7: ETHICS IN RESEARCH.....................................................................................111
7.1 What is Research ethics?...............................................................................................111
7.2 Why study research ethics?................................................................................................112
7.3 Plagiarism...........................................................................................................................112
Answer Keys for Self check Exercises........................................................................................118
II
MODULE INTRODUCTION
Dear Distance learner! Well Come to the Module of Research Methods and Technical
Writing in Information Technology!
This course is a three credit hour course and one of the disciplines within research method. The
module basically focuses on how research proposal writes. The module also gives emphasis
about the types of research, elements of research proposal, data analysis and presentation,current
research topics in IT. It also deals with research ethics such as plagiarism.
Generally, the module is organized in the form of chapters and sub-chapters. It has a total of
seven chapters and each chapter begins by brief introduction, objectives and then it goes to the
sub chapters. Several self exercises are added at the beginning of each sub-chapter to provoke
your prior knowledge and self-assessment purposes. At the end of each chapter, the module also
consists of short summary, review questions and checklists. You are expected to answer the
review questions and mark the checklists properly before you proceed to the next chapter. This
will help you to evaluate yourself whether or not you have achieved the objectives indicated at
the beginning of the chapter and for the development and understanding of the next chapters.
The module does not exhaust every detail of the course of research methods and technical
writing in information technology. To fill this gap, there are listed books given in the references
part and you are expected to find these and other related books in the library, web sites or any
other means, and read further to enrich your understanding.
Module Objectives
The general objective of this course is to acquaint students with basic concepts about the
research methods and technical writing in information technology. At the end of this module
distance learners will be able to:
 Define a research
 Identify the components of research proposal and write a research proposal
 Describe the types of research
 Select a research problem.
 Specify a research objective and hypothesis
 Identify the research process steps
 Describe different types research design
 Identify the mechanism of research instruments
 Describe how data will be process and analysis
 Define what is Research Design
 Discuss about Different Research Design
 Define sampling and sampling methods
 Describe the steps of data analysis
 Describe descriptive analysis mechanism
 Discuss Inferential analysismechanism
 Explain how to choose interesting topic.
 Define ethics in research
 Describe Plagiarism
Assessment and Evaluation Methods
In order to evaluate the achievement of the above stated objectives, the following assessment
methods will be used.
Individual assignment…...........................................................................................................40%
Finalexam…..............................................................................................................................60%
Total….....................................................................................................................................100%
How to Use the Module
Dear Distance learner! We have employed several features of organization and symbolization
in order to make the presentation and the learning process much faster and easier to you. So
giving attention for the key symbols marked below and understanding the corresponding
description is very essential while you read this module.
Symbol (Mark) Description
This tells you there is an introduction of the unit or an overview of a
section and what the unit or section is about.
This tells you there is a question left for you to answer or think over it.
This tells you to take note or to remember an important point.
This tells you there is a self-test for you to do.
This tells you there is an activity for you to engage in.
This tells you there is checklist for you to do.
This tells you there is answer key to the activities and self-check exercises.
This tells you there is a reference material for additional reading

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DEPARTMENT OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
RESEARCH METHODS AND TECHNICAL WRITING IN
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY (InTc2106)
Distance Module
Compiled by:
Abdellah Behri
Editor :
Akmel Aman
September, 2021
Werabe, Ethiopia
CHAPTER 1: THE NATURE AND SCOPE OF RESEARCH
CONTENTS
1.1. What is research

1.2. Research and theory
1.3. Stages of research process
1.4. Elements of research proposal
1.5. Types of research
Introduction
Dear distance learner! The first unit as an introductory gives you a highlight about the nature and
scope of research. It also deals about the elements of a research proposal and how you will write
a proposal in a research. Finally it compares and contrasts the types of research.
Objectives
After the completion of this chapter the learner will be able to:
 define research
 explain the difference between theory and research
 identify the components of research proposal and write a research proposal
 describe the types of research
Resources
1
1.1what is research
Hello collogues, in your understanding what is research? Please define it in your word.
Research is a process to discover new knowledge. It is a systematic investigation (i.e., the

gathering and analysis of information) designed to develop or contribute
to generalizable knowledge. In an academic context, research is used to refer to the activity
of a diligent and systematic inquiry or investigation in an area, with the objective of
discovering or revising facts, theories, applications etc. The goal is to discover and
disseminate new knowledge. While you, as a student, are learning new things throughout the
course of a project, it the goal is also that your results should include some elements of new
scientific knowledge.
Science primarily aims to develop knowledge previously unknown in the area of concern, i.e.
the outcome of the scientific research process should be an original contribution of
knowledge to mankind. Therefore, the overall goal of scientific research is to reduce, or even
eliminate uncertainty in what we know. Such results are primarily disseminated via scientific
journals and conferences.
In a scientific research project, the primary objective is to learn and understand complex
phenomena. For example, a research institute will undertake research activities which:
 Establish new knowledge which is made available to the public, often by means of
publications in academic journals or conferences
 Are not driven by profit; researchers are therefore relatively free to identify and
define their research questions
For example, if an IT development organization initiates a systems development activity, a

primary goal will be the resulting successful system. In contrast, if a research institution has a
goal of investigating a research question, which involves developing a system, then the
system itself becomes a means by which the issue is explored. In other words, the developed
system is, in itself, not of primary interest.
Generally a research is a systematic problem solving activity, undertaken with care and
concern in the context of the situation at hand.
1.2Research and theory
What is the difference between research and theory in your understanding?
A theory highlights and explains something that one would otherwise not see, or would find
puzzling. Often, it is an answer to a „Why?‟ question. For example, why are some people poor
and others rich; why are so many people unemployed, and so on. Thus, one characteristic of a
theory is that it can be used as an explanation. Generally theory is a model or framework for
observation and understanding.
Research is used to establish or confirm facts, repeat the results of previous work, solve new or
existing problems, support theorems, or develop new theories.
ble) diligent inquiry or examination to seek or revise facts, principles, theories, applications, etc; laborious or continued search
1.3Stages of research process

The following are the main stages in research process.
I. Problem definition.
II. Selection of research design.
III. Finalization of research instruments.
IV. Data collection.
V. Data processing and analysis.
VI. Report preparation.
1.4Components of a research proposal

What is a research proposal?
A proposal is a request for support of sponsored research, instruction, or extension projects.

Good proposals quickly and easily answer the following questions:
 What do you want to do, how much will it cost, and how much time will it take?
 How does the proposed project relate to the sponsor's interests?
 What difference will the project make to: your university, your students, your discipline,
the state, the nation, or any other concerned parties?
 What has already been done in the area of your project?
 How do you plan to do it?
 How will the results be evaluated?
 Why should you, rather than someone else, do this project?
Components of a research proposal
I. Statement of the Problem
The problem statement is the guiding theme of the proposal. This section should include a
statement of the purpose of the study and should specify its objectives.
Purpose of the Study should explain why the research is being conducted. It should establish the
importance of the problem addressed by the research and explain why the research is needed. For
example, it might describe the use of ICT in Ethiopian farmers. It might also explain why the
specific knowledge gap chosen is of particular importance.
Objectives should describe what the investigator hopes to accomplish with the research. After
this section, you should be clear about the questions to be asked, the kinds of answers expected,
and the nature of the information to be provided by the proposed research. For example, one
might propose the advantage of social Medias in high school students. Expected outcomes might
also include the provision of descriptive information not currently available.
II. Review of the Literature
This section will review published research related to the purpose and objectives described
above. It should be noted that references may be found throughout the proposal, but it is
preferable for most of the literature review to be reported in this section.
A review of the literature should also relate to the hypotheses, definition and operationalization
of variables, methodology and data analysis that follow. It should summarize the results of
previous studies that have reported relationships among the variables included in the proposed
research. An important function of the literature review is to provide a theoretical explanation of
the relationships among the variables of interest. It is most important that the review explain
what mechanisms link the variables. The review can also provide descriptive information about
related problems, intervention programs and target populations.
The literature review must address three areas:
A) Topic or problem area: This part of the literature review covers material directly related to
the problem being studied. There will usually be at least two substantive areas reviewed because
most research involves variables that have been studied in separate substantive areas. For
example, a study on some aspect of juvenile antisocial behavior suggests a review of the
literatures on anti-social behavior, adolescent development and families at risk. As another
example, research on the differential impact on males and females of intervention characteristics
in a substance abuse program would require a review of the literature on substance abuse
programs, the specific intervention characteristics in question, and pertinent research on gender
differences. As another example, research on conceptualizations of work in high stress settings
would suggest a review of literature on the stress factors in such settings, the concept of stress
and the development of job-related attitudes.
B) Theory area: Investigators must identify the social science theory which relates to the
problem area. Examples of such theories might be sex-role theory, theories of deviance,
organizational theory, small group theory, family systems theory, or conflict theory. The theory
area provides the theoretical "lens" through which the writer chooses to view and understand the
problem. It provides guidelines for explaining the etiology of problems and the linking
mechanisms that connect variables.
C) Methodology: Investigators must review the literature which is appropriate to various aspects
of their chosen method, including design, selection of subjects, and methods of data collection.
This section describes research methods and measurement approaches used in previous
investigations in the area. This content should be considered in designing the proposed research
and used to support the choice of design and measurement techniques. Otherwise, the
investigator must explain why s/he has chosen methods or approaches that have not been used
previously.
III. Methodology
The methods or procedures section is really the heart of the research proposal. It describes
Subjects: - can be individuals, families, groups, organizations, states, or countries, depending on

the unit of analysis. This section will describe how the sample in the study will be selected. For
example, will volunteers be solicited? Will every subject who volunteers be included? If not,
what criteria will be used to choose those to be included? Will there be a comparison group?
How will the subjects in that group be chosen? In addition to describing how subjects will be
chosen, this section should provide a rationale for the selection approach taken. This rationale
usually includes external validity requirements (i.e., the conditions necessary to generalize the
findings to a particular target population). After reading this section, the reader should have a
clear understanding of how subjects will be selected for the proposed research and of why they
will be selected in that particular manner. The reader should also have a clear idea of the
characteristics of the intended subjects, including age, sex, ethnicity, education, SES, and other
related variables.
Design: - it will describe the type of research design to be used. Will it be an idiographic, survey,
quasi-experimental or experimental design? Will it be cross-sectional or longitudinal? Will it be
a retrospective or a prospective design? The design should also describe the sequence of events
that will occur in conducting the research. This would include how the subjects will be divided
up, what the subjects are expected to experience during the research, and when and how often
they will be observed or asked for information. After reading this section, the reader should have
a clear understanding of the overall design of the study.
Data Collection: - This section will operationalize the variables to be included in the proposed
evaluation. It is helpful to divide the variables into dependent variables, independent variables,
and covariates. Dependent variables are outcomes (e.g., drug abuse, self-esteem, depression)
which are affected directly by other variables.
IV. Data Analysis
This section will explain how the data will be analyzed once they are collected. Usually, more
than one analysis is conducted. Each analysis that will be used to meet each objective listed
above should be described. Also a description of the specific effects to be examined in each
analysis, such as main effects, interaction effects. or simple main effects, should be included.
The unit of analysis to be used should be specified and the reason for choosing that unit should
be explained. After reading this section, the reader should know which effects will guide the data
analysis and in exactly what way the data are to be analyzed to meet each objective of the
proposed study. Data analyses should be specifically linked to the hypotheses so that it is clear
how each hypothesis will be tested.
V. Bibliography
The bibliography should include full reference documentation for all articles and texts mentioned
in the proposal. It is important that the investigator fully review relevant previous work in
developing the proposal.
VI. Timetable
This section will describe the sequence of activities necessary to conduct the research. It will
include the time necessary to complete each activity. After reading this section, the reader will
have a clear understanding of what steps will be taken, the order in which they will occur, and
the time each step will require. Let see sample proposal.
Werabe UNIVERSITY
Department of Information
Technology
Assessment and Development of ICT Based Agricultural Knowledge

Management for Ethiopian Farmers
Write your name here
Date
1. Introduction
Introduction part
2. Statement of the problem
Write statement of the problem.

3. Research Questions
With the above background perspective of the research problem, the following research question
was formulated and addressed in this study:

4. Objective
The main aim of this research is

Therefore, the specific objectives of this research will be:
5. Scope
The scope of your research will be stated here.

6. Methodology
To achieve the objectives of the research the following methods and techniques will be used.
6.1 Methods of Data Collection
In this research, to acquire the needed knowledge, both secondary and primary sources of
knowledge will be used. And
6.2 Literature Review
Different literatures that are considered to be relevant for the research will be reviewed and if
necessary adopted for our work. Since this research work is on ICT based knowledge
management for Ethiopian farmers, literatures related toICT, Ethiopian Agricultural system and
knowledge transferring mechanisms will be reviewed.
7. Significance of the Study
The usefulness of the research will be described here.

8. Schedule of the work
Activities DecemberJanuary February March Apr
Literature review Data collection Data analysis System design

Submitting the
research
Cost estimation
No Item Cost(Unit Birr)
1. Reference materials 1000
2. Data collection 7000
2. Transportation and telephone 10000
3. Stationery materials and printing service 1300
Total 18000
9. Reference
[1] BDCN Prasadl, Krishna Prasad and Y Sagar.“Promoting ICT based agricultural
knowledge management to increase production and productivityof smallholder farmers in
Ethiopia”, NO. 2012.
[2] JacStienen, WietseBruinsma and FransNeuman, “How ICT can make a difference
inagricultural livelihoods”, The Commonwealth Ministers Reference Book – 2007.
1.5 Types of research
The four main approaches
I. Quantitative research
Quantitative research is generally associated with the positivist/post positivist paradigm. It

usually involves collecting and converting data into numerical form so that statistical
calculations can be made and conclusions drawn.
The process
Researchers will have one or more hypotheses. These are the questions that they want to address
which include predictions about possible relationships between the things they want to
investigate (variables). In order to find answers to these questions, the researchers will also have
various instruments and materials (e.g. paper or computer tests, observation check lists etc.) and
a clearly defined plan of action.
Data is collected by various means following a strict procedure and prepared for statistical
analysis. Nowadays, this is carried out with the aid of sophisticated statistical computer
packages. The analysis enables the researchers to determine to what extent there is a relationship
between two or more variables. This could be a simple association (e.g. people who exercise on a
daily basis have lower blood pressure) or a causal relationship (e.g. daily exercise actually leads
to lower blood pressure). Statistical analysis permits researchers to discover complex causal
relationships and to determine to what extent one variable influences another.
The results of statistical analyses are presented in journals in a standard way, the end result being
a P value. For people who are not familiar with scientific research jargon, the discussion sections
at the end of articles in peer reviewed journals usually describe the results of the study and
explain the implications of the findings in straightforward terms
Principles
Objectivity is very important in quantitative research. Consequently, researchers take great care
to avoid their own presence, behavior or attitude affecting the results (e.g. by changing the
situation being studied or causing participants to behave differently). They also critically
examine their methods and conclusions for any possible bias.
Researchers go to great lengths to ensure that they are really measuring what they claim to be
measuring. For example, if the study is about whether background music has a positive impact
on restlessness in residents in a nursing home, the researchers must be clear about what kind of
music to include, the volume of the music, what they mean by restlessness, how to measure
restlessness and what is considered a positive impact. This must all be considered, prepared and
controlled in advance.
External factors, which might affect the results, must also be controlled for. In the above
example, it would be important to make sure that the introduction of the music was not
accompanied by other changes (e.g. the person who brings the CD player chatting with the
residents after the music session) as it might be the other factor which produces the results (i.e.
the social contact and not the music). Some possible contributing factors cannot always be ruled
out but should be acknowledged by the researchers.
The main emphasis of quantitative research is on deductive reasoning which tends to move from
the general to the specific. This is sometimes referred to as a top down approach. The validity of
conclusions is shown to be dependent on one or more premises (prior statements, findings or
conditions) being valid. Aristotle‟s famous example of deductive reasoning was: All men are
mortal Socrates is a man. Socrates is mortal. If the premises of an argument are inaccurate, then
the argument is inaccurate. This type of reasoning is often also associated with the fictitious
character Sherlock Holmes. However, most studies also include an element of inductive
reasoning at some stage of the research (see section on qualitative research for more details).
Researchers rarely have access to all the members of a particular group (e.g. all people with
dementia, careers or healthcare professionals). However, they are usually interested in being able
to make inferences from their study about these larger groups. For this reason, it is important that
the people involved in the study are a representative sample of the wider population/group.
However, the extent to which generalizations are possible depends to a certain extent on the
number of people involved in the study, how they were selected and whether they are
representative of the wider group. For example, generalizations about psychiatrists should be
based on a study involving psychiatrists and not one based on psychology students. In most
cases, random samples are preferred (so that each potential participant has an equal chance of
participating) but sometimes researchers might want to ensure that they include a certain number
of people with specific characteristics and this would not be possible using random sampling
methods. Generalizability of the results is not limited to groups of people but also to situations. It
is presumed that the results of a laboratory experiment reflect the real life situation which the
study seeks to clarify.
When looking at results, the P value is important. P stands for probability. It measures the
likelihood that a particular finding or observed difference is due to chance. The P value is
between 0 and 1. The closer the result is to 0, the less likely it is that the observed difference is
due to chance. The closer the result is to 1, the greater the likelihood that the finding is due to
chance (random variation) and that there is no difference between the groups/variables.
II. Qualitative research
Qualitative research is the approach usually associated with the social constructivist paradigm
which emphasizes the socially constructed nature of reality. It is about recording, analyzing and
attempting to uncover the deeper meaning and significance of human behavior and experience,
including contradictory beliefs, behaviors and emotions. Researchers are interested in gaining a
rich and complex understanding of people‟s experience and not in obtaining information which
can be generalized to other larger groups.
The process
The approach adopted by qualitative researchers tends to be inductive which means that they
develop a theory or look for a pattern of meaning on the basis of the data that they have
collected. This involves a move from the specific to the general and is sometimes called a
bottom-up approach. However, most research projects also involve a certain degree of deductive
reasoning (see section on quantitative research for more details).
Qualitative researchers do not base their research on pre-determined hypotheses. Nevertheless,

they clearly identify a problem or topic that they want to explore and may be guided by a
theoretical lens - a kind of overarching theory which provides a framework for their
investigation.
The approach to data collection and analysis is methodical but allows for greater flexibility than
in quantitative research. Data is collected in textual form on the basis of observation and
interaction with the participants e.g. through participant observation, in-depth interviews and
focus groups. It is not converted into numerical form and is not statistically analyzed.
Data collection may be carried out in several stages rather than once and for all. The researchers
may even adapt the process mid-way, deciding to address additional issues or dropping questions
which are not appropriate on the basis of what they learn during the process. In some cases, the
researchers will interview or observe a set number of people. In other cases, the process of data
collection and analysis may continue until the researchers find that no new issues are emerging.
Principles
Researchers will tend to use methods which give participants a certain degree of freedom and
permit spontaneity rather than forcing them to select from a set of pre-determined responses (of
which none might be appropriate or accurately describe the participant‟s thoughts, feelings,
attitudes or behavior) and to try to create the right atmosphere to enable people to express
themselves. This may mean adopting a less formal and less rigid approach than that used in
quantitative research.
It is believed that people are constantly trying to attribute meaning to their experience. Therefore,
it would make no sense to limit the study to the researcher‟s view or understanding of the
situation and expect to learn something new about the experience of the participants.
Consequently, the methods used may be more open-ended, less narrow and more exploratory
(particularly when very little is known about a particular subject). The researchers are free to go
beyond the initial response that the participant gives and to ask why, how, in what way etc. In
this way, subsequent questions can be tailored to the responses just given.
Qualitative research often involves a smaller number of participants. This may be because the
methods used such as in-depth interviews are time and labor intensive but also because a large
number of people are not needed for the purposes of statistical analysis or to make
generalizations from the results.
The smaller number of people typically involved in qualitative research studies and the greater
degree of flexibility does not make the study in any way “less scientific” than a typical
quantitative study involving more subjects and carried out in a much more rigid manner. The
objectives of the two types of research and their underlying philosophical assumptions are
simply different. However, as discussed in the section on “philosophies guiding research”, this
does not mean that the two approaches cannot be used in the same study.
III. Pragmatic approach to research (mixed methods)
The pragmatic approach to science involves using the method which appears best suited to the
research problem and not getting caught up in philosophical debates about which is the best
approach. Pragmatic researchers therefore grant themselves the freedom to use any of the
methods, techniques and procedures typically associated with quantitative or qualitative research.
They recognize that every method has its limitations and that the different approaches can be
complementary.
They may also use different techniques at the same time or one after the other. For example, they
might start with face-to-face interviews with several people or have a focus group and then use
the findings to construct a questionnaire to measure attitudes in a large scale sample with the aim
of carrying out statistical analysis.
Depending on which measures have been used, the data collected is analyzed in the appropriate
manner. However, it is sometimes possible to transform qualitative data into quantitative data
and vice versa although transforming quantitative data into qualitative data is not very common.
Being able to mix different approaches has the advantages of enabling triangulation.
Triangulation is a common feature of mixed methods studies. It involves, for example:
 the use of a variety of data sources (data triangulation)

 the use of several different researchers (investigator triangulation)
 the use of multiple perspectives to interpret the results (theory triangulation)
 the use of multiple methods to study a research problem (methodological triangulation)
In some studies, qualitative and quantitative methods are used simultaneously. In others, first one
approach is used and then the next, with the second part of the study perhaps expanding on the
results of the first. For example, a qualitative study involving in-depth interviews or focus group
discussions might serve to obtain information which will then be used to contribute towards the
development of an experimental measure or attitude scale, the results of which will be analyzed
statistically.
IV. Advocacy/participatory approach to research (emancipatory)
To some degree, researchers adopting an advocacy/participatory approach feel that the

approaches to research described so far do not respond to the needs or situation of people from
marginalized or vulnerable groups. As they aim to bring about positive change in the lives of the
research subjects, their approach is sometimes described as emancipatory. It is not a neutral
stance. The researchers are likely to have a political agenda and to try to give the groups they are
studying a voice. As they want their research to directly or indirectly result in some kind of
reform, it is important that they involve the group being studied in the research, preferably at all
stages, so as to avoid further marginalizing them.
The researchers may adopt a less neutral position than that which is usually required in scientific
research. This might involve interacting informally or even living amongst the research
participants (who are sometimes referred to as co-researchers in recognition that the study is not
simply about them but also by them). The findings of the research might be reported in more
personal terms, often using the precise words of the research participants. Whilst this type of
research could by criticized for not being objective, it should be noted that for some groups of
people or for certain situations, it is necessary as otherwise the thoughts, feelings or behavior of
the various members of the group could not be accessed or fully understood.
Vulnerable groups are rarely in a position of power within society. For this reason, researchers
are sometimes members of the group they are studying or have something in common with the
members of the group.
Summary
A research is a systematic investigation (i.e., the gathering and analysis of information) designed
to develop or contribute to generalizable knowledge with a goal to discover and disseminate new
knowledge.
A proposal is a request for support of sponsored research, instruction, or extension projects. The
main components of its part are Statement of the Problem, Literature review, methodology which
a research will be done, data analysis part, bibliography and time table or break down of the
research.
There are four main approaches in research design. The first type is qualitative approach which
involves collecting and converting data into numerical form so that statistical calculations can be
made and conclusions drawn. Quantitative approach is the second type which mainly focuses on
recording, analyzing and attempting to uncover the deeper meaning and significance of human
behavior and experience, including contradictory beliefs, behaviors and emotions. The third type
is pragmatic approaches (mixed methods) which grant themselves the freedom to use any of the
methods, techniques and procedures typically associated with quantitative or qualitative research.
The last type is advocacy/participatoryfeel that the approaches to research described so far do not
respond to the needs or situation of people from marginalized or vulnerable groups.
Checklists
Dear learner, now this chapter is over. Put () mark in the box against each of the following
points if you are sure of clearly answering it and (X) mark if you are not sure of it. If there is any
(X) mark, which you are unable to answer, please return back to that issue before proceeding to
the next part of the course.
I can:
No Main points YesNo
1 Discuss a research
2 Explain the difference between research and theory
3 List the components of research proposal and unable to

write a research proposal.
4 Compare and contrast the types of research

Self-Test Exercises 1
Direction I: Write “TRUE” if the statement is correct or “FALSE” if it is incorrect.
1. The bibliography should include full reference documentation for all articles and
texts mentioned in the proposal.
2. In quantitative research there will have only one hypothesis.
3. Qualitative researchers do base their research on pre-determined hypotheses.
4. The main emphasis of quantitative research is on deductive reasoning.
5. The approach of data collection and analysis in qualitative research is greater flexibility
than in quantitative research.
Direction III: Choose the Best Answer for the Following Questions.
1. type of research approach concerns the social constructivist

paradigm.
A. Qualitative
B. Quantitative
C. pragmatic approaches (mixed methods)
D. advocacy/participatory
2. Which one is true about Triangulation methods
A. It uses variety of data sources
B. It uses several different researchers
C. It uses multiple perspectives to interpret the results
D. All
3. A literature review will not address .
A. Topic or problem area
B. Theory area
C. Methodology
D. None
Direction III: explain
1. What are the components of a research proposal
2. List the Stages of research process

CHAPTER 2: FORMULATION OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM
CONTENTS
2.1 selection of a general topic
2.2 literature review and exploratory study
2.3 specifications of objectives and hypothesis
2.4 concepts and variables
Introduction
Dear distance learner! In this chapter you will have an understanding about research problem. It
deals about how you will review a literature and specify an objective. It also describes the
difference between concepts and variables.
Objectives
 Select a research problem.

 Review a literature and exploratory study.
 Specify a research objective and hypothesis
 describe concepts and variables in a research
Resources
2.1 Selection of a general topic
Dear leaner do you know how a research topic is selected? Write what you
know.
The ability to develop a good research topic is an important skill. An instructor may assign you a
specific topic, but most often instructors require you to select your own topic of interest. When
deciding on a topic, there are a few things that you will need to do:
 Brainstorm for ideas

 Choose a topic that will enable you to read and understand the literature
 Ensure that the topic is manageable and that material is available
 Make a list of key words
 Be flexible
 Define your topic as a focused research question
 Research and read more about your topic
 Formulate a thesis statement
Be aware that selecting a good topic may not be easy. It must be narrow and focused enough to
be interesting, yet broad enough to find adequate information. Before selecting your topic, make
sure you know what your final project should look like. Each class or instructor will likely
require a different format or style of research project.
Use the steps below to guide you through the process of selecting a research topic.
Step 1: Brainstorm for ideas
Choose a topic that interests you. Use the following questions to help generate topic ideas.
 Do you have a strong opinion on a current social or political controversy

 Did you read or see a news story recently that has piqued your interest or made you angry
or anxious?
 Do you have a personal issue, problem or interest that you would like to know more
about?
 Do you have a research paper due for a class this semester?
 Is there an aspect of a class that you are interested in learning more about?
Look at some of the following topically oriented Web sites and research sites for ideas.
 Are you interested in health or medicine?

o Look in Healthfinder.gov, Health & Wellness Resource Center or the National
Library of Medicine
 Are you interested in the Humanities; art, literature, music?
o Browse links from the National Endowment for the Humanities
Dear learner writes down any key words or concepts that may be of interest to you.
Be aware of overused ideas when deciding a topic. You may wish to avoid topics such as,
abortion, gun control, teen pregnancy, or suicide unless you feel you have a unique approach to
the topic. Ask the instructor for ideas if you feel you are stuck or need additional guidance.
Step 2: Read General Background Information
Read a general encyclopedia article on the top two or three topics you are considering. Reading a
broad summary enables you to get an overview of the topic and see how your idea relates to
broader, narrower, and related issues. It also provides a great source for finding words commonly
used to describe the topic. These keywords may be very useful to your later research. If you
can‟t find an article on your topic, try using broader terms and ask for help from a librarian.
 Use periodical indexes to scan current magazine, journal or newspaper articles on your
topic. Ask a librarian if they can help you to browse articles on your topics of interest.
 Use Web search engines. Google and Bing are currently considered to be two of the best
search engines to find web sites on the topic.
Step 3: Focus on Your Topic
A topic will be very difficult to research if it is too broad or narrow. One way to narrow a broad
topic such as "the environment" is to limit your topic. Some common ways to limit a topic are:
 by geographical area
Example: What environmental issues are most important in the Southwestern Ethiopia?
 by culture
Example: How does Geda system fit to modern democracy?
 by time frame:
Example: What are the most prominent environmental issues of the last 10 years?
 by discipline
Example: How does environmental awareness effect business practices today?
 by population group
Example: What are the effects of air pollution on senior citizens?
Remember that a topic may be too difficult to research if it is too:
 Locally confined - Topics this specific may only be covered in these (local) newspapers, if
at all.
Example: What sources of pollution affect the Genesee County water supply?
 Recent - If a topic is quite recent, books or journal articles may not be available, but
newspaper or magazine articles may. Also, Web sites related to the topic may or may not
be available.
 Broadly interdisciplinary - You could be overwhelmed with superficial information.
Example: How can the environment contribute to the culture, politics and society of the
northern Ethiopia?
 Popular - You will only find very popular articles about some topics such as sports figures
and high-profile celebrities and musicians. 23
Dear learner, if you have any difficulties or questions with focusing your topic, discusses the
topic with your colleague, or with a librarian.
Step 4: Make a List of Useful Keywords
Keep track of the words that are used to describe your topic.
 Look for words that best describe your topic

 Look for them in when reading encyclopedia articles and background and general
information
 Find broader and narrower terms, synonyms, key concepts for key words to widen your
search capabilities
 Make note of these words and use them later when searching databases and catalogs
Step 5: Be Flexible
It is common to modify your topic during the research process. You can never be sure of what
you may find. You may find too much and need to narrow your focus, or too little and need to
broaden your focus. This is a normal part of the research process. When researching, you may
not wish to change your topic, but you may decide that some other aspect of the topic is more
interesting or manageable.
Keep in mind the assigned length of the research paper, project, bibliography or other research
assignment. Be aware of the depth of coverage needed and the due date.
Step 6: Define Your Topic as a Focused Research Question
You will often begin with a word, develop a more focused interest in an aspect of something
relating to that word, and then begin to have questions about the topic.
For example:
Ideas = Oromo Gadda System
Research Question = How Oromo Gadda System influence modern democracy in Ethiopia?
24
Focused Research Question = What are the common principles in Oromo Gadda System
comparing to the modern democracy?
Step 7: Research and Read More About Your Topic
Use the key words you have gathered to research in the catalog, article databases, and Internet
search engines. Find more information to help you answer your research question.
You will need to do some research and reading before you select your final topic. Can you find
enough information to answer your research question? Remember, selecting a topic is an
important and complex part of the research process.
Step 8: Formulate a Thesis Statement
Write your topic as a thesis statement. This may be the answer to your research question and/or a
way to clearly state the purpose of your research. Your thesis statement will usually be one or
two sentences that states precisely what is to be answered, proven, or what you will inform your
audience about your topic.
The development of a thesis assumes there is sufficient evidence to support the thesis statement.
For example, a thesis statement could be: Oromo Gadda system is mainly transferring the
leading system through selection.This system will influence the modern democracy.
The title of your paper may not be exactly the same as your research question or your thesis
statement, but the title should clearly convey the focus, purpose and meaning of your research.
Activity 2.1
Identify three narrower aspects of the following broad topics. In other words, what are three
areas you could investigate that fit into these very broad topics?
 Sports
 Pollution
 Politics
Identify a broader topic that would cover the following narrow topics. In other words, how
could you expand these topics to find more information?
 Urban planning in Werabe
Imagine that you have been assigned the following topics. Think of 5 keywords you might use
to look for information on each.
 How does air quality affect our health?
 What are the barriers to peace in the Middle East?
2.1 literature review and exploratory study

What is a literature review?
The aim of a literature review is to show your reader that you have read, and have a good grasp
of, the main published work concerning a particular topic or question in your field. This work
may be in any format, including online sources. The review will be guided by your research
objective or by the issue or thesis you are arguing and will provide the framework for your
further work.
It is very important to note that your review should not be simply a description of what others
have published in the form of a set of summaries, but should take the form of a critical
discussion, showing insight and an awareness of differing arguments, theories and approaches. It
should be a synthesis and analysis of the relevant published work, linked at all times to your own
purpose and rationale.
The literature review should:
• compare and contrast different authors' views on an issue

• group authors who draw similar conclusions
• criticize aspects of methodology
• note areas in which authors are in disagreement
• highlight exemplary studies
• highlight gaps in research
• show how your study relates to previous studies
• show how your study relates to the literature in general
• conclude by summarizing what the literature says
The purposes of the review are:
• to define and limit the problem you are working on

• to place your study in an historical perspective
• to avoid unnecessary duplication
• to evaluate promising research methods
• to relate your findings to previous knowledge and suggest further research
A good literature review, therefore, is critical of what has been written, identifies areas of
controversy, raises questions and identifies areas which need further research.
Structure of the literature review
The overall structure of your review will depend largely on your own research area. What you
will need to do is to group together and compare and contrast the varying opinions of different
writers on certain topics. What you must not do is just describe what one writer says, and then go
on to give a general overview of another writer, and then another, and so on. Your structure
should be dictated instead by topic areas, controversial issues or by questions to which there are
varying approaches and theories. Within each of these sections, you would then discuss what the
different literature argues, remembering to link this to your own purpose.
Linking words are important. If you are grouping together writers with similar opinions, you
would use words or phrases such as:
 similarly, in addition, also, again
More importantly, if there is disagreement, you need to indicate clearly that you are aware of this
by the use of linkers such as:
 however, on the other hand, conversely, nevertheless
At the end of the review you should include a summary of what the literature implies, which
again links to your hypothesis or main question.
Writing the review
You first need to decide what you need to read. In many cases you will be given a booklist or
directed towards areas of useful published work. Make sure you use this help. With dissertations,
and particularly theses, it will be more down to you to decide. It is important, therefore, to try
and decide on the parameters of your research. What exactly are your objectives and what do you
need to find out? In your review, are you looking at issues of theory, methodology, policy,
quantities research, or what? Before you start reading it may be useful to compile a list of the
main areas and questions involved, and then read with the purpose of finding out about or
answering these. Unless something comes up which is particularly important, stick to this list, as
it is very easy to get sidetracked, particularly on the internet.
A good literature review needs a clear line of argument. You therefore need to use the critical
notes and comments you made whilst doing your reading to express an academic opinion. Make
sure that:
• You include a clear, short introduction which gives an outline of the review,
including the main topics covered and the order of the arguments, with a brief
rationale for this.
• There is always a clear link between your own arguments and the evidence
uncovered in your reading. Include a short summary at the end of each section.
Use quotations if appropriate.
• You always acknowledge opinions which do not agree with your thesis. If you
ignore opposing viewpoints, your argument will in fact be weaker.
Your review must be written in a formal, academic style. Keep your writing clear and concise,
avoiding colloquialisms and personal language. You should always aim to be objective and
respectful of others' opinions; this is not the place for emotive language or strong personal
opinions.
When introducing someone's opinion, don't use "says", but instead an appropriate verb which
more accurately reflects this viewpoint, such as "argues", "claims" or "states". Use the present
tense for general opinions and theories, or the past when referring to specific research or
experiments:
Although Trescothick (2001) argues that attack is the best form of defence, Boycott (1969)
claims that ...
In a field study carried out amongst the homeless of Sydney, Warne (1999) found that ...
And remember at all times to avoid plagiarizing your sources. Always separate your source
opinions from your own hypothesis. Making sure you consistently reference the literature you
are referring to. When you are doing your reading and making notes, it might be an idea to use
different colours to distinguish between your ideas and those of others.
2.3 Specifications of objectives and hypotheses

2.3.1 Research Objectives
Research Objectives are statements of what the researcher intends to do. The objectives flow
directly from the problem. They communicate what the researcher plans to do. Structurally, the
objectives are seen as small particles which constitute the problem.
The problem may be stated broadly but the objective should be should be stated in more specific
and measurable term.
For example in the problem, “Students‟ Extent of Exposure to Mass Media”…
The phrase “exposure to mass media” is broad. But to state the objective as … “To determine the
students‟ frequency of reading newspaper,” frequency of reading newspapers is specific and
measurable.
Research Objectives are usually stated in declarative form and starts with infinitives like:
 to find out
 to determine
 to describe
 to compare
 to test
Some researchers ask research questions instead. Example
 “This study aims to answer the following questions,” or

 “this study sought to answer the following
questions.‟ The two types of Objective:
I. Immediate or general
II. specific
The immediate or general objective specifies the activity that will take place and the variables
that will be examined.
The Specific objectives may be viewed as sub-objectives or small particles of the general
objective. The following should be examined in stating the specific objectives:
 Specific variables
 Variables expressed in measurable terms
 Suggestion on the type of analysis to be done
2.3.2 Research Hypothesis

A hypothesis is defined as an educated guess or a tentative answer to the research question. It is a
statement about an expected relationship between two variables.
Types of hypotheses (main categories)
A null hypothesis is a negative statement which indicates no relationship or correlation between

two variables.
Example:
Given Objective: “determine whether there is a significant relationship between the extent of
mass media exposure and attitude towards land reform among lowland farmers”
The Null Hypothesis: “There is no significant relationship between the extent of mass media
exposure and attitude towards land reform among lowland farmers.”
An alternative hypothesis is also called the research hypothesis. It is the positive form of the
null hypothesis.
Example
The Null Hypothesis: “There is a significant relationship between mass media exposure and
attitude towards land reform among lowland farmers.”
Other classifications of hypotheses
Directional vs. Non-directional hypotheses

A directional hypothesis states whether the relationship between two variables is direct (positive)
or inverse (negative). A positive or direct relationship is present when the value of one variable
increases with the increase in the value of another. A negative relationship is present when the
value one variable increases as the value of other variable decreases.
Example:
“The higher the level of exposure of farmers to mass media, the more favorable their attitude
towards land reform” positive
“The more time employees spend in meetings, the less productive they are.”-------negative
“The higher the advertisement expenses of food establishments, the higher their monthly gross
sales.” positive
A non-directional hypothesis does not specify the direction of relationship between variables. It
merely states the presence or absence of a relationship between two variables or that one
influences (or does not influence) the other.
Example:
“The women‟s educational attainment is significantly associated with their extent of

participation in decision-making at home.”
Instruction: Given is a Sample Specific Objective. Provide the Following:
I. A null hypothesis
II. a research hypothesis
III. a positive directional hypothesis
IV. a negative directional hypothesis
V. a non-directional hypothesis.
Study Title: “Relationship between TV Viewing and Academic Performance of Grade
Six Pupils in Private and Public Elementary Schools in Ethiopia”
General Objective:
The study will be conducted to determine the existence and degree of relationship between TV
Viewing and Academic Performance of Grade Six Pupil in Private and Public Elementary
Schools in Ethiopia”
Specific Objectives:
The general objective of this study is to determine whether there is a significant relationship
between the pupils‟ frequency of viewing TV and their average in all subjects in grade six.
Determine whether there is a significant relationship between the amount of time spent by the
pupils in viewing TV and their general average in all subjects in grade six.
Provide the required hypotheses for
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
2.4 concepts and variables
2.4.1 Concept
A concept is a generalized idea about a class of objects, attributes, occurrences, or processes that
hasbeen given a name. In other words a concept is an idea expressed as a symbol or in words.
Naturalscience concepts are often expressed in symbolic forms. Most social science concepts are
expressed aswords. Words, after all, are symbols too; they are symbols we learn with language.
Height is a conceptwith which all of you are familiar. In a sense, a language is merely an
agreement to represent ideas bysound or written characters that people learned at some point in
their lives. Learning concepts andtheory is like learning language.
Concepts are an Abstraction of Reality

Concepts are everywhere, and you use them all the time. Height is simple concept form
everydayexperience. What does it mean? It is easy to use the concept of height, but describing
the concept itselfis difficult. It represents an abstract idea about physical reality, or an abstraction
of reality. Height is acharacteristic of physical objects, the distance from top to bottom. All
people, buildings, trees,mountains, books and so forth have height. The word height refers to an
abstract idea. We associate itssound and its written form with that idea. There is nothing inherent
in the sounds that make up the wordand the idea it represents. The connection is arbitrary, but it
is still useful. People can express theabstract idea to one another using thesymbols.
Sources of Concepts
Everyday culture is filled with concepts, but many of them have vague and unclear
definitions.Likewise, the values and experiences of people in a culture may limit everyday
concepts. Nevertheless,we borrow concepts from everyday culture; though these to be
refined.We create concepts from personal experiences, creative thought, or observation. The
classical theoristoriginated many concepts like family system, gender role, socialization, self-
worth, frustration, anddisplaced aggression.We also borrow concepts from sister disciplines
2.4.2 Variables
Simply defined, variable is a concept that varies. There are twotypes of concepts: those that refer
to a fixed phenomenon and those that vary in quantity, intensity, oramount (e.g. amount of
education). The second type of concept and measures of the concept arevariables. A variable is
defined as anything that varies or changes in value. Variables take on two ormore values.
Because variable represents a quality that can exhibit differences in value, usuallymagnitude or
strength, it may be said that a variable generally is anything that may assume differentnumerical
or categorical values. Once you begin to look for them, you will see variables everywhere.For
example gender is a variable; it can take two values: male or female. Marital status is a variable;
itcan take on values of never married, single, married, divorced, or widowed. Family income is
avariable; it can take on values from zero to billions of Rupees. A person's attitude toward
womenempowerment is variable; it can range from highly favorable to highly unfavorable. In
this way thevariation can be in quantity, intensity, amount, or type; the examples can be
production units,absenteeism, gender, religion, motivation, grade, and age. A variable may be
situation specific; forexample gender is a variable but if in a particular situation like a class of
Research Methods if there areonly female students, then in this situation gender will not be
considered as a variable.
Types of Variable
1. Continuous and Discontinuous variables
Variables have different properties and to these properties we assign numerical values. If the
values of avariable can be divided into fractions then we call it a continuous variable. Such a
variable can takeinfinite number of values. Income, temperature, age, or a test score are
examples of continuousvariables. These variables may take on values within a given range or, in
some cases, an infinite set.Any variable that has a limited number of distinct values and which
cannot be divided into fractions, is adiscontinuous variable. Such a variable is also called as
categorical variable or classificatory variable,or discrete variable. Some variables have only two
values, reflecting the presence or absence of aproperty: employed-unemployed or male-female
have two values. These variables are referred to asdichotomous. There are others that can take
added categories such as the demographic variables of race,religion.All such variables that
produce data that fit into categories are said to bediscrete/categorical/classificatory, since only
certain values are possible.
2. Dependent and Independent
VariablesResearchers who focus on causal relations usually begin with an effect, and then search
for its causes.The cause variable, or the one that identifies forces or conditions that act on
something else, is theindependent variable. The variable that is the effect or is the result or
outcome of another variable is thedependent variable (also referred to as outcome variable or
effect variable). The independent variable is"independent of" prior causes that act on it, whereas
the dependent variable "depends on" the cause.It is not always easy to determine whether a
variable is independent or dependent. Two questions helpto identify the independent variable.
First, does it come before other variable in time? Second, if thevariables occur at the same time,
does the researcher suggest that one variable has an impact on another variable? Independent
variables affect or have an impact on other variables. When independentvariable is present, the
dependent variable is also present, and with each unit of increase in theindependent variable,
there is an increase or decrease in the dependent variable also. In other words, thevariance in
dependent variable is accounted for by the independent variable. Dependent variable is
alsoreferred to as criterion variable.
In statistical analysis a variable is identified by the symbol (X) for independent variable and by
the symbol (Y) for the dependent variable. In the research vocabulary different labels have been
associated with the independent and dependent variables.
Research studies indicate that successful new product development has an influence on the stock
market price of a company. That is, the more successful the new product turns out to be, the
higher will be the stock market price of that firm. Therefore, the success of the new product is
the independent variable, and stock market price the dependent variable.
3. Moderating Variables
A moderating variable is one that has a strong contingent effect on the independent variable-
dependent variable relationship. That is, the presence of a third variable (the moderating
variable) modifies the original relationship between the independent and the dependent variable.
For example, a strong relationship has been observed between the quality of library facilities (X)
and the performance of the students (Y). Although this relationship is supposed to be true
generally, it is nevertheless contingent on the interest and inclination of the students. It means
that only those students who have the interest and inclination to use the library will show
improved performance in their studies. In this relationship interest and inclination is moderating
variable i.e. which moderates the strength of the association between X and Y variables.
4. Intervening Variables
A basic causal relationship requires only independent and dependent variable. A third type of
variable, the intervening variable, appears in more complex causal relationships. It comes
between the independent and dependent variables and shows the link or mechanism between
them. Advances in knowledge depend not only on documenting cause and effect relationship but
also on specifying the mechanisms that account for the causal relation. In a sense, the intervening
variable acts as a dependent variable with respect to independent variable and acts as an
independent variable toward the dependent variable. A theory of suicide states that married
people are less likely to commit suicide than single people. The assumption is that married
people have greater social integration (e.g. feelings of belonging to a group or family). Hence a
major cause of one type of suicide was that people lacked a sense of belonging to group (family).
Thus this theory can be restated as a three-variable relationship: marital status (independent
variable) causes the degree of social integration (intervening variable), which affects suicide
(dependent variable). Specifying the chain of causality makes the linkages in theory clearer and
helps a researcher test complex relationships.
5. Extraneous Variables
An almost infinite number of extraneous variables (EV) exist that might conceivably affect a
given relationship. Some can be treated as independent or moderating variables, but most must
either be assumed or excluded from the study. Such variables have to be identified by the
researcher. In order to identify the true relationship between the independent and the dependent
variable, the effect of the extraneous variables may have to be controlled. This is necessary if we
are conducting an experiment where the effect of the confounding factors has to be controlled.
Confounding factors is another name used for extraneous variables.
Summary
Selecting a good topic may not be easy task. When we want to select a research topic we must do
brainstorm for ideas, choose a topic that will enable you to read and understand the literature,
ensure that the topic is manageable and that material is available, make a list of key words, be
flexible, define your topic as a focused research question and research and read more about your
topic.
Once we have developed our research aim we can start to develop objectives.Research objectives
are statements of what the researcher intends to do. General and specific objectives are the two
main research objectives that must define in a research.
A hypothesis is defined as an educated guess or a tentative answer to the research question. It is

simply an educated and testable guess about the answer to yourresearch question. A hypothesis is
often described as an attempt by the researcher to explain the phenomenon of interest.
Hypotheses can take various forms, depending on the question being asked and the type of
studybeing conducted.
Concepts and variables are concepts which are used in defining a research. A concept is a
generalized idea about a class of objects, attributes, occurrences, or processes that hasbeen given
a name. It is an idea expressed as a symbol or in words. In the other way variables are a concept
that varies.
Checklists
I can:
1 Discuss how a general topic is selected
2 Explain literature review mechanism
3 Discuss how objective and hypothesis specify
4 Explain concepts and variables

Direction I: Write “TRUE” if the statement is correct or “FALSE” if it is incorrect.
1. Brainstorm helps you to select a general topic.

2. A null hypothesis is a negative statement which indicates relationship or correlation
between two variables.
3. The general objective specifies the activity that will take place and the variables that will
be examined.
4. At the end of the review you should include a summary of what the literature implies,
which links to your hypothesis or main question.
5. Once you have selected a research topic it is difficult to modify your topic during the
research process.
6. A research topic must be narrow and focused enough to be interesting, yet broad enough
to find adequate information.
Direction II: choose the best answer from the given alternatives
1. One of the following should not be examined in stating the specific objectives:
a. Specific variables
b. Variables expressed in measurable terms
c. Suggestion on the type of analysis to be done
d. None
2. One of the following is not used to declare a good Research objective.
a. to find out
b. Exposure of Mass Media
c. to describe
d. to compare
3. when you review a literature
a. Your review must be written in a formal, academic style.
b. Keep your writing clear and concise.
c. You may not acknowledge opinions which do not agree with your research.
d. You should always aim to be objective and respectful of others' opinions.
4. What is the purpose of the review?
a. to test your research
b. to place your study in an historical perspective
c. to avoid unnecessary duplication
d. to evaluate promising research methods
5. Aresearch topic may be too difficult to research if it is .
a. Broadly interdisciplinary
b. Too Popular
c. Too Recent
d. All
CHAPTER 3: THE RESEARCH PROCESS
CONTENTS
3.1 Problem definition

3.2 Selection of research design
3.3 Finalization of research instruments
3.4 Data collection
3.5 Data processing and analysis
3.6 Report preparation
Introduction
Dear distance learner! This unit gives you a highlight about the research processes. It describes
the six steps of research process (define research problem, selection of research design,
finalization of research instruments, data collection, data processing/analysis and report
generation).
Objectives
 Identify the research process steps

 Describe different types research design
 identify the mechanism of research instruments
 know data collection mechanism in research process
 describe how data will be process and analysis
Resources
Dear learner could you mentioned the major steps of research

process?
The first step in solving a research problem is the identification of the research problem and
the various options/alternatives that are available to solve the problem in the best possible
way. The researcher should then identify/determine the information that is already
availableand the best possible research design needed to collect information, taking into
account the timeand cost factors. Finally, the information obtained must be assessed
objectively to help inmaking an informed decision about the best possible way of solving the
problem
Figure 3.1 research process steps
As shown on figure 3.1 the process can be broadlydefined as a combination of following steps:
VII. Problem definition.

VIII. Selection of research design.
IX. Finalization of research instruments.
X. Data collection.
XI. Data processing and analysis.
XII. Report preparation.
3.1 Problem Definition

As mentioned earlier, research as a process starts with problem identification. It may sound
simple, but often it is the most difficult part. In the socio-development scenario, it is even more
challenging to lay down the problem area and research needs exactly because of non-controllable
extraneous factors and externalities involved in the process. More so, as every socio-
development process hasa social and human angle attached to it, which makes the task even
more difficult. For example, itis very challenging to establish linkages between environment and
poverty, environment and health,or for that matter between natural resource degradation and
population, and it is even more difficultto lay down the research objective precisely, which can
be assessed using an objective approach/tools.
The identification of the problem area then leads to the formulation of the research
objective,which is the core of the research process. All subsequent steps in the research process,
that is, selection of research design, research instruments and analysis take their cue from the
objectives.
The following points may be observed by a researcher in selecting a researchproblem or a

subject for research:
 Subject which is overdone should not be normally chosen, for it will be a difficult task
tothrow any new light in such a case.
 Controversial subject should not become the choice of an average researcher.
 Too narrow or too vague problems should be avoided.
 The subject selected for research should be familiar and feasible so that the related
researchmaterial or sources of research are within one‟s reach
 The importance of the subject, the qualifications and the training of a researcher, the costs
involved, and the time factor are few other criteria that must also be considered in
selecting aproblem. In other words, before the final selection of a problem is done, a
researcher mustask himself the following questions:
 Whether he is well equipped in terms of his background to carry out the research?
 Whether the study falls within the budget he can afford?
 Whether the necessary cooperation can be obtained from those who must
participate in research as subjects?
 The selection of a problem must be preceded by a preliminary study. This may not be
necessary when the problem requires the conduct of a research closely similar to one that
has already been done.
Technique Involved In Defining a Problem
Defining a research problem properly and clearly is a crucial part of a research study and mustin
no case be accomplished hurriedly.However, in practice this is a frequently overlooked which
causesa lot of problems later on. Hence, the research problem should be defined in a systematic
manner,giving due weightage to all relating points. The technique for the purpose involves the
undertaking ofthe following steps generally one after the other:
(i) Statement of the problem in a general way;
First of all the problem should be stated in abroad general way, keeping in view either some
practical concern or some scientific or intellectual interest. For this purpose, the researcher must
immerse himself thoroughly in the subject matter concerning which he wishes to pose a problem.
(ii) understanding the nature of the problem
The best way of understanding the problem is to discuss itwith those who first raised it in
order to find out how the problem originally came about and with whatobjectives in view. If
the researcher has stated the problem himself, he should consider once again allthose points
that induced him to make a general statement concerning the problem.For a
betterunderstanding of the nature of the problem involved, he can enter into discussion with
those whohave a good knowledge of the problem concerned or similar other problems.
(iii) surveying the available literature
All available literature concerning the problem at handmust necessarily be surveyed and
examined before a definition of the research problem is given.This means that the researcher
must be well-conversant with relevant theories in the field, reportsand records as also all
other relevant literature.
(iv) developing the ideas through discussions
Discussion concerning a problem often producesuseful information. Various new ideas can
be developed through such an exercise. Hence, a researcher must discuss his problem with
his colleagues and others who have enough experience in the samearea or in working on
similar problems. This is quite often known as an experience survey.
(v) Rephrasing the research problem into a working proposition.
Finally, the researcher must sit to rephrase the researchproblem into a working proposition.
Once the nature of the problem has been clearly understood, theenvironment (within which
the problem has got to be studied) has been defined, discussions over theproblem have taken
place and the available literature has been surveyed and examined, rephrasing the problem
into analytical or operational terms is not a difficult task
In addition to what has been stated above, the following points must also be observed
whiledefining a research problem:
n addition to what has been stated abovethe following points must also be observed whiledefining a research problem:
echnical terms and words or phrases, with special meanings used in the statement of the problem, should be clearly defined
asic assumptions or postulates (if any) relating to the research problem should be clearly stated.
straight forward statement of the value of the investigation (i.e., the criteria for theselection of the problem) should be prov
he suitability of the time-period and the sources of data available must also be consideredby the researcher in defining the
3.2 Selection of Research Design

A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis ofdata in a manner
that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure. In fact, the
research design is the conceptual structure within which research is conducted; it constitutes the
blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of data. As such the design includes an
outline of what the researcher will do from writing the hypothesis and its operational
implications tothe final analysis of data. More explicitly, the design decisions happen to be in
respect of:
 What is the study about?

 Why is the study being made?
 Where will the study be carried out?
 What type of data is required?
 Where can the required data be found?
 What periods of time will the study include?
 What will be the sample design?
 What techniques of data collection will be used?
 How will the data be analyzed?
 In what style will the report be prepared?
Keeping in view the above stated design decisions; one may split the overall research design
intothe following parts:
(a) The sampling design which deals with the method of selecting items to be observed for
the given study;
(b) The observational design which relates to the conditions under which the observations
are to be made;
(c) The statistical design which concerns with the question of how many items are to be
observed and how the information and data gathered are to be analyzed
(d) The operational design which deals with the techniques by which the procedures
specified in the sampling, statistical and observational designs can be carried out.
In brief, research design must contain
A clear statement of the research problem;
Procedures and techniques to be used for gathering information;
The population to be studied;
Methods to be used in processing and analysing data.
Features of a Good Design
A good design is often characterized by adjectives like flexible, appropriate, efficient, and
economical and so on. Generally, the design which minimizes bias and maximizes the reliability
of the datacollected and analyzed is considered a good design. The design which gives the
smallest experimentalerror is supposed to be the best design in many investigations.
A research design appropriate for a particular research problem, usually involves the
considerationof the following factors:
 the means of obtaining information;

 the availability and skills of the researcher and his staff, if any;
 the objective of the problem to be studied;
 the nature of the problem to be studied; and
 the availability of time and money for the research work
Different Research Designs
Different research designs can be conveniently described if we categorize them as: (I) research
design in case of exploratory research studies; (II) research design in case of descriptive and
diagnostic research studies, and (III) research design in case of hypothesis-testing research
studies.
(I). Research design in case of exploratory research studies
Exploratory research studies are also termed as formularize research studies. The main purpose
of such studies is that of formulating problem for more precise investigation or of developing the
working hypotheses from an operational point of view. The major emphasis in such studies is on
the discovery of ideas and insights. As such the research design appropriate for such studies must
be flexible enough to provide opportunity for considering different aspects of a problem under
study. Generally, the following three methods in the context of research design for such studies
are talked about:
(a) The survey of concerning literature:happens to be the most simple and fruitful method of
formulating precisely the research problem or developing hypothesis. Hypotheses stated by
earlier workers may be reviewed and their usefulness be evaluated as a basis for further research.
It may also be considered whether the already stated hypotheses suggest new hypothesis. In this
way the researcher should review and build upon the work already done by others, but in cases
where hypotheses have not yet been formulated, his task is to review the available material for
deriving the relevant hypotheses from it.
(b) The experience survey: it means the survey of people who have had practical experience
with the problem to be studied. The object of such a survey is to obtain insight into the
relationships between variables and new ideas relating to the research problem. For such a
survey people who are competent and can contribute new ideas may be carefully selected as
respondents to ensure a representation of different types of experience.
An experience survey may enable the researcher to define the problem more concisely and help
in the formulation of the research hypothesis. This survey may as well provide information about
the practical possibilities for doing different types of research.
(c) The analysis of „insight-stimulating‟ examples: is also a fruitful method for suggesting
hypotheses for research. It is particularly suitable in areas where there is little experience to serve
as a guide. This method consists of the intensive study of selected instances of the phenomenon
in which one is interested. For this purpose the existing records, if any, may be examined, the
unstructured interviewing may take place, or some other approach may be adopted. Attitude of
the investigator, the intensity ofthe study and the ability of the researcher to draw together
diverse information into a unifiedinterpretation are the main features which make this method an
appropriate procedure for evoking insights.
(II).Research design in case of descriptive and diagnostic research studies
Descriptive researchstudies are those studies which are concerned with describing the
characteristics of a particularindividual, or of a group, whereas diagnostic research studies
determine the frequency with whichsomething occur or its association with something else. The
studies concerning whether certainvariables are associated are examples of diagnostic research
studies. As against this, studies concernedwith specific predictions, with narration of facts and
characteristics concerning individual, group orsituation are all examples of descriptive research
studies.
The design in such studies must be rigid and notflexible and must focus attention on the
following:
 Formulating the objective of the study (what the study is about and why is it being
made?)
 Designing the methods of data collection (what techniques of gathering data will be
adopted?)
 Selecting the sample (how much material will be needed?)
 Collecting the data (where can the required data be found and with what time period
should the data be related?)
 Processing and analyzing the data.
 Reporting the findings.
In a descriptive/diagnostic study the first step is to specify the objectives with sufficient precision
to ensure that the data collected are relevant. If this is not done carefully, the study may not
provide the desired information.
In most of the descriptive/diagnostic studies the researcher takes out sample(s) and then wishesto
make statements about the population on the basis of the sample analysis or analyses. More
oftenthan not, sample has to be designed. The data collected must be processed and analysed and
then report the findings.
The difference between research designs in respect of the above two types of research studiescan
be conveniently summarized in tabular form as under.
(III). Research design in case of hypothesis-testing research studies:
Hypothesis-testing researchstudies (generally known as experimental studies) are those where

the researcher tests the hypothesesof causal relationships between variables. Such studies require
procedures that will not only reducebias and increase reliability, but will permit drawing
inferences about causality.
Professor R.A. Fisher‟s name is associated with experimental designs. Beginning of such
designswas made by him when he was working at Rothamsted Experimental Station (Centre for
agricultural Research in England). As such the study of experimental designs has its origin in
agricultural research.This fact inspired him to develop certain experimentaldesigns for testing
hypotheses concerning scientific investigations. Today, the experimental designsare being used
in researches relating to phenomena of several disciplines. Since experimental designs originated
in the context of agricultural operations, we still use, though in a technical sense, severalterms of
agriculture (such as treatment, yield, plot, block etc.) in experimental designsProfessor Fisher
found that by dividing agricultural fields or plots into different blocks and then byconducting
experiments in each of these blocks, whatever information is collected and inferencesdrawn from
them, happens to be more reliable.
Basic Principles of Experimental Designs
Professor Fisher has enumerated three principles of experimental designs: (1) the Principle
ofReplication; (2) the Principle of Randomization; and the (3) Principle of Local Control.
According to the Principle of Replication, the experiment should be repeated more than
once.Thus, each treatment is applied in many experimental units instead of one. By doing so the
statisticalaccuracy of the experiments is increased. For example, suppose we are to examine the
effect of twovarieties of coffee. For this purpose we may divide the field into two parts and grow
one variety in onepart and the other variety in the other part. We can then compare the yield of
the two parts and drawconclusion on that basis. But if we are to apply the principle of replication
to this experiment, then wefirst divide the field into several parts, grow one variety in half of
these parts and the other variety inthe remaining parts. We can then collect the data of yield of
the two varieties and draw conclusion bycomparing the same. The result so obtained will be
more reliable in comparison to the conclusion wedraw without applying the principle of
replication. The entire experiment can even be repeatedseveral times for better results.
Conceptually replication does not present any difficulty, butcomputationally it does. For
example, if an experiment requiring a two-way analysis of variance isreplicated, it will then
require a three-way analysis of variance since replication itself may be asource of variation in the
data. However, it should be remembered that replication is introduced inorder to increase the
precision of a study; that is to say, to increase the accuracy with which the maineffects and
interactions can be estimated.
The Principle of Randomization provides protection, when we conduct an experiment, againstthe

effect of extraneous factors by randomization. In other words, this principle indicates that
weshould design or plans the experiment in such a way that the variations caused by extraneous
factorscan all be combined under the general heading of “chance.” For instance, if we grow one
variety of coffee, say, in the first half of the parts of a field and the other variety is grown in the
other half, then itis just possible that the soil fertility may be different in the first half in
comparison to the other half. Ifthis is so, our results would not be realistic. In such a situation, we
may assign the variety of coffee tobe grown in different parts of the field on the basis of some
random sampling technique i.e., we mayapply randomization principle and protect ourselves
against the effects of the extraneous factors (soilfertility differences in the given case). As such,
through the application of the principle of randomization,we can have a better estimate of the
experimental error.
The Principle of Local Control is another important principle of experimental designs. Under
itthe extraneous factor, the known source of variability, is made to vary deliberately over as wide
arrange as necessary and this need to be done in such a way that the variability it causes can
bemeasured and hence eliminated from the experimental error. This means that we should plan
theexperiment in a manner that we can perform a two-way analysis of variance, in which the
totalvariability of the data is divided into three components attributed to treatments (varieties of
coffee in ourcase), the extraneous factor (soil fertility in our case) and experimental error. In
other words,according to the principle of local control, we first divide the field into several
homogeneous parts,known as blocks, and then each such block is divided into parts equal to the
number of treatments.Then the treatments are randomly assigned to these parts of a block.
Dividing the field into severalhomogenous parts is known as „blocking‟. In general, blocks are
the levels at which we hold an extraneous factor fixed, so that we can measure its contribution to
the total variability of the data bymeans of a two-way analysis of variance. In brief, through the
principle of local control we can eliminate the variability due to extraneous factor(s) from the
experimental error.
3.3 Finalization of Research Instruments

Desk research
The first step to the finalization of research instruments is to do desk research. Desk research,
asthe name implies, is analysis/documentation of available information for preparing survey
instruments, finalizing sampling and operation plans and developing a list of indicators for the
study. Itusually involves review of secondary literature, that is, related studies, schedules, etc.
Development of research instruments
Development of research tools/instruments forms the next step after the finalization of
researchdesign. Finalization of research instruments needs to be done in consultation with all
researchpartners and the core study team members need to develop the research instruments in
consonancewith the research objectives and designated tasks.
Designing research tools/instruments
Designing research instruments depends on various factors such as the research problem, type
ofsurvey design and nature of information that needs to be collected. In the case of a quantitative
survey, structured questionnaires and schedules are preferred whereas in the case of qualitative
research,semi-structured questionnaires or discussion guidelines are preferred. However, it is not
as easy asit sounds. There are other factors that need to be considered.
Though survey is the most preferred option, it suffers from some problems too. Researchers can
make inferences, but cannot be sure of the cause and effect relationship as they can be in the case
of experimental or quasi-experimental research. Other weaknesses of the survey method include:
 Reactivity: Respondents‟ bias arises because they may give morally desirable responses
or feel good responses.
 Mismatched sampling frame: In surveys it is difficult to ascertain the adequate number
and type of peoplewho are representative of the population.
 Non-response rate: However hard researchers may try, there are always going to be
people who will notparticipate in surveys. This leads to high a non-response rate.
 Measurement error: Like respondent and interviewer bias, there is always going to be
some bias becauseof the failure of the survey instrument or methodology in measuring
the desired attribute.
Survey Instrument
Survey instruments can be broadly classified into two categories: (i) questionnaires and (ii)
inter-views. A questionnaire is almost always self-administered, allowing respondents to fill
themselves. All the researcher has to do is to arrange for the delivery and collection of
thequestionnaires.
An interview is typically defined as a face-to-face discussion or communication via some

technology like the telephone or computer between an interviewer and a respondent. There
are threesubtypes of interviews: (i) unstructured, which allows a free flow of communication
in the courseof the interview or questionnaire administration, (ii) structured, where the
information that needsto be culled out from the respondents is already decided and (iii) semi-
structured, which restrictscertain kinds of communications but allows maneuvering freedom
on the discussion of certaintopics.
Type of Question
Usually research questionnaires contain question of three basic types: (i) open-ended
questions,(ii) dichotomous questions and (iii) multiple-response questions.
a) Open-ended questions: Open-ended questions are questions that do not have pre-coded
options. Theseare used extensively in formative research or qualitative research when
researchers want to capturethe respondent‟s responses verbatim.
b) Dichotomous questions: Dichotomous questions have two possible answers like yes/no,
true/false oragree/disagree responses. Surveys often use dichotomous questions when they
are looking for a leadquestion.
c) Multiple-response questions: There are several questions that may have many probable
answers, forexample, knowledge regarding ways in which HIV/AIDS can spread. It is highly
probable that mostof the respondents would be aware of more than one probable way, thus it
becomes imperative toframe questions as multiple-response questions.
Pre-testing and finalization of research instruments
All the research instruments developed for the study should be thoroughly tested in order to
ascertaintheir suitability in actual field conditions. Professionals with the support of field
executives need tocarry out the pre-testing exercise.
Pre-testing is considered an essential step in survey research. It is not only critical for
identifyingquestionnaire problems but it also helps in removing ambiguities and other
sources of bias anderror. It can also highlight any problem interviewers may have regarding
the language of the questionsand the skip patterns.
Types of Pre-testing
Pre-testing techniques can be further classified into two major categories based on the
methodologyand approach used for pre-testing: (i) pre-field techniques and (ii) field
techniques. Pre-fieldtechniques are generally used at the initial stages of research instrument
development throughrespondent focus groups and interviews.
In the field type of pre-testing, questionnaires are tested under field conditions and
includetechniques such as behavior coding, interviewer and respondent debriefings and the
analysis ofnon-response items and response distributions.
Pre-field Techniques
a) Focus groups: Focus group helps in identifying variations in questionnaire items,

language, or interpretation of questions and pre-coded options. Self-administered
questionnaires can be pre-testedin a focus group, to learn about the appearance and
formatting of the questionnaires. Focus groupsalso produce information and insights that may
be less accessible without the group.
b) Cognitive laboratory interviews: Cognitive laboratory interviews are also generally used
early in thequestionnaire.
Field Techniques
a) Behavior coding: Behavior coding, as the name suggests, depends on interactions between
the respondent and the interviewer to decide about the relevancy of language, content and
interpretation ofquestionnaire items.
The focus of behavior coding is on how the respondent answered the question and how
theinterviewer tried to ask the question. For example, if a respondent asks for clarification
after hearingthe question, it is likely that some aspect of the question may have caused
confusion.
b) Interviewer debriefing: It tries to minimize interviewer bias by making questions simple

and clear. It triesto assess whether the interviewer has understood the question correctly.
Measurement scales
There are four types of scales that are used in measurement: nominal, ordinal, interval, and
ratioscales. In fact, they follow a hierarchy of measurement scales, nominal being at the
lowest rung ofthe hierarchy and even application of statistical procedure are classified in
relation to the scaleused. They are categorized into two groups: categorical and continuous
scale data, where nominaland ordinal scales are categorized together as categorical data
while interval and ratio scales aregrouped together as continuous data.
Nominal data having unordered scales are called nominal scales, for example, the gender
categories male and female. Categorical data having ordered scales are called ordinal scale.
In the caseof continuous data, scales representing interval data are called interval scales and
data having bothequal intervals and an absolute zero point are called ratio scales.
Nominal variables: The values of the nominal variable data have no numeric meaning as no
mathematicaloperation except counting can be done on the data. They are, in fact, used for
classifying whether theindividual items belong to some distinctively different categories. For
example, we can say that individuals are different in terms of variables like gender, race,
colour, caste, etc. However, apart from counting,no other mathematical operation can be
carried out on these variables.
Ordinal variables: Ordinal variables, unlike nominal variables, allow us to rank the items
we measurein terms of order and we can specify that higher order items definitely represent
more of the qualityextent represented by the variable, but we still cannot tell how much more
than the other item. Atypical example of an ordinal variable is the rating assigned to the
impact of a program, like excellent, average and poor. Now we can say that x percent rated
the program as excellent, y percent rated it as average and another z percent rated it poor, but
researchers cannot say for sure that the differencebetween excellent and average is same as
that of average and poor. In the case of ordinal variables, onlycertain mathematical variables
such as greater than or less than are feasible and only measures such asmedian and range can
be calculated.
Interval variables: Interval variables provide more flexibility in terms of measurement as it

not onlyallows us to rank the measured items but can also help in quantifying the size of the
difference betweenthem. For example, temperature, as measured in degrees Fahrenheit or
Celsius, constitutes an intervalscale. We can say that a temperature of 80 degrees is higher
than a temperature of 40 degrees, but stillwe cannot say 80 degree is twice as hot as 40
degrees.
Ratio variables: Ratio variables measured by scale not only have equidistant points, but also
have arational zero. Thus, in addition to all the properties of interval variables, they feature
an identifiableabsolute zero point. A typical example of a ratio scale is the Kelvin
temperature scale. In this case wecan not only say that a temperature of 60 degrees is higher
than one of 20 degrees, we can also specifythat a temperature of 60 degrees is three times as
hot as a temperature of 20 degrees. Most of the variables we use to measure in field situations
conform to ratio scale properties, though most statisticaldata analysis procedures do not
distinguish between the interval and ratio properties of the measurementscales.
3.4 Data collection

The task of data collection begins after a research problem has been defined and research
design/plan chalked out. While deciding about the method of data collection to be used for
the study, theresearcher should keep in mind two types of data viz., primary and secondary.
The primary data arethose which are collected afresh and for the first time, and thus happen
to be original in character.The secondary data, on the other hand, are those which have
already been collected by someoneelse and which have already been passed through the
statistical process.
The researcher would haveto decide which sort of data he would be using (thus collecting)
for his study and accordingly he willhave to select one or the other method of data collection.
The methods of collecting primary andsecondary data differ since primary data are to be
originally collected, while in case of secondarydata the nature of data collection work is
merely that of compilation.
Collection of primary data
We collect primary data during the course of doing experiments in an experimental research
but in case we do research of the descriptive type and perform surveys, whether sample
surveys or censussurveys, then we can obtain primary data either through observation or
through direct communicationwith respondents in one form or another or through personal
interviews.
There are several methods of collecting primary data, particularly in surveys and
descriptiveresearches. Important ones are:
(i) Observation method
The observation method is the most commonly used method especially in studies relating to
behavioralsciences. In a way we all observe things around us, but this sort of observation is
not scientificobservation. Observation becomes a scientific tool and the method of data
collection for the researcher,when it serves a formulated research purpose, is systematically
planned and recorded and is subjectedto checks and controls on validity and reliability.
Under the observation method, the information issought by way of investigator‟s own direct
observation without asking from the respondent.Forinstance, in a study relating to consumer
behavior, the investigator instead of asking the brand ofwrist watch used by the respondent,
may himself look at the watch. The main advantage of thismethod is that subjective bias is
eliminated, if observation is done accurately. Secondly, the informationobtained under this
method relates to what is currently happening; it is not complicated by either thepast
behavior or future intentions or attitudes. Thirdly, this method is independent of
respondents‟willingness to respond and as such is relatively less demanding of active
cooperation on the part ofrespondents as happens to be the case in the interview or the
questionnaire method. This method isparticularly suitable in studies which deal with subjects
(i.e., respondents) who are not capable ofgiving verbal reports of their feelings for one
reason or the other
Limitations of observation method

 it is an expensive method
 The information provided by this method is very limited.
 sometimes unforeseen factors may interfere with the observational task
(ii) interview method
The interview method of collecting data involves presentation of oral-verbal stimuli and reply
interms of oral-verbal responses. This method can be used through personal interviews and, if
possible,through telephone interviews.
(iii) through questionnaires

This method of data collection is quite popular, particularly in case of big enquiries. It is being
adoptedby private individuals, research workers, private and public organizations and even by
governments.In this method a questionnaire is sent (usually by post) to the persons concerned
with a request toanswer the questions and return the questionnaire. A questionnaire consists of a
number of questionsprinted or typed in a definite order on a form or set of forms. The
questionnaire is mailed to respondentswho are expected to read and understand the questions and
write down the reply in the space meantfor the purpose in the questionnaire itself. The
respondents have to answer the questions on theirown.
(iv) through schedules
This method of data collection is very much like the collection of data through questionnaire,
withlittle difference which lies in the fact that schedules (proforma containing a set of questions)
arebeing filled in by the enumerators who are specially appointed for the purpose. These
enumeratorsalong with schedules go to respondents, put to them the questions from the proforma
in the order thequestions are listed and record the replies in the space meant for the same in the
proforma. In certainsituations, schedules may be handed over to respondents and enumerators
may help them in recordingtheir answers to various questions in the said schedules. Enumerators
explain the aims and objects ofthe investigation and also remove the difficulties which any
respondent may feel in understanding theimplications of a particular question or the definition or
concept of difficult terms.
Activity 3.1
Read more about other methods
warranty cards;
distributor audits;
pantry audits;
consumer panels;
using mechanical devices;
through projective techniques;
depth interviews
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3.5 Data Processing and Analysis
Once the research data has been collected, the process of preparing it for analysis begins.
Quantitative data will need to be sorted and coded and even qualitative data will need to be
indexed or categorized, in preparation for analysis.
Coding
Coding is defined as the process of conceptualizing research data and classifying them
intomeaningful and relevant categories for the purpose of data analysis and interpretation. A
number isassigned to each category, in the form of a code, for example, in the case of the gender
variable,code 1 is assigned to males and code 2 is assigned to females. Coding formats may be
included onthe questionnaire, or can also be developed after the data have been collected in cases
where respondents‟ replies do not fall into pre-coded response categories, that is, in the case of
open-endedquestions and for pre-coded questions which have an „other‟ code.
The basic rules for the development of the coding scheme known as the coding frame for
quantitative data are that the codes must be mutually exclusive, coding formats for each item
must becomprehensive and the codes must be applied consistently whereas coding rules for
qualitativedata permit the allocation of responses to more than one category in order to facilitate
conceptualdevelopment.
Interview data can be hand coded by the interviewer during or after the interview, that is,
fieldcoding can be done directly on to the paper questionnaire. However, it often requires coding
in theoffice by a coder, or a team of coders.
Data entry on to the computer
As with the coding, the process of verification of office data entry involves two data entry
personsindependently entering the data. This is also known as double data entry. Double data
entry shouldbe supported by the use of a computer program, which can check for any differences
in the twodata sets, which then have to be resolved and corrected by a member of the research
team.
Human coding and entry or direct electronic data entry are usually preferred. With the latter, the
computer displays each question on the screen and prompts the interviewer to input the
61
responsedirectly, whereupon it is programmed to store it under the correct code. Coded data is
stored in theform of a data table in a computer file. Statistical software packages contain
facilities for enteringthe data, which can be read directly by that package, although many
packages can translate data typed into other program. The semi-structured schedules and the in-
depth interviews wouldbe entered with the help of latest data entry software packages.Integrated
System for SurveyAnalysis (ISSA 6.0) is a very good software having inbuilt checks.
Analysis of data
The core team members and the system analyst under the guidance of the project coordinator
shallprepare the analysis/tabulation plan. The tabulation plan will be finalized in consultation
with theclient. The required tables can then be generated using the latest version of analysis
software likeStata, SAS, or SPSS. Though in the case of qualitative analysis, researchers shall
first focus ontranscription of qualitative data, which can later be used during content analysis.
3.6 Preparation of report

The next step after analysis of data is to prepare the report. Though it is not necessary that in a
research project the report shall be submitted only after data analysis. As per the terms agreed
uponor requirements of the study, the following reports could be prepared at different stages of
thestudy:
 Pre-testing report.
 An inception report prior to initiation of fieldwork.
 A mid-term evaluation report.
 Draft report.
 Final report.
A report generally consists of the following sections:
 Executive summary.
The executive summary is the portion of the report that most people read. Even though not as a
rulebut ideally this section should be around three to five pages long, with bullets providing as
muchinformation as possible. It should contain all relevant information starting from project
background,research methodology to findings and recommendations so that the reader has an
overall under-standing of the basics of the project.
 Introduction/background.
The introduction should include all relevant information necessary to understand the contextand
implementation of the program from its inception through the current reporting period. Itclearly
describes the goal and objectives that the project expects to achieve. Next, it should detailthe
research objectives of the study and research design and methodology adopted to assess
theresearch objectives. It should also clearly specify the study area and sample size of the study,
residesdetailing out the timeline of the project.
 Findings.
The findings are the soul of the evaluation report. It presents the results of the various
instrumentsdescribed in the methodology section. Findings present in chapters shall align itself
to researchobjectives of the study. Further findings may or may not be summed up in one
chapter; it may bepresented in two or three chapters depending on the objectives and
complexities of the project.
 Summary, conclusion and recommendation
The last section of the report shall comprise of conclusions, discussions and recommendations. It
provides a final interpretation of success or failure of the project and how the program can be
improved. In presenting this information, some of the key points discussed are (i) whether
theproject achieved the desired result, (ii) certainty that the program caused the results and (iii)
recommendation to improve the program.
Summary
Research process consists of series of actions orsteps necessary to effectively carry out research
and the desired sequencing of these steps. Problem definition, selection of research design,
finalization of research instruments, data collection, data processing/analysis and report
preparation are the major steps in research process.
Problem definition is the first step in research process. Statement of the problem in a general
way, understanding the nature of the problem, surveying the available literature, developing
ideas through discussion and rephrasing research problem into working proposition are the major
techniques in defining a research problem.
Selection research design is the second step which is a condition for collection and analysis of
data. It is conceptual structure within which research is conducted. When we see the research
design we must consider sampling design, observational design, statistical design and operational
design. There are mainly three types of research design: research design in case of exploratory
studies, research design in case of descriptive and diagnostic research studies and research design
in case of hypothesis testing research studies.
Finalizations of research instruments and data collection are the third and fourth steps in research
process. Primary and secondary data sources are the main mechanisms to collect data in research
process. Observation, interview, questionnaire and schedules are primary data collection
methods.
Data processing/analysis and report preparation are the last two steps in research process. The
data which is collected will be process through data analysis tools such as SPSS and other tools
and finally it must be report for concerned body.
Checklists
I can:
1 Discuss the research process

2 Describe problem definition
3 Discuss research design
4 Describe research instruments
5 Explain how report is prepare in a research
Direction I. Write “TRUE” if the statement is correct or “FALSE” if it is incorrect.
1. Findings and recommendationsare not expected to summarize in executive summary.

2. Introduction/background of a research clearly describes the goal and objectives that the
project expects to achieve.
3. Quantitative data will need to be more sorted and coded than qualitative data.
4. Document analysis is one of the primary data collection mechanisms.
5. Observation method is expensive when we compare the other methods of data collection.
Direction II: Match the items listed under column “B” with that of Column “A”
A B
1. Interval variables A. allow us to rank the items

2. Ratio variables B. helps to quantifying the size
3. Ordinal variables C. measured by scale
4. Nominal variables D. no numeric meaning
5. Open-ended questions E. have two possible answers
6. Dichotomous questions F. that do not have pre-coded options
7. Multiple-response questions G. have several answer
Direction III: fill the blank space

1. is the process of conceptualizing research data and classifying them into
meaningful and relevant categories for the purpose of data analysis and interpretation.
2. is the first step in research process.
3. is analysis of available information for preparing survey instruments,
finalizing sampling and operation plans and developing a list of indicators for the study.
CHAPTER 4: THE RESEARCH DESIGN
Introduction
Dear distance learner! This chapter gives you a research design mechanisms. It briefly discuss
different research design, sampling methods and techniques, different types of measurement
scale and types of instrument design used in a research
Objectives
When You have completed this chapter you will be able to:
 Define what is Research Design
 Discuss about Different Research Design
 Define sampling and sampling methods
 Describe different sampling techniques
 List the sampling process
 Discuss the different types of Measurement Scale
 Identify different types of instrument design
Resources
4.1 Research Design
A research needs a design or a structure before data collection or analysis can commence. A
research design is not just a work plan. A work plan details what has to be done to complete the
project but the work plan will flow from the project's research design. A research design is the
arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance
to the research purpose with economy in procedure. In fact, the research design is the conceptual structure
within which research is conducted; it constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement and
analysis of data. As such the design includes an outline of what the researcher will do from writing the
hypothesis and its operational implications to the final analysis of data The function of a research
design is to ensure that the evidence obtained enables us to answer the initial question as
unambiguously as possible.
Obtaining relevant evidenceentails specifying the type of evidence needed to answer the
researchquestion, to test a theory, to evaluate a program or to accuratelydescribe some
phenomenon. In other words, when designing researchwe need to ask: given this research
question (or theory), what type ofevidence is needed to answer the question (or test the theory) in
a convincing way?Research design `deals with a logical problem and not a logisticalproblem'.
Too often researchers design questionnaires or begin interviewing far too earlybefore thinking
through what information they require to answer their research questions. Without attending to
these research design matters at the beginning, the conclusions drawn will normally be weak and
unconvincing and fail to answer the research question.
The following are the important features of a research design:-
 It is a plan that specifies the sources and types of information relevant to the research
problem.
 It is a strategy specifying which approach will be used for gathering and analyzing the
data.
 It also includes the time and cost budgets since most studies are done under these two
constraints.
In brief, research design must, at least, contain:-
 a clear statement of the research problem;
 procedures and techniques to be used for gathering information;
 the population to be studied
 Methods to be used in processing and analyzing data.
4.2 Types of Research Designs
Mention the types of research design?(You can use the space below to write your
response.)
Different research designs can be conveniently described if we categorize them as: (1) research
design in case of exploratory research studies; (2) research design in case of descriptive and
diagnostic research studies, and (3) research design in case of hypothesis-testing research studies.
We take up each category separately.
1. Research design in case of exploratory research studies: Exploratory research studies are also
termed as formulate research studies. The main purpose of such studies is that of formulating
a problem for more precise investigation or of developing the working hypotheses from an
operational point of view. The major emphasis in such studies is on the discovery of ideas and
insights. As such the research design appropriate for such studies must be flexible enough to
provide opportunity for considering different aspects of a problem under study. Inbuilt
flexibility in research design is neededbecause the research problem, broadly defined initially,
is transformed into one with more precisemeaning in exploratory studies, which fact may
necessitate changes in the research procedure forgathering relevant data.
2. Research design in case of descriptive and diagnostic research studies:Descriptive research

studies are those studies which are concerned with describing the characteristics of a particular
individual, or of a group, whereas diagnostic research studies determine the frequency with
which something occurs or its association with something else. The studies concerning whether
certainvariables are associated are examples of diagnostic research studies. As against this,
studies concernedwith specific predictions, with narration of facts and characteristics concerning
individual, group orsituation are all examples of descriptive research studies. Most of the social
research comes underthis category. From the point of view of the research design, the descriptive
as well as diagnostics studies share common requirements and as such we may group together
these two types of researchstudies. In descriptive as well as in diagnostic studies, the researcher
must be able to define clearly,what he wants to measure and must find adequate methods for
measuring it along with a clear cutdefinition of „population‟ he wants to study. Since the aim is
to obtain complete and accurate informationin the said studies, the procedure to be used must be
carefully planned. The research design mustmake enough provision for protection against bias
and must maximize reliability, with due concern for the economical completion of the research
study. The design in such studies must be rigid and not flexible and must focus attention on the
following:
(a) Formulating the objective of the study (what the study is about and why is it being made?)
(b) Designing the methods of data collection (what techniques of gathering data will be
adopted?)
(c) Selecting the sample (how much material will be needed?)
(d) Collecting the data (where can the required data be found and with what time period should
the data be related?)
(e) Processing and analyzing the data.
(f) Reporting the findings.
3. Research design in case of hypothesis-testing research studies:Hypothesis-testing
research studies (generally known as experimental studies) are those where the researcher
tests the hypotheses of causal relationships between variables. Such studies require
procedures that will not only reduce bias and increase reliability, but will permit drawing
inferences about causality.
Three principles of experimental designs: (1) the Principle of Replication; (2) the Principle of
Randomization; and the (3) Principle of Local Control
According to the Principle of Replication, the experiment should be repeated more than once.
Thus, each treatment is applied in many experimental units instead of one. By doing so the
statistical accuracy of the experiments is increased.
The Principle of Randomizationprovides protection, when we conduct an experiment, against
the effect of extraneous factors by randomization. In other words, this principle indicates that we
should design or plan the experiment in such a way that the variations caused by extraneous
factors can all be combined under the general heading of “chance.”
The Principle of Local Controlis another important principle of experimental designs. Under it
the extraneous factor, the known source of variability, is made to vary deliberately over as wide a
range as necessary and this need to be done in such a way that the variability it causes can be
measured and hence eliminated from the experimental error.
4.3 Sampling Methods
What are types of sampling method?(You can use the space below to write your
response.)
The sample method involves taking a representative selection of the population and usingthe data
collected as research information. A sample is a “subgroup of a population”(Frey et al. 125). It
has also been described as a representative “taste” of a group. The sample should be
“representative in the sense that each sampled unitwill represent the characteristics of a known
number of units in the population. All disciplines conduct research using sampling of the
population as a method, and thedefinition is standard across these disciplines. Only the creative
description of samplingchanges for purposes of creating understanding. The standard definition
always includesthe ability of the research to select a portion of the population that is truly
representative of said population.Correct sampling methods allows researchers the ability to
reduce research costs, conduct research more efficiently (speed), have greater flexibility, and
provides for greater accuracy.
• A finite group is called population whereas a non-finite (infinite) group is called universe
 Study population: Subset of general population defined by the eligibility criteria.
 Actual sample studied is selected from the study population
Population
Sample
• A sample is a subset of study population of objects such as organizations, businesses,

individuals, households, and so forth.
• Sampling enables researchers to make estimates of some unknown characteristics of the
population in question
Reasons for Sampling
• Budget and time constraints:- in case of large populations it may not be possible to
investigate within the given budget and allotted time
• High degree of accuracy and reliability:- sampling may sometimes produce more accurate
results than taking a census as in the latter; there are more risks for making interviewer
and other errors due to the high volume of persons contacted and the number of census
takers, some of whom may not be well-trained. It depends on the extent to which the
selected sample is representative of population
4.4 Classification of Sampling
Sampling
Sampling Techniques
Techniques
Non
Non probability
probability
Probability
Probability
Convenience
Convenience
Sampling Judgmental
Judgmental
Sampling Quota Sampling Snowball Sampling
Sno
Sampling Sampling ota wba
Simple Random
Simple Sampling Systematic
Systematic
Sampling Stratified Sampling
Stratified Cluster Sampling
Cluster
Random Sampling Sampling Sampling
Sampling
Two standard categories of the sampling method exist. These two categories are called
probability sampling and non-probability sampling. Probability sampling is sometimes called
random sampling as non-probability sampling is sometimes called non-random sampling.The
choice to use probability or non-probability sampling depends on the goal of the research. When
a researcher needs to have a certain level of confidence in the data collection, probability
sampling should be used.Probability and non-probability sampling have advantages and
disadvantages and the use of each is determined by the researcher‟s goals in relation to data
collection and validity.
A probability sample tends to be more difficult and costly to conduct. However, probability
samples are the only type of samples where the results can be generalized from the sample to the
population. In addition, probability samples allow the re-searcher to calculate the precision of the
estimates obtained from the sample and to specify the sampling error.
Non probability samples, in contrast, do not allow the study's findings to be generalized from the
sample to the population. When discussing the results of a non-probability sample, the researcher
must limit his/her findings to the persons or elements sampled. This procedure also does not
allow the re-searcher to calculate sampling statistics that provide information about the precision
of the results. The advantage of non-probability sampling is the ease in which it can be
administered. Non probability samples tend to be less complicated and less time consuming than
probability samples. If the researcher has no intention of generalizing beyond the sample, one of
the non-probability sampling methodologies will provide the desired information.
I. Probability Samples
Can you describe the types of probability sampling
method? (You can use the space below to write your
response.)
Four basic types of methodologies are most commonly used for conducting probability samples;
these are
 simple random
 stratified,
 cluster, and
 Systematic sampling.
II. Simple Random Sampling
When simple Random sampling is suitable? (You can use the space below to write your
response.)
Simple random sampling is often called straight random sampling.Simple random sampling
requires that each member of the population have an equal chance of being selected (as is the
main goal of probability sampling). A simple random sample is selected by assigning a number
to each member in the population list and then “uses a random number table to draw out the
members of the sample”.
Each member of the population is “selected one at a time, independent of one another and
withoutreplacement; once a unit is selected, it has no further chance to be selected” (Fowler
14).Regardless of the process used for simple random sampling, the process can be laboriousif
the list of the population is long or it is completed manually without the aid of acomputer. An
example of simple random sampling may include writing each member of the population on a
piece of paper and putting in a hat. Selecting the sample from the hat is random and each
member of the population has an equal chance of being selected. Thisexample is not feasible for
large population, but can be completed easily if the populationis very small. Researchers who
choose simple random sampling must be cognizant of the numbers that they choose. Researcher
bias in regards to preferred numbers can be a problem for theend results in regards to sample
selection. It is best to ask other researchers to aid in the selection of the numbers to be used in the
selection process. It is also important to note that by using simple random sampling, the sample
selected may not include all “elements in the population that are of interest”.
III. Stratified Random Sampling
Stratified random sampling is “one in which the population is divided into subgroups or „strata,‟
and a random sample is then selected from each subgroup” (Fink 11). When a few characteristics
are known about a population, stratified random sampling is preferable because the population
may be arranged in subgroups and then a random sample may. MacNealy further advises
“arranging the original unit into categories so that the distribution of a particular group in the
population of interest will be closely replicated in the sample” (156). These subgroups can
exhibit characteristics including but not limited to gender, race, ethnicity, religion, and age
groups.
Two types of stratified random sampling include proportionate and disproportionate.
Proportionate stratification is “often done to insure representation of groups that have importance
to the research” and disproportionate is “done to allow analysis of some particular strata
members or to increase the overall precision of the sample estimates”.To choose which is right
for a research project, the researcher must be aware of the various numbers of members in each
subgroup.
A simpler example is if the population being examined is high school students, of which the
population is 55% female and 45% male, the population should be listed by gender. The
selection process would then include selecting every nth female from the female list until 55% of
the list is of the female gender. The remaining 45% should be selected from the male list by
choosing every nth male. This ensures that the sample is representative of the population in so
far as gender is concerned. A concern when using stratified random sample is that the researcher
must identify and justify the subgroups (Fink 13). By using stratified random sampling, there is
an attempt “to control for sampling error” (MacNealy 156). To control for sampling error,
researchers must not only identify and justify the subgroups but make sure they are truly
representative of the population
IV. Cluster Sampling
Cluster sampling, on the surface, is very similar to stratified sampling in that “survey population
members are divided into unique, non-overlapping groups prior to sampling”. These groups are
referred to as clusters instead of strata because they are“naturally occurring groupings such as
schools, households, or geographic units” Where as a stratified sample “involves selecting a few
members from each group or stratum,” cluster sampling involves “the selection of a few groups
and data are collected from all group members”. This sampling method is used when no master
list of the population exists but “cluster” lists are obtainable.
V. Systematic Random Sampling
Systematic random sampling is usually preferred over simple random sampling in so far as it is
more convenient for the researcher.Before selecting from the population list, determine the
“number of entries on the list and the number of elements from the list that are to be
selected”.For example, if there are 129 people on the population list select a beginning or starting
point at random and choose every tenth name that appears on the list. If you randomly choose to
begin on the name that appears on line 24, you will select for the sample the names that appear
on lines 24, 34, 44, and so on.
Type of Sampling Selection Strategy
Simple Each member of the study population has an equal
probability of being selected.
Systematic Each member of the study population is either
assembled or listed, a random start is designated, then
members of the population are selected at equal intervals
Stratified Each member of the study population is assigned to a group
or stratum, then a simple random sample is selected from
each stratum.
Cluster Each member of the study population is assigned to a group
or cluster, then clusters are selected at random and all
members of a selected cluster are included in the sample.
VI. Non-probability Sampling

What do you think is non-probability sampling?
Non-probability sampling is that sampling procedure which does not afford any basis for
estimating the probability that each item in the population has of being included in the sample.
Non-probability sampling is also known by different names such as deliberate sampling,
purposive sampling and judgment sampling.
The advantage of non-probability sampling is that it a convenient way for researchers to

assemble a sample with little or no cost and/or for those research studies that do not require
representativeness of the population.
Activity 4.1
Can you explain Different types of non-probability sampling?
Non-probability sampling designs are used when the number of elements in a population is either
unknown or cannot be individually identified. In such situations the selection of elements is
dependent upon other considerations.The three common types of non-probability samples are
convenience sampling, quota sampling, and judgmental sampling.
A. Convenience Sampling: - As the name implies, convenience sampling involves choosing

respondents at the convenience of the researcher.Convenience sampling attempts to
obtain a sample of convenient elements. Often, respondents are selected because they
happen to be in the right place at the right time. A major advantage of convenience
sampling is that it is quick, convenient and economical. A major disadvantage is that the
sample may not be representative. Convenience sampling is best used for the purpose of
exploratory research and supplemented subsequently with probability sampling
B. Quota sampling:-The main consideration directing quota sampling is the researcher's

ease of access to the sample population. In addition to convenience, you are guided by
some visible characteristic, such as gender or race, of the study population that is of
interest to you. The sample is selected from a location convenient to you as a researcher,
and whenever a person with this visible relevant characteristic is seen that person is asked
to participate in the study. The process continues until you have been able to contact the
required number of respondents (quota).
Quota Sampling has advantages and disadvantages: Advantages include the speed of data
collection, less cost, the element of convenience, and representativeness (if the subgroups
in the sample are selected properly).Disadvantages includes the element of subjectivity
(convenience sampling rather than probability-based which leads to improper selection of
sampling units
C. Judgmental Sampling:-In judgmental or purposive sampling, the researcher employs his
or her own "expert” judgment about who to include in the sample frame. Prior knowledge
and research skill are used in selecting the respondents or elements to be sampled.
D. Snowball sampling:-an initial group of respondents (individuals or organizations) are
selected, usually at random by probability methods. After the necessary information is
being gathered from initial respondents, they are asked to identify additional respondents
who belong to the target population of interest. Subsequent respondents are selected
based on the referrals. The advantage of snowball sampling is that smaller sample sizes
and costs are necessary; a major disadvantage is that the second group of respondents
suggested by the first group may be very similar and not representative of the population
with that characteristic
The Sampling Process
Define the
Define the Target
TargetPopulation
Population
Select aa sampling
Select samplingFrame
Frame
Select
Selectsampling
sampling method: Probability
method: or non-
Probability or
probability sampling method
non-probability sampling method
Plan
Planprocedures
proceduresforfor
selecting sampling
selecting unit
sampling
unit
Determine sample
Determine samplesize
size
Select actual
Select actual sample
sampleunit
unit
Conduct Experiment
Issues in Sample Design and Selection
 Accuracy – Samples should be representative of the target population (less accuracy is

required for exploratory research than for conclusive research)
 Resources – Time, money and individual or institutional capacity are very important
considerations due to the limitation on them. Often, these resources must be “traded”
against accuracy
 Availability of Information – Often information on potential sample participants in the
form of lists, directories etc. is unavailable (especially in developing countries) which
makes some sampling techniques (e.g. systematic sampling) impossible to undertake
 Geographical Considerations – The number and dispersion of population elements may
determine the sampling technique used (e.g. cluster sampling
4.5 Measurement
What is measurement?
Measurement lies at the heart of statistics. Indeed, no statistic would be possible without the
concept of measurement. Measurement is also an integral part of our everyday lives.
Measurement is a process of mapping aspects of a domain onto other aspects of a range
according to some rule of correspondence. It is a way of refining our ordinary observations so
that we can assign numericalvalues to our observations. It allows us to go beyond simply
describing the presence or absence of anevent or thing to specifying how much, how long, or
how intense it is. With measurement, ourobservations become more accurate and more reliable.
Measurement scales
The values of a variable define the scale or level of measurement used to study the variable. The
most widely used classification of measurement scales are:
(a) Nominal scale:-At the nominal level of measurement, the data consists of discrete categories
or classifications. Data or variables of this type can be labeled, identified, or classified
according to the presence or absence of some characteristic or attribute.Example: The
variable “color” has possible values that include red, green, blue, white, black.
(b) Ordinal scale:-On an ordinal scale of measurement, the data are ranked, rated or ordered.
With an ordinal scale, one is able to say that one value is greater or less than another,
although there is no information about how much greater than or less than.Example: Ranking
job applicants.
With an ordinal scale, we know the rank order, but we do not have any idea of the distance or
interval between the rankings. Some other examples of ordinal scales are grades such as “A,”
“B,” “C,” “D,” and “F”; scores given in terms of high, medium, and low; birth order in terms of
firstborn, second-born, or later-born; a list of examination scores from highest to lowest; a list of
job candidates ranked from high to low;
(c) Interval scale:-An interval scale of measurement is based on ordered intervals that are of
equal length, and the zero value is arbitrary (there is no true zero). Addition or subtraction is
possible on this scale, but not multiplication or division. Example: Centigrade and Fahrenheit
scales for measuring temperature. Zero degrees is not the same on these scales and there is
temperature present at the zero point on both these scales. on each scale, 40 degrees is 30
degrees warmer than 10 degrees, but it is not four times as warm as 10 degrees.
(d) Ratio scale:-When a measurement scale has ordered intervals of equal length and a true zero
point, it is a ratio scale. We can add, subtract, or multiply any two values of such a variable
and get meaningful answer.Example: Length is a ratio variable. There is a true zero length, and it
makes sense to say that 4 feet is twice as much as 2 feet.
4.5 Instrument Design
What do you think about Instrument Design?

(You can use the space below to write your response.)
Research instruments are the fact finding strategies. They are the tools for data collection. They
include Questionnaire, Interview, Observation and Reading. Essentially the researcher must
ensure that the instrument chosen is valid and reliable. The validity and reliability of any
research project depends to a large extent on the appropriateness of the instruments. Whatever
procedure one uses to collect data, it must be critically examined to check the extent to which it
is likely to give you the expected results.
Questionnaire
This method of data collection is quite popular, particularly in case of big enquiries.
 This is a systematically prepared form or document with a set of questions deliberately

designed to elicit responses from respondents or research informants for the purpose of
collecting data or information.
 It is a form of inquiry document, which contains a systematically compiled and well
organizedseries of questions intended to elicit the information which will provide insight
into the nature of the problem under study.
 It is a form that contains a set of questions on a topic or group of topics designed to be
answered by the respondent.
 The respondents are the population samples of the study. The answers provided by the
respondents constitute the data for the research.
Questionnaires may be designed as structured or closed form and unstructured, open ended form.
Structured or closed formatthose in which some control or guidance are given for the answer. This
may be described as closed form because the questions are basically short, requiring the respondent
to provide a „yes‟ or „no‟ response, or checking an item out of a list of given responses.
Unstructuredopen ended format type are which is also termed as open-ended or unrestricted type of
questionnaire calls for a free response in the respondent's own words. The respondent frames and
supplies the answer to the question raised in the questionnaire. It also constitutes questions which
give the respondent an opportunity to express his or her opinions from a set of options. Spaces are
often provided for respondents to make their inputs.
Interviews
Interviews become necessary when researchers feel the need to meet face-to-face with
individuals to interact and generate ideas in a discourse that borders on mutual interest. It is an
interaction in which oral questions are posed by the interviewer to elicit oral response from the
interviewee. Specifically with research interviews, the researcher has to identify a potential
source of information, and structure the interaction in a manner that will bring out relevant
information from his respondent. The creation of a cordial atmosphere is therefore vital to the
success of such an interaction. Apart from face-to-face interviews, they can also be conducted
over the phone or the computer terminal via video conferencing technology.
Transcribing
Audio-visual recordings on mediums like CD's and DVD's have become major sources of soft
data which researchers rely on during data collection. Other sources include you-tube. Such soft
data and those recorded from verbal interaction with respondents during interviews have to be
transcribed. (i.e. convert the speech sound into words as accurately as possible).
Observation
The study of photographs, videotapes, tape recordings, art objects, computer software and films
fall within this type of data collection procedure. The procedure should be unobtrusive to enable
informants to share their reality directly with researchers. It is creative and captures attention
visually. The presence of a photographer or the video technician may be intrusive and influence
responses. Observation is one of the very important methods for obtaining comprehensive data in
qualitative research especially when a composite of both oral and visual data become vital to the
research.
Reading of Documents
Although reading is more to do with literature review, it is also an instrument for studying public
documents such as newspapers, minutes of meetings and private documents such as letters,
biographies and diaries to enable the researcher obtain the language and words of informants
who may not be alive at the time of the research. The limitation or difficulty in this approach is
that the documents may be protected and researchers may not have access to them either because
they are national security documents or confidential documents. Letters and diaries can also be
studied at both the researcher and the informant's convenience.
Summary
A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a
manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure. In
fact, the research design is the conceptual structure within which research is conducted; it
constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of data. Different research
designs can be conveniently described if we categorize them as: (1) research design in case of
exploratory research studies; (2) research design in case of descriptive and diagnostic research
studies, and (3) research design in case of hypothesis-testing research studies.
The sample method involves taking a representative selection of the population and using the
data collected as research information. A sample is a “subgroup of a population”. It has also been
described as a representative “taste” of a group. The sample should be “representative in the
sense that each sampled unit will represent the characteristics of a known number of units in the
population. Two standard categories of the sampling method exist. These two categories are
called probability sampling and non-probability sampling. Probability sampling is sometimes
called random sampling as non-probability sampling is sometimes called non-random sampling.
Four basic types of methodologies are most commonly used for conducting probability samples;
these are simple random, stratified, cluster, and Systematic sampling. And the three common
types of non-probability samples are convenience sampling, quota sampling, and judgmental
sampling. The most widely used classification of measurement scales are Nominal, ordinal,
interval and ratio.Research instruments are the fact finding strategies. They are the tools for data
collection. They include Questionnaire, Interview, Observation, Transcribing and Reading.
Essentially the researcher must ensure that the instrument chosen is valid and reliable.
Checklist
Below are some of the most important points drawn from the unit you have been studying up to
now.Please put a tick(√) mark in front of the point you have understood well in the box under
“Yes” and in the box under “Non” for the points you have not yet understood well. And if the
tick mark under “Non” are more than those under “yes”, it means you are left with a lot to
understand the unit and you have not yet achieved the objectives indicated at the beginning of the
unit.
I can:
Main point
No 1Discuss Different types of research design Explain the importanceYes
of sampling
No
Differentiate
2 probability sampling and non-probability sampling
Explain3different measurement scales
Discuss different instrument design
4
5
Self -Test Exercises 4

1. A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data. t
2. Budget and time constraints are the only reason of sampling. f
3. Quota sampling involves choosing respondents at the convenience of the researcher. f
4. Non-probability sampling designs are used when the number of elements in a
population is either unknown or cannot be individually identified. t
5. At the nominal level of measurement, the data consists of discrete categories or
classifications. t
Direction II: Choose the best answer by circling the letter that consists of your choice.
1. Which of the following is correct about features of research design?
A. A clear statement of the research problem.
B. Procedures and techniques to be used for gathering information.
C. The population to be studied and Methods to be used in processing and analyzing data.
D. All
2. is a method of data collection quite popular, particularly in case of big enquiries.
A. Questionnaire
B. Interviews
C. Transcribing
D. Observation
3. Among the following one is wrong in Sample Design and Selection
A. Geographical Considerations
B. Availability of Information
C. Resources and Accuracy
D. None of the answer
4. One of the following sampling methods allows the researcher to find the sample by
asking one respondent tell him/her other respondents who have awareness about the topic
to be studied?
A. Convenience Sampling
B. Snowball sampling
C. Quota sampling
D. Judgmental Sampling
Direction III: Match items in column “A” with appropriate item in column “B”
Column “A” Column “B”

1. Cluster random sampling A.Each member of the study population is assigned to a group or stratum
2. Stratified random sampling B. Each member of the study population is eitherassembled or listed
3. Systematic random sampling C.Each member of the study population has an equal chance
4. Simple random sampling D.Each member of the study population is assigned to a group or cluster
Direction IV: Fill in the Blank space
1. When a measurement scale has ordered intervals of equal length and a

true zero point, it is a ratio scale.
2. is a subset of study population of objects such as organizations,
businesses, individuals, households, and so forth.
3. is important when researchers feel the need to meet face-to-face with
individuals to interact and generate ideas in a discourse that borders on mutual interest.
4. is scale of measurement; the data are ranked, rated or ordered.
CHAPTER 5: ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION OF DATA
Contents
5.1The Data Analysis Process
5.2kinds of data analysis
5.3 Interpretation of data
Introduction
Dear learner data analysis and presentation is the main part in research. After data has been
collected from the source it must be analysis using different mechanisms. So in this chapter we
will see how data is analysis using descriptive and inferential analysis. Develop a hypothesis will
also discuss in detail in this chapter.
Objectives
At the end of this chapter you will able to:
 Describe the steps of data analysis
 Descriptive analysis mechanism
 Inferential analysismechanism
 Define measure ofcentral tendency
 Describe steps in hypothesis testing
Resources
5.1 The Data Analysis Process

What is data analysis?
Data analysis is a process of applying statistical practices to organize, represent, describe,

evaluate, and interpret data. It has multiple facts and approaches, encompassing diverse
techniques under a variety of names, in different business, science, and social science domains.
To improve your data analysis skills and simplify your decisions, execute these five steps in
your data analysis process:
Step 1: Define Your Questions
In your organizational or business data analysis, you must begin with the right question(s).
Questions should be measurable, clear and concise. Design your questions to either qualify or
disqualify potential solutions to your specific problem or opportunity. For example, start with a
clearly defined problem: A government contractor is experiencing rising costs and is no longer
able to submit competitive contract proposals. One of many questions to solve this business
problem might include: Can the company reduce its staff without compromising quality?
Step 2: Set Clear Measurement Priorities
This step breaks down into two sub-steps: A) Decide what to measure, and B) Decide how to
measure it.
A) Decide What to Measure
Using the government contractor example, consider what kind of data you would need to answer
your key question. In this case, you would need to know the number and cost of current staff and
the percentage of time they spend on necessary business functions. In answering this question,
you likely need to answer many sub-questions (e.g., Are staff currently under-utilized? If so,
what process improvements would help?). Finally, in your decision on what to measure, be sure
to include any reasonable objections any stakeholders might have (e.g., If staffs are reduced, how
would the company respond to surges in demand?).
B) Decide How to Measure it
Thinking about how you measure your data is just as important, especially before the data
collection phase, because your measuring process either backs up or discredits your analysis later
on. Key questions to ask for this step include:
 What is your time frame? (e.g., annual versus quarterly costs)

 What is your unit of measure? (e.g., USD versus Euro)
 What factors should be included? (e.g., just annual salary versus annual salary plus cost
of staff benefits)
Step 3: Collect Data
With your question clearly defined and your measurement priorities set, now it‟s time to collect
your data. As you collect and organize your data, remember to keep these important points in
mind:
 Before you collect new data, determine what information could be collected from
existing databases or sources on hand. Collect this data first.
 Determine a file storing and naming system ahead of time to help all tasked team
members collaborate. This process saves time and prevents team members from
collecting the same information twice.
 If you need to gather data via observation or interviews, then develop an
interview template ahead of time to ensure consistency and save time.
 Keep your collected data organized in a log with collection dates and add any source
notes as you go (including any data normalization performed). This practice
validates your conclusions down the road.
Step 4: Analyze Data
After you have collected the right data to answer your question from Step 1, it‟s time for deeper
data analysis. Begin by manipulating your data in a number of different ways, such as plotting it
out and finding correlations or by creating a pivot table in Excel. A pivot table lets you sort and
filter data by different variables and lets you calculate the mean, maximum, minimum and
standard deviation of your data – just be sure to avoid these five pitfalls of statistical data
analysis.
As you manipulate data, you may find you have the exact data you need, but more likely, you
might need to revise your original question or collect more data. Either way, this initial analysis
of trends, correlations, variations and outliers helps you focus your data analysis on better
answering your question and any objections others might have.
During this step, data analysis tools and software are extremely helpful. Visio, Minitab and Stata
are all good software packages for advanced statistical data analysis. However, in most cases,
nothing quite compares to Microsoft Excel in terms of decision-making tools. If you need a
review or a primer on all the functions Excel accomplishes for your data analysis, we
recommend this Harvard Business Review class.
Step 5: Interpret Results
After analyzing your data and possibly conducting further research, it‟s finally time to interpret
your results. As you interpret your analysis, keep in mind that you cannot ever prove a
hypothesis true: rather, you can only fail to reject the hypothesis. Meaning that no matter how
much data you collect, chance could always interfere with your results.
As you interpret the results of your data, ask yourself these key questions:
 Does the data answer your original question? How?

 Does the data help you defend against any objections? How?
 Are there any limitations on your conclusions, any angles you haven‟t considered?
If your interpretation of the data holds up under all of these questions and considerations, then
you likely have come to a productive conclusion. The only remaining step is to use the results of
your data analysis process to decide your best course of action.
By following these five steps in your data analysis process, you make better decisions for your
business or government agency because your choices are backed by data that has been robustly
collected and analyzed. With practice, your data analysis gets faster and more accurate meaning
you make better, more informed decisions to run your organization most effectively.
5.2 kinds of data analysis
There are mainly two kinds of data analysis in research process i.e. descriptive and inferential
data analysis.
5.2.1 Descriptive analysis
It is the description of data in from the particular sample. As the result the conclusion must refer
only to the sample. In the other way these summarize the data and describe sample
characteristics.
Descriptive statistics is the term given to the analysis of data that helps describe, show or
summarize data in a meaningful way such that, for example, patterns might emerge from the
data. Descriptive statistics do not, however, allow us to make conclusions beyond the data we
have analysed or reach conclusions regarding any hypotheses we might have made. They are
simply a way to describe our data.Descriptive statistics are very important because if we simply
presented our raw data it would be hard to visualize what the data was showing, especially if
there was a lot of it. Descriptive statistics therefore enables us to present the data in a more
meaningful way, which allows simpler interpretation of the data. For example, if we had the
results of 100 pieces of students' coursework, we may be interested in the overall performance of
those students. We would also be interested in the distribution or spread of the marks.
Descriptive statistics allow us to do this.
Classification of descriptive analysis
Distribution: -A systematic arrangement of numeric values from the lowest to highest or from
the highest to the lowest. It is a summary of the frequency of individual values or ranges of
values for a variable. The simplest distribution would list every value of a variable and the
number of persons who had each value. For instance, a typical way to describe the distribution of
college students is by year in college, listing the number or percent of students at each of the four
years. Or, we describe gender by listing the number or percent of males and females. In these
cases, the variable has few enough values that we can list each one and summarize how many
sample cases had the value. But what do we do for a variable like income or GPA? With these
variables there can be a large number of possible values, with relatively few people having each
one. In this case, we group the raw scores into categories according to ranges of values. For
instance, we might look at GPA according to the letter grade ranges. Or, we might group income
into four or five ranges of income values.
Category Percent
Under 35 9
34-45 21
46-55 45
56-65 19
Above 65 6
Table 5.1 frequency distribution table
One of the most common ways to describe a single variable is with a frequency distribution.
Depending on the particular variable, all of the data values may be represented, or you may
group the values into categories first (e.g., with age, price, or temperature variables, it would
usually not be sensible to determine the frequencies for each value. Rather, the values are
grouped into ranges and the frequencies determined.). Frequency distributions can be depicted in
two ways, as a table or as a graph. Table 5.1 shows an age frequency distribution with five
categories of age ranges defined. The same frequency distribution can be depicted in a graph as
shown in Figure 5.1. This type of graph is often referred to as a histogram or bar chart.
Figure 5. 1 frequency distribution bar chart
Distributions may also be displayed using percentages. For example, you could use percentages
to describe the:
 percentage of people in different income levels

 percentage of people in different age ranges
 percentage of people in different ranges of standardized test scores
Central Tendency: - The central tendency of a distribution is an estimate of the "center" of a

distribution of values. There are three major types of estimates of central tendency:
 Mean
 Median
 Mode
The Mean or average is probably the most commonly used method of describing central
tendency. To compute the mean all you do is add up all the values and divide by the number of
values. For example, the mean or average quiz score is determined by summing all the scores
and dividing by the number of students taking the exam. For example, consider the test score
values:
15, 20, 21, 20, 36, 15, 25, 15

The sum of these 8 values is 167, so the mean is 167/8 = 20.875.
The Median is the score found at the exact middle of the set of values. One way to compute the
median is to list all scores in numerical order, and then locate the score in the center of the
sample. For example, if there are 500 scores in the list, score #250 would be the median. If we
order the 8 scores shown above, we would get:
15,15,15,20,20,21,25,36
There are 8 scores and score #4 and #5 represent the halfway point. Since both of these scores
are 20, the median is 20. If the two middle scores had different values, you would have to
interpolate to determine the median.
The mode is the most frequently occurring value in the set of scores. To determine the mode, you
might again order the scores as shown above, and then count each one. The most frequently
occurring value is the mode. In our example, the value 15 occurs three times and is the model. In
some distributions there is more than one modal value. For instance, in a bimodal distribution
there are two values that occur most frequently.
Measure of variability: - variability refers to how "spread out" a group of scores is. There are
many ways of describing the variability in some data set. Range, interquartile range and standard
deviation are the most common way of measuring variability.
Range: it is the difference between the largest and smallest values in a set of values.
An example of the use of the range to compare spread within datasets is provided in table 5.2.
The scores of individual students in the examination and coursework component of a module are
shown.
Table 5.2 comprasion of coursework and examiniation marks for 14 students
tudent Coursework mark Examination

A 27 BCDEFGH
mark 44392341483734 IJKLMN 404330432927
12 47 26 25 38 45 35 35 41 39 32 25 18 30
To find the range in marks the highest and lowest values need to be found from the table. The
highest coursework mark was 48 and the lowest was 27 giving a range of 21. In the examination,
the highest mark was 45 and the lowest 12 producing a range of 33. This indicates that there was
wider variation in the students‟ performance in the examination than in the coursework for this
module.
Since the range is based solely on the two most extreme values within the dataset, if one of these
is either exceptionally high or low (sometimes referred to as outlier) it will result in a range that
is not typical of the variability within the dataset. For example, imagine in the above example
that one student failed to hand in any coursework and was awarded a mark of zero, however they
sat the exam and scored 40. The range for the coursework marks would now become 48 (48-0),
rather than 21, however the new range is not typical of the dataset as a whole and is distorted by
the outlier in the coursework marks. In order to reduce the problems caused by outliers in a
dataset, the inter-quartile range is often calculated instead of the range.
The Inter-quartile Range: is a measure that indicates the extent to which the central 50% of
values within the dataset are dispersed. It is based upon, and related to, the median.In the same
way that the median divides a dataset into two halves, it can be further divided into quarters by
identifying the upper and lower quartiles. The lower quartile is found one quarter of the way
along a dataset when the values have been arranged in order of magnitude; the upper quartile is
found three quarters along the dataset. Therefore, the upper quartile lies half way between the
median and the highest value in the dataset whilst the lower quartile lies halfway between the
median and the lowest value in the dataset. The inter-quartile range is found by subtracting the
lower quartile from the upper quartile.
For example, the examination marks for 20 students following a particular module are arranged
in order of magnitude.
The median lies at the mid-point between the two central values (10th and 11th)
= half-way between 60 and 62 = 61

The lower quartile lies at the mid-point between the 5th and 6th values
= half-way between 52 and 53 = 52.5

The upper quartile lies at the mid-point between the 15th and 16th values
= half-way between 70 and 71 = 70.5

The inter-quartile range for this dataset is therefore
70.5 - 52.5 = 18 whereas the range is: 80 - 43 = 37.
The inter-quartile range provides a clearer picture of the overall dataset by removing/ignoring the
outlying values.
Like the range however, the inter-quartile range is a measure of dispersion that is based upon
only two values from the dataset. Statistically, the standard deviation is a more powerful measure
of dispersion because it takes into account every value in the dataset.
The Standard Deviation: -it is a measure that summaries the amount by which every value
within a dataset varies from the mean. Effectively it indicates how tightly the values in the
dataset are bunched around the mean value. It is the most robust and widely used measure of
dispersion since, unlike the range and inter-quartile range, it takes into account every variable in
the dataset. When the values in a dataset are pretty tightly bunched together the standard
deviation is small. When the values are spread apart the standard deviation will be relatively
large. The standard deviation is usually presented in conjunction with the mean and is measured
in the same units.
In many datasets the values deviate from the mean value due to chance and such datasets are said
to display a normal distribution. In a dataset with a normal distribution most of the values are
clustered around the mean while relatively few values tend to be extremely high or extremely
low. Many natural phenomena display a normal distribution.
For datasets that have a normal distribution the standard deviation can be used to determine the
proportion of values that lie within a particular range of the mean value. For such distributions it
is always the case that 68% of values are less than one standard deviation (1SD) away from the
mean value that 95% of values are less than two standard deviations (2SD) away from the mean
and that 99% of values are less than three standard deviations (3SD) away from the mean. Figure
5.2 shows this concept in diagrammatical form.
Figure 5.2 standard deviation
If the mean of a dataset is 25 and its standard deviation is 1.6, then

 68% of the values in the dataset will lie between MEAN-1SD (25-1.6=23.4)
andMEAN+1SD (25+1.6=26.6)
 99% of the values will lie between MEAN-3SD (25-4.8=20.2) and MEAN+3SD(25+4.8=29.8).
If the dataset had the same mean of 25 but a larger standard deviation (for example, 2.3) it would
indicate that the values were more dispersed. The frequency distribution for a dispersed dataset
would still show a normal distribution but when plotted on a graph the shape of the curve will be
flatter as in figure 5.3.
Figure 5.3 Typical frequency distribution for clustered and dispersed dataset
5.2.2 Inferential analysis
Inferential analysis is the use of statistical tests, either to test for significant relationships among
variables or to find statistical support for hypotheses.
With inferential statistics, you are trying to reach conclusions that extend beyond the immediate
data alone. For instance, we use inferential statistics to try to infer from the sample data what the
population might think. Or, we use inferential statistics to make judgments of the probability that
an observed difference between groups is a dependable one or one that might have happened by
chance in this study. Thus, we use inferential statistics to make inferences from our data to more
general conditions; we use descriptive statistics simply to describe what's going on in our data.
Uses of inferential analysis

The T-Test: - it assesses whether the means of two groups are statistically different from each
other. This analysis is appropriate whenever you want to compare the means of two groups, and
especially appropriate as the analysis for the posttest-only two-group randomized experimental
design.
Figure 5.4 idealized distributions for treated and comparison group posttest values.
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) tests: - the hypothesis that the means of two or more
populations are equal. ANOVAs assess the importance of one or more factors by comparing the
response variable means at the different factor levels. The null hypothesis states that all
population means (factor level means) are equal while the alternative hypothesis states that at
least one is different. Toperform an ANOVA, you must have a continuous response variable and
at least one categorical factor with two or more levels. ANOVAs require data from
approximately normally distributed populations with equal variances between factor levels.
However, ANOVA procedures work quite well even if the normality assumption has been
violated, unless one or more of the distributions are highly skewed or if the variances are quite
different. Transformations of the original dataset may correct these violations.
Hypothesis testing procedure: hypothesis testing is a procedure, based on sample evidence and
probability theory, used to determine whether the hypothesis is a reasonable statement and
should not be rejected, or is unreasonable and should be rejected.
Steps in hypothesis testing
Step 1:- Check any necessary assumptions and write null and alternative hypotheses.
The assumptions will vary depending on the test. The null and alternative hypotheses will also be
written in terms of population parameters; the null hypothesis will always contain the equality
(i.e., ==).
Step 2: Calculate an appropriate test statistic.
This will vary depending on the test. In this lesson, tests of proportions will use a z test statistics
and tests of means will use a t-test statistic.
Step 3: Determine a p-value associated with the test statistic.
This can be found using the tables in Appendix A or using statistical software.
Step 4: Decide between the null and alternative hypotheses.

If p≤αp≤α reject the null hypothesis. If p>αp>α fail to reject the null hypothesis.
Step 5: State a "real world" conclusion.
Based on your decision in step 4, write a conclusion in terms of the original research question.
Presenting of findings
Findings are presented in different forms such as:
I. Narrative or textual form

This is composed of summary of findings, direct quotations and implications of the study
II. Tables
Tables are used to present a clear and organized data. This is utilized for easy analysis
and interpretation.
5.3 Interpretation of data

Data interpretation is part of daily life for most people. Interpretation is the process of making
sense of numerical data that has been collected, analyzed, and presented. People interpret data
when they turn on the television and hear the news anchor reporting on a poll, when they read
advertisements claiming that one product is better than another, or when they choose grocery
store items that claim they are more effective than other leading brands.
Figuring out what data means is just as important as collecting it. Even if the data collection
process is sound, data can be misinterpreted. When interpreting data, the data user must not only
attempt to discern the differences between causality and coincidence, but also must consider all
possible factors that may have led to a result.
After considering the design of a survey, consumers should look at the reported data
interpretation. Suppose a report states that 52 percent of all Americans prefer Chevrolet to other
car manufacturers. The surveyors want you to think that more than half of all Americans prefer
Chevrolet, but is this really the case? Perhaps not all those surveyed were Americans. Also, the
52 percent comes from the sample, so it is important to ask if the sample was large enough,
unbiased, and randomly chosen. One also needs to be aware of margins of error and confidence
intervals. If the margin of error for this survey is 5 percent than this means that the percentage of
car owners in the United States who prefer Chevrolet could actually be between 47 and 57
percent (5 percent higher or lower than the 52 percent).
Similar questions are important to consider when we try to understand elections. During the
2000 presidential race, the evening news and newspapers were often filled with poll reports. For
example, one poll stated 51 percent of Americans preferred George W. Bush, 46 percent
preferred Al Gore, and 3 percent were undecided, with a margin of error of plus or minus 5
percent.
The news anchor then went on to report that most Americans prefer George W. Bush. However,
given the data outlined above, this conclusion is questionable. Because the difference between
George W. Bush and Al Gore is the same as the margin of error, it is impossible to know which
candidate was actually preferred. In addition, if we do not know any of the circumstances behind
the poll, we should be skeptical about its findings.
As another example, consider census data that shows a radical increase in the number of people
living in Addis Ababa and Adama along with a decrease in the number of people living in
Semera. One could easily (and falsely) conclude that the data "proves" that people are finding
Semera to be a less desirable place to live and therefore are moving away.
But this hasty conclusion could be missing the big picture. What if the data also reveals that the
average age of Semera has dropped since 1990? Further interpretation of the data may reveal that
when Semera grow older, they move to cold climates to retire. This illustrates why data must be
thoroughly interpreted before any conclusions can be drawn.
A Data Checklist:-When reading any survey, listening to an advertisement, or hearing about
election results, informed consumers should ask questions about the soundness of the data
interpretation. A recap of key points follows.
1. Was the sample unbiased (representative of the whole population)?

2. Was the sample large enough for the purpose of the survey (margin of error of the sample)?
3. What type of questions did the surveyor ask? Were they simple and unambiguous? Were they
leading (constructed in such a way to get the desired response)?
4. Can the conclusions drawn be justified based on the information gathered?
5. How was the survey done (mail, phone, and interview)? Does the survey report mention
margins of error or confidence intervals, and, if so, are these such that the conclusions
drawn are warranted?
By using these checkpoints and learning to think critically about data collection and
interpretation, individuals can become more savvy consumers of information.
Summary
A common method of assessing numerical data is known as statistical analysis, and the activity
of analyzing and interpreting data in order to make predictions is known as inferential .The
range, inter-quartile range and standard deviation are all measures that indicate the amount of
variability within a dataset. The range is the simplest measure of variability to calculate but can
be misleading if the dataset contains extreme values. The inter-quartile range reduces this
problem by considering the variability within the middle 50% of the dataset. The standard
deviation is the most robust measure of variability since it takes into account a measure of how
every value in the dataset varies from the mean. However, care must be taken when calculating
the standard deviation to consider whether the entire population or a sample is being examined
and to use the appropriate formula.
Self -Test Exercises 5
1. Check any necessary assumptions and write a null and alternative hypothesis is the first
step in hypothesis testing.
2. With descriptive statistics, you are trying to reach conclusions that extend beyond the
immediate data alone.
3. Descriptive analysis is the description of data in from the particular sample.
4. Frequencydistributions can be illustrated only in a table format.
Direction II: fill the blank space
1. is the process of making sense of numerical data that has been

collected, analyzed, and presented.
2. is the difference between the largest and smallest values in a set of
values.
3. is the most frequently occurring value in the set of data.
4. is a systematic arrangement of numeric values from the
lowest to highest or from the highest to the lowest
Direction III: Work out
1. Based on the following data calculate
Machine6 A: 8 8 1010101010121214
Machine6 B:
6 6 8 8 10 12 12 14 14 14
I. Mean of each machine

II. The Range
III. The Variance
CHAPTER 6: CURRENT RESEARCH TOPICS IN
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
Contents
6.1 Choose an interesting topic

6.2 Sources of ideas for research topic
6.3 Currentresearch areas
Introduction
Dear distance learner! This chapter will gives you a highlight about current research topics in
information technology. It mainly emphasis what are the current issues to be assessed and
improved for development on our country. Additionally it describes how will be an interesting
topic selects.
Objective
When You have completed this chapter you will be able to:
 Explain how to choose interesting topic.

 Discuss how to get the ideas of the topic.
 Describe issues to be select a current topic.
 List your interesting current topics.
6.1Choose an interesting topic
What are the challenges to select an interesting topic?

Choosing an interesting research topic is your first challenge. Here are some tips:
 Choose a topic that you are interested in! The research process is more relevant if
you care about your topic.
 Narrow your topic to something manageable. The topic has been narrowed and is more
manageable because it focuses on a time (current rather than historic).
o If your topic is too broad, you will find too much information and not be able
to focus.
o Background reading can help you choose and limit the scope of your topic.
 Review the guidelines on topic selection outlined in your assignment. Ask your
instructor, friends and professionals in the field.
 Refer to lecture notes and required texts to refresh your knowledge of the course
and assignment.
 Talk about research ideas with a friend. S/he may be able to help focus your topic
by discussing issues that didn't occur to you at first.
 Think of the who, what, when, where and why questions:
Mention why to consider WH questions?
o WHY did you choose the topic? What interests you about it? Do you have an
opinion about the issues involved?
o WHO are the information providers on this topic? Who might publish
information about it? Who is affected by the topic? Do you know of
organizations or institutions affiliated with the topic?
o WHAT are the major questions for this topic? Is there a debate about the topic?
Are there a range of issues and viewpoints to consider?
o WHERE is your topic important: at the local, national or international level? Are
there specific places affected by the topic?
o WHEN is/was your topic important? Is it a current event or an historical issue?
Do you want to compare your topic by time periods?
Overview - The Importance of Background Information
After choosing a topic, you will need to locate introductory sources that give basic background
information about the subject. Finding background information at the beginning of your research
is especially important if you are unfamiliar with the subject area or not sure from what angle to
approach your topic. Some of the information that a background search can provide includes:
 Broad overview of the subject

 Definitions of the topic
 Introduction to key issues
 Names of people who are authorities in the subject field
 Major dates and events
 Keywords and subject-specific vocabulary terms that can be used for database searches
 Bibliographies that lead to additional resources
6.2Sources of ideas for research topic
Can you describe where to get ideas for your topic?
 Course material: Go back over lecture notes or textbook chapters to find a

topic.
 Brainstorming: Take the general topic and create a concept map for it. From
there you may find some aspect of the topic you would like to explore.
 News: Yahoo News, CNN.com, local broadcast news all cover recent events
and may pique your interest for further exploration of the story.
 Internet: There are many reliable educational and current event
resources available on the Web that are excellent sources of ideas for selecting
research topics. Keep in mind that because of the open nature of the Web, many
resources vary in quality.
6.3Current research areas

 The first current research area in Ethiopia is quality education. Here you can do a
research how quality will be increase in education from KG to higher education.
 Increasing agricultural product is the other research area which is currently the
main issues in the country. As a technology student you can do research like
mobile technology that increase the productivity of the agricultural products.
 Environmental protection mechanism is also the current thematic research areas.
As we know the climate change is the main challenges in the world. As the result
we can do a research like how can monitor the climate changes, what are the
factors and etc.
 The other current research area is Ecotourism which focus on image building and
increase the number of tourist that comes to the country.
 Technology transfer is also the other current research areas. In our country there is
high speed of technology transfer which comes from the other countries. As the
result researches regarding to technology transfer is useful to the country.
 Good governance is the other current research area. How can increase response
time for a given work and other issues can be research areas in this manner.
Summary
Choosing an interesting research topic is your first challenge in research. Narrow our topic to
smoothing manageable, review guide lines, refers lecture notes and talks about research idea
with our friends are some mechanisms to have a good research topic. Answering WH questions
will also help us to select a good research topic. Brainstorming, course material, news and
internet are some of sources of research topic. How can improve quality education, increasing
agricultural products, environmental protection, ecotourism and technology transfer are some
areas of current research areas.
Check- List
now? Please put a tick (√) mark in front of the point you have understood well in the box under
“Yes” and in the box under “No” for the points you have not yet understood well. And if the tick
mark under “No” is more than those under “yes”, it means you are left with a lot to understand the
unit and you have not yet achieved the objectives indicated at the beginning of the unit.
I can
No Main point Yes No
1 Explain how to choose interesting topic
2 Discuss how to get the ideas of the topic
3 Describe issues to be select a current topic
4 List your interesting current topics
Direction I: Explain
1. Discuss current research areas
2. What are the sources for research topic
3. What are the mechanisms to select a good research topic?
CHAPTER 7: ETHICS IN RESEARCH
CONTENTS
7.1What is Research ethics?

7.2 WHY STUDY RESEARCH ETHICS?
7.3 Plagiarism
Introduction
Dear distance learner! This chapter gives you a highlight about the ethics in a research. It also
deals about plagiarism in a research and how you will use the correct citation to avoid
plagiarism.
Objective
 Define ethics in research

 Describe Plagiarism
 State proper use of citation in a research
7.1 What is Research ethics?
What do you think about Ethics in Research?
Research ethics provides guidelines for the responsible conduct of research. In addition,
research ethics educates and monitors scientists conducting research to ensure a high ethical
standard.
7.2 Why study research ethics?
What is the importance to learn Ethics in Research?
Knowing what constitutes ethical research is important for all people who conduct research
projects or use and apply the results from research findings. All researchers should be familiar
with the basic ethical principles and have up-to-date knowledge about policies and procedures
designed to ensure the safety of research subjects and to prevent sloppy or irresponsible research,
because ignorance of policies designed to protect research subjects is not considered a viable
excuse for ethically questionable projects. Therefore, the duty lies with the researcher to seek out
and fully understand the policies and theories designed to guarantee upstanding research
practices. Research is a public trust that must be ethically conducted, trustworthy, and socially
responsible if the results are to be valuable. All parts of a research project – from the project
design to submission of the results for peer review – have to be upstanding in order to be
considered ethical. When even one part of a research project is questionable or conducted
unethically, the integrity of the entire project is called into question.
7.3 Plagiarism
Can you give examples of plagiarism in your own words?

 It is the act of using another person's ideas or work without acknowledging the
original source and giving proper credit. It is unethical and, in some cases, it is illegal.
Plagiarism is a form of academic dishonesty.
 copying without credit or claiming credit for results of others
 Copying another person‟s ideas, processes, or results without giving appropriate

credit.
 Mostly related to citation plagiarism – failure to appropriately credit for a part of the
work taken and reported from another source, so as to give an improper impression of
priority. This is the most common type of scientific misconduct, since authors
intentionally ignore a highly relevant cite or lack knowledge of the prior work.
 Discovery credit can also be inadvertently reassigned from the original discoverer to a
better-known researcher.
Example:-
Original Source Material: Technology has significantly transformed education at several major
turning points in our history. In the broadest sense, the first technology was the primitive modes
of communication used by prehistoric people before the development of spoken language.
Source: Frick, T. (1991). Restructuring education through technology. Bloomington, IN: Phi
Delta Kappa Educational Foundation.
How do you Avoid Plagiarism
Mention the methods that used to avoid plagiarism?

Researchers should always provide proper citations for all quotations, summaries, paraphrases,
or any other work or idea that is borrowed from others
Give credit where it‟s due
• As a profound social activity research connects us to those who will use it, to those
whose research we used, through them, to the research that our sources used;
Hence beyond technique, we need to think about ethics of civil communication
Acknowledgements:
• The place to give credit for any assistance we get during the research work
• Who are the possible individuals & institutions deserving acknowledgement in

your research?
Citations
: • For any concepts, principles, algorithms we used in our research there is a need to
immediately cite the source.Otherwise it is considered as Plagiarism.
Misconduct that distorts scientific knowledge: Fabrication & Falsification
Fabrication:reporting of non-existent data

• Making up results and recording or reporting them.
• Fabricating data is literally making up data. Perhaps it is mentioning an event that

did not occur or reports a data that was not used.
• An example is where references are included to give arguments the appearance

of widespread acceptance, but is actually fake, and/or do not support the
argument.
Falsification: selective reporting of data or result

• Modifying results or invents results or misreport sources such that the research
is not accurately represented in the research record.
• distorting opposing views
• Reporting misleading facts associated with a study, research or experimentation.

• Falsifying data can be as simple as not accounting seriously the margin of error
in a study or it can be as extreme as knowingly changing data to support the
hypothesis.
Plagiarized Version
In examining technology, we have to remember that computers are not the first technology
people have had to deal with. The first technology was the primitive modes of communication
used by prehistoric people before the development of spoken language.
Explanation: This version is word-for-word plagiarism. The student copied, word-by-word,

text from the original source material. No credit was given to the author of the text and
quotation marks were not used. Also, the student did not provide the full in-text citation and
reference.
Correct Version
In examining technology, we have to remember that computers are not the first technology
people have had to deal with. Frick (1991) believes that "... the first technology was the primitive
modes of communication used by prehistoric people before the development of spoken
language" (p. 10).
Reference:
Frick, T. (1991).Restructuring education through technology. Bloomington, IN: Phi Delta Kappa
Educational Foundation.
Explanation: Note in this example that the quoted passage begins with the author and year of the
publication (in-text citation). Quotation marks are used to indicate that this passage is a word-for-
word quotation from the original document. The full in-text citation also includes the page number of
the passage quoted (the locator). The full bibliographic reference tells the reader where the source
of the quotation can be found.
• Suppression: not reporting negative results
– The failure to publish significant findings due to the results being adverse to the
interests of the researcher or his/her sponsor(s)
– Hiding objections that cannot be refuted or destroying or concealing sources and data
important for those who follow
Summary
Research ethics provides guidelines for the responsible conduct of research. In addition, research
ethics educates and monitors scientists conducting research to ensure a high ethical standard.
Ethical research is important for all people who conduct research projects or use and apply the
results from research findings. All researchers should be familiar with the basic ethical principles
and have up-to-date knowledge about policies and procedures designed to ensure the safety of
research subjects and to prevent sloppy or irresponsible research, because ignorance of policies
designed to protect research subjects is not considered a viable excuse for ethically questionable
projects.
Plagiarism is the act of using another person's ideas or work without acknowledging the original
source and giving proper credit. It is unethical and, in some cases, it is illegal. Plagiarism is a
form of academic dishonesty. Therefore Researchers should always provide proper citations for
all quotations, summaries, paraphrases, or any other work or idea that is borrowed from others
Check- List
now?Please put a tick (√) mark in front of the point you have understood well in the box under
“Yes” and in the box under “No” for the points you have not yet understood well. And if the tick
mark under “No” is more than those under “yes”, it means you are left with a lot to understand the
unit and you have not yet achieved the objectives indicated at the beginning of the unit.
I can
No 1 Main point Yes No
2 Define Ethics in Research
Know the importance to be learn research ethics
3 Define Plagiarism
4 Discuss how to avoid plagiarism
Direction I. discuss/Explain
1. Define what is Research Ethics?
2. Explain briefly why to learn Research Ethics?
3. Define the term plagiarism?
4. Discuss how to avoid plagiarism?
.
Answer Keys for Self check Exercises
Self-Test Eexercise1
Direction I: Direction II:
1. True 1. A
2. False 2. D
3. False 3. D
4. True
5.True
Direction III
1.
 Statement of the Problem

 Review of the Literature
 Methodology
 Data Analysis
 Bibliography
 Timetable
2.
 Problem definition.
 Selection of research design.
 Finalization of research instruments.
 Data collection.
 Data processing and analysis.
 Report preparation.
Direction I: Direction II:
1. True 1. D
2. False 2.B
3. True 3. C
4. True 4.A
5. False 5. D
6. True
Direction I
1. False
2. True
3. True
4. False
5. True
Direction II
1. B
2. C
3. A
4. D
5. F
6. E
7. G
Direction III
1. Coding
2. Problem definition
3. Desk research
1. True
2. False
Direction I
3. False Self- Test Exercise 4
Direction II
1. D
4. True
2. A
5. True
Direction III
1. D
2. A
3. D
Direction IV
4. B
1. Ratio
2. Sample
3. B
4. C
3. Interview
4. Ordinal
1.
 quality education,
 increasing agricultural products
 environmental protection
 ecotourism
 technology transfer
2.
 Brainstorming
 course material
 news
 internet
3.
 Narrow our topic to smoothing manageable
 review guide lines
 refers lecture notes
 talks about research idea with our friends
Direction I
1. Research ethics provides guidelines for the responsible conduct of research. In addition,
research ethics educates and monitors scientists conducting research to ensure a high
ethical standard.
2. Research is a public trust that must be ethically conducted, trustworthy, and socially
responsible if the results are to be valuable. All parts of a research project – from the
project design to submission of the results for peer review – have to be upstanding in
order to be considered ethical.
3. Plagiarism is the act of using another person's ideas or work without acknowledging the
original source and giving proper credit. It is unethical and, in some cases, it is illegal.
Plagiarism is a form of academic dishonesty.
4. In order to avoid plagiarism Researchers should always provide acknowledgement,

proper citations for all quotations, summaries, paraphrases, or any other work or idea that
is borrowed from others
Direction I
1. True
2. False
3. True
4. False
Direction II
1. Interpretation
2. Range
3. Mode
4. Distribution
Direction II
I.
 mean for machine A: 110 / 11 = 10

 mean for machine B: 110 / 11 = 10
II.
 range for machine A: 14-6=8( the highest- the lowest)

 range for machine B: 14-6=8( the highest- the lowest)
III. Variance = add up the squares of (Data points - mean), then divide that sum
by (n - 1)
How to find the variance "by hand":
1. Make a table of all x values

2. Find the mean of the data
3. Include a column with the difference to the mean
4. Include a column with the square of difference to the mean
5. Add the last column and divide the sum by (n - 1).
So for Machine A:
x
6
8 4 16
8 2 4
10 2 4
10 0 0
10 0 0
10 0 0
10 0 0
12 0 0
12 -2 4
14 -2 4
4 16
Therefore, the variance for machine A is: (16 + 4 + 4 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 4 + 4 + 16)

/ 10 = 48 / 10 = 4.8
Machine B:
x
6
6 4 16
6 4 16
8 4 16
8 2 4
10 2 4
12 0 0
12 -2 4
14 -2 4
14 -4 16
14 -4 16
-4 16
Therefore, the variance for machine B is: (16 + 16 + 16 + 4 + 4 + 0 + 4 + 4 + 16 + 16

+ 16) / 10 = 112 / 10 = 11.2

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DEPARTMENT OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

RESEARCH METHODS AND TECHNICAL WRITING IN

Assessment and Evaluation Methods

How to Use the Module

This tells you there is an introduction of the unit or an overview of a

section and what the unit or section is about.

This tells you to take note or to remember an important point.

This tells you there is a self-test for you to do.

This tells you there is an activity for you to engage in.

This tells you there is checklist for you to do.

This tells you there is a reference material for additional reading

DEPARTMENT OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

RESEARCH METHODS AND TECHNICAL WRITING IN

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY (InTc2106)

1.1. What is research

Research is a process to discover new knowledge. It is a systematic investigation (i.e., the

For example, if an IT development organization initiates a systems development activity, a

What is the difference between research and theory in your understanding?

1.3Stages of research process

1.4Components of a research proposal

A proposal is a request for support of sponsored research, instruction, or extension projects.

Components of a research proposal

I. Statement of the Problem

II. Review of the Literature

The literature review must address three areas:

Subjects: - can be individuals, families, groups, organizations, states, or countries, depending on

IV. Data Analysis

Assessment and Development of ICT Based Agricultural Knowledge

Write your name here

2. Statement of the problem

Write statement of the problem.

The main aim of this research is

The scope of your research will be stated here.

The usefulness of the research will be described here.

Literature review Data collection Data analysis System design

No Item Cost(Unit Birr)

1. Reference materials 1000

2. Data collection 7000

2. Transportation and telephone 10000

3. Stationery materials and printing service 1300

The four main approaches

Quantitative research is generally associated with the positivist/post positivist paradigm. It

II. Qualitative research

Qualitative researchers do not base their research on pre-determined hypotheses. Nevertheless,

III. Pragmatic approach to research (mixed methods)

 the use of a variety of data sources (data triangulation)

IV. Advocacy/participatory approach to research (emancipatory)

To some degree, researchers adopting an advocacy/participatory approach feel that the

2 Explain the difference between research and theory

3 List the components of research proposal and unable to

4 Compare and contrast the types of research

Direction I: Write “TRUE” if the statement is correct or “FALSE” if it is incorrect.

1. type of research approach concerns the social constructivist

Direction III: explain

1. What are the components of a research proposal

2. List the Stages of research process

2.1 selection of a general topic

2.2 literature review and exploratory study

2.3 specifications of objectives and hypothesis

2.4 concepts and variables

 Select a research problem.

 Brainstorm for ideas