applied

sciences
Article
Crack Propagation and Burst Pressure of Pipeline
with Restrained and Unrestrained Concentric
Dent-Crack Defects Using Extended Finite
Element Method
Allan Okodi 1, *, Yong Li 1 , Roger Cheng 1 , Muntaseer Kainat 2 , Nader Yoosef-Ghodsi 2 and
Samer Adeeb 1, *
1 Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Alberta,
Edmonton, AB T6G 2R3, Canada; yong9@ualberta.ca (Y.L.); jc9@ualberta.ca (R.C.)
2 Enbridge Pipeline Inc., Edmonton, AB T5J 0T6, Canada; muntaseer.kainat@enbridge.com (M.K.);
nader.yoosef@enbridge.com (N.Y.-G.)
* Correspondence: okodi@ualberta.ca (A.O.); adeeb@ualberta.ca (S.A.)




Received: 16 September 2020; Accepted: 10 October 2020; Published: 27 October 2020


Abstract: Mechanical damage in form of dents, cracks, gouges, and scratches are common in pipelines.
Sometimes, these damages form in proximity of each other and act as one defect in the pipe wall.
The combined defects have been found to be more injurious than individual defects. One of the
combined defects in pipeline comprises of a crack in a dent, also known as dent-crack defect.
This paper discusses the development of finite element models using extended finite element criterion
(XFEM) in Abaqus to predict burst pressure of specimens of API X70 pipeline with restrained and
unrestrained concentric dent-crack defects. The models are calibrated and validated using results of
full-scale burst tests. The effects of crack length, crack depth, dent depth, and denting pressure on
burst pressure are investigated. The results show that restrained dent-crack defects with shallow
cracks (depth less than 50% wall thickness) inside dents do not affect pipeline operations at maximum
allowable operating pressure if crack lengths are less than 200 mm. Releasing restrained dent-cracks
when the pressure is at maximum allowable operating pressure can cause propagation of deep cracks
(depth of 50% wall thickness or more) longer than 60 mm. However, only very long cracks (200 mm
and higher) propagate to burst the pipe. Cracks of depth less than 20% of wall thickness inside
dents formed at zero pressure are not propagated by the maximum allowable operating pressure.
Dent-crack defects having dents of depth less than 2% outside diameter of pipe behave as plain cracks
if the dents are formed at zero denting pressure but are more injurious than plain cracks if the dents
are formed in pressurized pipes.

Keywords: dents; cracks; strength; integrity; extended finite element; burst pressure; stress; strain

1. Introduction
Mechanical damage like cracks, scratches, and gouges often occur inside dents in pipelines.
The combined defects are considered more injurious to pipeline integrity than plain defects [1–6].
An example of combined defects found in pipelines is a crack inside a dent, also known as a dent-crack
defect [2–4]. Vilkys et al. [7] showed that gouge depths greater than 50% of wall thickness cause stresses
higher than yield strength of pipe material and cracks are likely to initiate at the tip of such gouges
under normal operating pressure. The dent magnifies the maximum principal stresses developed
in the gouge, increasing susceptibly to cracking. Ronny et al. [8] also showed that hoop stresses are

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 7554; doi:10.3390/app10217554 www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 7554 2 of 18

higher in a pipeline with combined dent and gouge defects than in a pipeline with plain gouges and
concluded that dent-gouge defects significantly lower the burst strength of pipelines.
Very few full-scale experimental studies on dent-crack defects in pipelines have been
accomplished [2–5], mainly because of the difficulty in creating artificial cracks for experiments.
Usually, the cracks are represented by notches and gouges [9] with a small fatigue crack at the tip.
Currently, there are no analytical models for assessing the integrity of a pipeline with dent-crack
defects. The pipeline defect assessment manual [10,11] recommends the use of dent-gouge fracture
models to assess dent-crack, without taking the difference between the stress environments at the tip
of cracks and gouges into consideration.
Oryniak et al. [12] proposed a model for assessing dent-crack defects based on the stress distribution
in a dent with an axial crack lodged at its deepest point by treating the dent as a source of geometric
nonlinearity. Bending stresses through the crack caused by the geometric nonlinearity were added to
the stresses caused by the internal pressure and the sum used to calculate the stress intensity factor
used to analyze crack propagation. The model is considered conservative because it does not account
for the effect of re-rounding of dents under internal pressure on the bending stresses through the crack.
Bai et al. [13] used a notch in an infinitely long dent to represent a dent-crack defect and then modified
the plastic collapse stress of the pipe material to account for deterioration in the material properties
due to the mechanical damage during defect formation and the effect of notch shape. They considered
the modified collapse stress as the burst stress of the pipe, and a fraction of it was used to compute
burst pressure. The main limitation of their approach is that they used a notch instead of a crack.
In the absence of analytical models, the finite element method (FEA) has been successfully used to
evaluate burst pressures of pipelines with dent-crack defects [2–4]. But, it lacks an in-built criterion
for determining burst pressure. The software user must choose one out of several that have been
suggested in literature. Das et al. [14] used a threshold for equivalent plastic strain in the defect
area to analyze fatigue fracture. Adeeb and Horsley [15] used 20% maximum principal strain as the
critical strain for safe excavation of defective pipes in a rock ditch, considering material fails at 20%
strain. Tian and Zhang [16] used an equivalent stress criterion to assess burst strength of pipes with
dent-scratch defect, considering failure to occur when the equivalent stress equals the true tensile
strength of the pipe material. Other studies [2–4,17] used the J-integral concept, assuming failure
occurred when the J-integral at any integration point in the model equaled a critical value J1c of the
material. All the above FEA failure criteria use material properties and geometry of pipe, which are
altered by denting and rebound action of dents [18], further introducing uncertainty in the results.
The extended finite element method (XFEM) uses damage parameters determined through
calibration and input in the model as material properties. Any moderating effects of denting and
re-rounding of dents on material properties and fracture behavior is considered in the calibration
process. The cracks in XFEM models propagate when the value of strains, stresses, and fracture
energy or displacements at any point within the pipe exceed the calibrated damage parameters.
Pressure required to propagate a part-wall crack to a through-wall crack is the burst pressure of the
flawed pipeline, and crack growth is observed from the post processing graphics, which makes it easy
to accurately determine the burst pressure of the pipeline [19].
This paper uses the XFEM procedure in Abaqus [20] to analyze propagation of longitudinal cracks
inside restrained and un-restrained dent and predict burst pressure of pipeline with dent-crack defects.
Pipeline specimens with longitudinal part-wall cracks inside dents are modeled and subjected to
internal pressure to initiate and sustain crack propagation and burst the pipe.
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 7554 3 of 18

XFEM uses the partition of unity concept to waive the need for mesh geometry to match crack
geometry by introducing local enrichment functions and additional degrees of freedom in the standard
FEM formulation [21–23]. An intra-element algorithm freely lays the crack within the mesh without
tying it to element boundaries, thus overcoming the requirement to match the geometry of mesh to
crack geometry. The software searches for regions of crack initiation where stresses and strains exceed
a critical value, after which phantom nodes and their superposed original real nodes move apart as the
crack propagates, following a specified traction separation law (TSL) and damage evolution criterion.
Abaqus standard [20] provides linear, exponential, and tabular TSL options and maximum
principal stress (Maxps) or strain (Maxpe), and maximum nominal stress or strain for damage initiation
criterion. Other damage initiation criteria options include quadratic nominal stress, quadratic nominal
strain, and user-defined criterion. Damage evolution criteria include fracture energy and crack
tip displacement.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Overview of Burst Tests

Burst test results and material properties of API X70 pipe samples with dent-crack defects were
obtained from literature [2] and used to calibrate and validate finite element models for prediction
of burst pressure. The pipes had outside diameter (OD) of 762 mm, wall thickness (t) of 8.5 mm,
and length (L) of 2.5 m. Fatigue load actuators were used to create 0.3 mm deep fatigue cracks at
the tip of 4 mm deep, crack-like v-shaped notches cut at the 12 O’clock position of the pipe using an
electro-discharging machine (EDM). Thus, the total crack-like defect was 4.3 mm deep, approximately
50% of wall thickness and the four specimens used in this study had cracks with lengths (2c) × depth
(a) of 20 × 4.3 mm, 60 × 4.3 mm, 100 × 4.3 mm, and 200 × 4.3 mm.
A rigid rectangular steel block attached to a universal loading actuator was used to create 50 mm
wide by 100 mm long dents over the cracks, to obtain the desired dent-crack defects. Dent depth
and plastic deformation during the denting process were monitored using linear variable differential
transducers (LVDTs). The measured dent depth that remained upon releasing the indenter was 28 mm,
approximately 4% OD of the pipe. A pressure of 3.8 MPa, equivalent to 30% of the yield pressure
(Py ) of the pipe, was maintained in the pipe as denting pressure during dent formation. The pressure
was administered using a hydrostatic pump and monitored both manually and electronically through
transducers. Strains along the pipe length were measured by strain gauges arranged on the pipe
surface. Figure 1 shows the set-up of the burst tests.
Monotonically increasing internal pressure was supplied to the flawed pipe specimens by a
water pump to cause leakage or burst, upon which the test was discontinued. The pressure was
monitored mechanically using pressure gauge and electronically using transducers. Table 1 shows
the experimental and predicted burst pressures of the different pipe specimens used in the burst test.
The pipes in the test had a 28 mm deep dent formed under a pressure of 3.8 MPa, equivalent to 30% of
the yield pressure (Py = 12.67 MPa) of the pipe.
Appl. Sci.
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(b)
(a)

(c)

Figure 1. Schematic diagram showing (a) fatigue loading, (b) fatigue crack, and (c) denting process
Figurewith
(used 1. Schematic diagram
publisher’s consentshowing
granted (a) fatigue
under loading,
license number(b)1528-896X).
fatigue crack, and (c) denting process
(used with publisher’s consent granted under license number 1528-896X).
Table 1. Burst pressures of different specimens.
Table 1. Burst pressures of different specimens.
Burst Pressure (MPa)
Crack Size (mm × mm)
Burst Pressure (MPa)
Burst Test Results Model Predictions
Crack Size (mm ×mm)
20 × 4.3 Burst13.56
Test Results Model Predictions
14.9
60 × 4.3
20 × 4.3 11.28
13.56 11.14
14.9
100 × 4.3
60 × 4.3 9.48
11.28 10.12
11.14
200 × 4.3 7.82 8.34
100 × 4.3 9.48 10.12
200 × 4.3 7.82 8.34
2.2. Material Properties
2.2. Material
SamplesProperties
extracted from the pipe in accordance with procedures of the American Society for
Testing and Materials,
Samples extracted standard
from theE8 (ASTM
pipe in E8) were usedwith
accordance in tensile tests. The
procedures material
of the had a yield
American stress
Society for
of 540 MPa
Testing and(5% proof strain),
Materials, tensile
standard E8strength
(ASTM of E8)620 MPa,used
were Young’s modulus
in tensile E of
tests. 204material
The GPa, and Poisson’s
had a yield
stressv of
ratio of 540
0.3. MPa
Figure(5%2 shows the stress-strain
proof strain), curve ofofthe
tensile strength 620pipe
MPa,material.
Young’sCharpy-V
modulusnotch impact
E of 204 GPa,tests
and
of five sub-size samples (full wall thickness in specimen sizes) taken from the
Poisson’s ratio v of 0.3. Figure 2 shows the stress-strain curve of the pipe material. Charpy-Vpipe showed that the
notch
pipe
impactmaterial was
tests of sufficiently
five ductile. The
sub-size samples (full material was reported
wall thickness to present
in specimen a fully
sizes) takenductile
from thefracture
pipe
behavior, with approximate Charpy impact energy of 152 J at room temperature.
showed that the pipe material was sufficiently ductile. The material was reported to present a fully
ductile fracture behavior, with approximate Charpy impact energy of 152 J at room temperature.
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Figure 2. Stress-strain
Figure 2. Stress-strain curve
curve of
of the
the pipe
pipe material.
material.

2.3. Numerical Modelling

2.3. Numerical Modelling
2.3.1. Overview
2.3.1. Overview
XFEM in Abaqus [20] was used to model the crack propagation. Maximum principal strain
XFEM in Abaqus [20] was used to model the crack propagation. Maximum principal strain
(Maxpe) and fracture energy (Gc ) were used as damage parameters. The pipe material was modelled as
(Maxpe) and fracture energy (Gc) were used as damage parameters. The pipe material was modelled
elastic-plastic with isotropic hardening behavior. Denting of the pipe was accomplished by prescribing
as elastic-plastic with isotropic hardening behavior. Denting of the pipe was accomplished by
a maximum downward displacement load to the indenter as a boundary condition. A displacement
prescribing a maximum downward displacement load to the indenter as a boundary condition. A
load of 63.53 mm left an unrestrained dent of 4% OD depth upon releasing the rigid indenter from the
displacement load of 63.53 mm left an unrestrained dent of 4% OD depth upon releasing the rigid
pipe surface.
indenter from the pipe surface.
2.3.2. Setup of the Model
2.3.2. Setup of the Model
Figure 3a shows the setup of the model and the boundary conditions. Symmetry of the burst test
set upFigure
along 3a
theshows
z-axis the setup
(along pipeoflength)
the model wasandused thetoboundary
model halfconditions.
of the pipe Symmetry
and reduceof the burst test
computational
set up
cost. Thealong
modelthe z-axis (along
comprised pipe length)
of a deformable solidwasstripused to model
of length 250 mm, half
widthof the pipeand
20 mm, and reduce
thickness
computational cost. The model comprised of a deformable solid strip
8.5 mm, a deformable shell of OD 762 mm and length 1250 mm, with part of it cut out and replaced of length 250 mm, width 20
mm, the
with andsolid
thickness
strip in8.5which
mm, athe deformable
crack wasshell of OD 762
embedded. Shellmm and length
geometry was1250 mm,by
defined withthepart
top of it cut
surface
out and replaced with the solid strip in which the crack was embedded.
such that the pipe was assembled by joining the top edge of the shell to the top edge of the solid Shell geometry was defined
by thePrevious
strip. top surface such [19]
studies that show
the pipethatwas assembled
shell elementsby joining
work bestthe top the
when edge of the isshell
section offsetto the top
at mid
edge of the
surface. Thesolid strip. Previous
predictions are closer studies [19] showmade
to predictions that shell
using elements workmodel.
a fully solid best whenButthe thesection
analysis is
offset at mid surface. The predictions are closer to predictions made using
time is significantly longer than the time taken when shell geometry was offset at the top surface. a fully solid model. But
the analysiswith
Predictions timeshell
is significantly
section offsetlonger than
at the topthe time taken
surface when shell
were within 10% ofgeometry
the solidwas offset
model at the top
predictions
surface.
and Predictions
yet the analysis time with was
shellatsection
least 4 offset at the top
times faster. surface coupling
Shell-solid were within 10% ofwas
constraint the used
solid formodel
the
predictions and yet the analysis time was at least 4 times faster. Shell-solid
transition between solid and shell elements in the pipe body. The crack was modelled as a rectangular coupling constraint was
used for
planar theembedded
shell transition in between
the solidsolid and
strip, shellthe
while elements
indenter inwas
the modelled
pipe body.asThe crack was
a discrete rigidmodelled
solid blockas
a rectangular planar shell embedded in the solid strip, while the indenter
placed at the 12 O’clock position of the pipe and over the crack. Surface-to-surface standard contactwas modelled as a discrete
rigidprescribed
was solid block placedthe
between at the
pipe12and
O’clock positionZ-symmetry
the indenter. of the pipe boundary
and over the crack. was
condition Surface-to-surface
applied along
standard contact was prescribed between the pipe and the indenter. Z-symmetry
the circumferential edge of the pipe for symmetry along the z-axis. Vertical support was provided boundary condition at
was applied along the circumferential edge of the pipe for symmetry
the bottom of the pipe by restraining degree of freedom U2 against vertical displacement at locations along the z-axis. Vertical
support
on wassurface
the pipe provided thatatwere
the bottom
placed of onthe pipe
steel by restraining
blocks during thedegree of freedom
burst test. KinematicU2 against
constraint vertical
was
displacement at locations on the pipe surface that were placed on steel blocks
used at the ends of the pipe with the geometric centers as reference points, fixed against displacement during the burst test.
Kinematic constraint was used at the ends
and rotation but allowing the pipe to freely expand. of the pipe with the geometric centers as reference points,
fixed against displacement and rotation but allowing the pipe to freely expand.
part of the pipe having the crack. Therefore, fine mesh distribution was used in it, and coarse mesh
in the rest of the pipe. Final element dimensions in the solid were 5 mm × 2.86 mm × 0.85 mm in the
longitudinal, circumferential, and thickness directions of the pipe respectively, and element size of
18 mm was used for the shell elements. Figure 3b shows mesh distribution in the model, with fine
mesh near the crack and coarse mesh away from the crack to reduce computation cost. A total of 10
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 7554 6 of 18
elements were used in the thickness direction of the pipe.

(a) (b)
Figure 3.
Figure Showing: (a)
3. Showing: (a)Model
Modelgeometry;
geometry;(b)
(b)Mesh
Meshdistribution
distributionin
inthe
the model.
model.

2.3.3. Mesh Distribution

2.3.4. Defect Configuration and Loading Sequence
Eight-node linear brick elements (C3D8R) with reduced integration were used in the solid part of
Three common pipeline dent-crack defect configurations were investigated. The first defect
the pipe, while four-node (S4R) elements with quad-dominated free mesh were used in shell parts of
configuration investigated was a pipe with an unrestrained dent-crack defect subjected to internal
the pipe. Mesh sensitivity analysis was done to optimize accuracy of prediction and reduce the time
pressure. The denting load was applied through the indenter as a displacement. The indenter was
required to complete analysis. Predictions were very sensitive to size of elements in the solid part of
released from the surface of the cracked pipe after loading, to create the unrestrained dent-crack and
the pipe having the crack. Therefore, fine mesh distribution was used in it, and coarse mesh in the rest
the flawed pipe was then subjected to internal pressure to propagate the crack. The second defect
of the pipe. Final element dimensions in the solid were 5 mm × 2.86 mm × 0.85 mm in the longitudinal,
configuration was a pipe with a restrained dent-crack subjected to internal pressure. The indenter
circumferential, and thickness directions of the pipe respectively, and element size of 18 mm was used
was left on the pipe surface after applying denting load and internal pressure was then applied to
for the shell elements. Figure 3b shows mesh distribution in the model, with fine mesh near the crack
propagate the crack. This configuration simulates a pipe dented and cracked by a hard object on
and coarse mesh away from the crack to reduce computation cost. A total of 10 elements were used in
which it is placed during construction. The last configuration was a pipe with a restrained dent-crack
the thickness direction of the pipe.
defect, subjected to maximum allowable operating pressure (MAOP) of the pipe. The indenter was
gradually released
2.3.4. Defect from theand
Configuration pipe surfaceSequence
Loading with the pipe still at MAOP. The objective was to assess
whether releasing the indenter at MAOP would propagate the dent-crack. Often in the field, an
Three common pipeline dent-crack defect configurations were investigated. The first defect
initially restrained dent is unrestrained circumstantially. In such a scenario, getting the maximum
configuration investigated was a pipe with an unrestrained dent-crack defect subjected to internal
safe operating pressure that does not propagate an existing crack as the restraint is released becomes
pressure. The denting load was applied through the indenter as a displacement. The indenter was
paramount. Figure 4 shows the steps used to vary the defect configurations investigated in this study.
released from the surface of the cracked pipe after loading, to create the unrestrained dent-crack and
Different permutations of the steps produce different defect and loading scenarios in the pipe.
the flawed pipe was then subjected to internal pressure to propagate the crack. The second defect
Unrestrained dent-crack defects under internal pressure were realized using steps 1–4. Restrained
configuration was a pipe with a restrained dent-crack subjected to internal pressure. The indenter was
dent-crack under internal pressure was created using steps 1, 2, and 4, eliminating step 3 altogether.
left on the pipe surface after applying denting load and internal pressure was then applied to propagate
Finally, the third scenario (release of indenter at MAOP) was simulated using steps 1, 2, 4, and 3, in
the crack. This configuration simulates a pipe dented and cracked by a hard object on which it is placed
that order, with the amount of pressure used in step 4 being the MAOP of the pipe. Parametric studies
during construction. The last configuration was a pipe with a restrained dent-crack defect, subjected to
were conducted for the three defect scenarios by varying denting pressure, dent depth, and crack
maximum allowable operating pressure (MAOP) of the pipe. The indenter was gradually released
dimensions.
from the pipe surface with the pipe still at MAOP. The objective was to assess whether releasing the
indenter at MAOP would propagate the dent-crack. Often in the field, an initially restrained dent is
unrestrained circumstantially. In such a scenario, getting the maximum safe operating pressure that
does not propagate an existing crack as the restraint is released becomes paramount. Figure 4 shows
the steps used to vary the defect configurations investigated in this study. Different permutations of
the steps produce different defect and loading scenarios in the pipe. Unrestrained dent-crack defects
under internal pressure were realized using steps 1–4. Restrained dent-crack under internal pressure
was created using steps 1, 2, and 4, eliminating step 3 altogether. Finally, the third scenario (release of
indenter at MAOP) was simulated using steps 1, 2, 4, and 3, in that order, with the amount of pressure
used in step 4 being the MAOP of the pipe. Parametric studies were conducted for the three defect
scenarios by varying denting pressure, dent depth, and crack dimensions.
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Figure 4.4.Showing
Figure Showingtypical distribution
typical of von
distribution Mises
of von stressstress
Mises in the in
pipe
theat pipe
different loading steps
at different followed
loading steps
in
followed in this study; Step 1: Apply denting pressure; Step 2: Dent the pipe; Step 3: Releasefrom
this study; Step 1: Apply denting pressure; Step 2: Dent the pipe; Step 3: Release the indenter the
pipe surface; Step 4: Pressurize the pipe to propagate crack and burst the pipe.
indenter from pipe surface; Step 4: Pressurize the pipe to propagate crack and burst the pipe.
2.3.5. Calibration and Validation of the Model
2.3.5. Calibration and Validation of the Model
Maximum principal strain (Maxpe) with exponential traction separation law, were used as damage
Maximum principal strain (Maxpe) with exponential traction separation law, were used as
parameters for XFEM crack propagation. Available studies [19] show that model calibration can
damage parameters for XFEM crack propagation. Available studies [19] show that model calibration
be successfully accomplished using either small-scale or full-scale test results. Burst test results
can be successfully accomplished using either small-scale or full-scale test results. Burst test results
were used to calibrate and validate the model in this study. Burst pressure of the specimen with
were used to calibrate and validate the model in this study. Burst pressure of the specimen with 100
100 mm × 4.3 mm crack was used for calibration. The crack length in the specimen matched the
mm × 4.3 mm crack was used for calibration. The crack length in the specimen matched the dent
dent length perfectly. Results of the three remaining specimens (20 mm × 4.3 mm, 60 mm × 4.3 mm,
length perfectly. Results of the three remaining specimens (20 mm × 4.3 mm, 60 mm × 4.3 mm, and
and 200 mm × 4.3 mm cracks) tested were used in validation. Damage parameters obtained from the
200 mm × 4.3 mm cracks) tested were used in validation. Damage parameters obtained from the
calibration and validation process were fracture strain, Maxpe = 0.045, and fracture energy, Gc = 2 kJ/m2 .
calibration and validation process were fracture strain, Maxpe = 0.045, and fracture energy, Gc = 2
High fracture strain and low fracture energy cause large plastic deformation followed by brittle crack
kJ/m2. High fracture strain and low fracture energy cause large plastic deformation followed by brittle
propagation [24]. Resistance to propagation of a cohesive crack in elastic-plastic materials depends
crack propagation [24]. Resistance to propagation of a cohesive crack in elastic-plastic materials
on material properties and damage parameters (cohesive strength and energy). According to Li and
depends on material properties and damage parameters (cohesive strength and energy). According
Chandra [25], the resistance is effected through plastic dissipation of energy in the material surrounding
to Li and Chandra [25], the resistance is effected through plastic dissipation of energy in the material
the fracture process zone and dissipation of cohesive energy inside the fracture process zone itself.
surrounding the fracture process zone and dissipation of cohesive energy inside the fracture process
Increasing cohesive strength (fracture strain) and strain hardening exponent increases the contribution
zone itself. Increasing cohesive strength (fracture strain) and strain hardening exponent increases the
of plasticity towards resistance of crack propagation but lowers contribution of cohesive energy
contribution of plasticity towards resistance of crack propagation but lowers contribution of cohesive
energy (fracture energy). Large fracture strains show that the material has a high flow stress and
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 7554 8 of 18
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(fracture energy).
require large loadsLarge fracture strains
to plasticize. showloads
The large that the material
produce hastraction
large a high flow stress
within theand require
fracture large
process
loads to plasticize. The large loads produce large traction within the fracture
zone resulting in greater resistance to fracture. Low fracture energy shows that resistance to crack process zone resulting
in greater resistance
propagation to fracture.
is fundamentally byLow fracture
the plastic energy shows
dissipation that in
of energy resistance to crack
the material propagation
around the fracture is
fundamentally by the plastic dissipation of energy in the material around
process zone. A very low amount of energy is required to separate the surfaces within the cohesivethe fracture process zone.
A verytolow
zone amount
form of energy
the crack. Table is required
1 shows to separate
burst the surfaces
pressures of fourwithin the cohesive
specimens obtained zonefromto form the
test and
crack. Table 1made
predictions showsusing
burstthepressures of four
calibrated specimens
model. obtained
The result from
shows testthe
that andmodel
predictions made using
is generally non-
the calibrated model. The result shows that the model
conservative, and predictions were within 10% of the test results. is generally non-conservative, and predictions
were Load-displacement
within 10% of the test results.
curves [2] for the dent formation process in the experiments were used to
validate the denting of the numericalfor
Load-displacement curves [2] the dent
model. formation
Figure 5 showsprocess in the experiments
load-displacement curves for were used to
application
validate the denting of the numerical model. Figure 5 shows load-displacement
and release of the rigid indenter from the pipe surface. There is good agreement between test and curves for application
and release of the
model-derived rigidfor
curves indenter from the
all specimens, pipe
but the surface.
maximum There is good
denting loadagreement
of the model between
was ontest and
average
model-derived curves for all specimens, but the maximum denting load
13% higher than maximum load from tests, showing the models was stiffer than the experiments. of the model was on average
13%
Thishigher than maximum
is attributed to the load
firmfrom tests, showing
supports achieved theinmodels was stiffer
modelling than thetoexperiments.
compared supports used This in
is
attributed
experiments.to the firm supports achieved in modelling compared to supports used in experiments.

Figure 5. Load-displacement curve for application and release

Figure 5. release of
of indenter.
indenter.

3.
3. Results
Results and
and Discussion
Discussion
3.1. Unrestrained Concentric Dent-Crack Defects
3.1. Unrestrained Concentric Dent-Crack Defects
Figure 6 shows the Von Mises stress distribution at different stages of crack propagation through
Figure 6 shows the Von Mises stress distribution at different stages of crack propagation through
the wall of the specimen having a 60 mm × 4.3 mm crack at the center of a 4% OD deep unrestrained
the wall of the specimen having a 60 mm × 4.3 mm crack at the center of a 4% OD deep unrestrained
dent formed at 0.3 Py denting pressure. The crack does not propagate during dent formation but
dent formed at 0.3 Py denting pressure. The crack does not propagate during dent formation but
stresses at the tip are higher than the yield stress of the material (Figure 6b). When the internal pressure
stresses at the tip are higher than the yield stress of the material (Figure 6b). When the internal
is applied, the dent rebounds to recover the circular pipe geometry before the crack begins to propagate
pressure is applied, the dent rebounds to recover the circular pipe geometry before the crack begins
through the wall as shown in Figure 6c. Fracture occurs with visible upward displacement of the
to propagate through the wall as shown in Figure 6c. Fracture occurs with visible upward
internal surface of the pipe (Figure 6d,e) due to plasticization under sustained pressure, typical in
displacement of the internal surface of the pipe (Figure 6d,e) due to plasticization under sustained
specimens with deep cracks [24,26].
pressure, typical in specimens with deep cracks [24,26].
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 7554 9 of 18
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 18

Figure Distribution of
Figure 6. Distribution ofvon
vonMises
Misesstress
stress
in in
pipepipe wall
wall at various
at various stages
stages of propagation
of propagation of a inside
of a crack crack
unrestrained dent: (a) Model of pipe with unrestrained concentric dent-crack;
inside unrestrained dent: (a) Model of pipe with unrestrained concentric dent-crack; (b) Before (b) Before applying
pressure; pressure;
applying (c) At start(c)ofAt
crack
startpropagation; (d) After through
of crack propagation; (d) Afterwall crackwall
through emerges
crackinside pipe;
emerges (e) When
inside pipe;
crack
(e) has crack
When fully opened
has fullyand fracture
opened andisfracture
complete. is complete.

Table 22 shows
Table shows thethe effect
effect of
of varying
varying the defect parameters
the defect parameters on on the
the burst
burst pressure
pressure of of aa pipe
pipe with
with
unrestrained concentric dent-crack defect, considering crack depths of 1.7 mm (0.2
unrestrained concentric dent-crack defect, considering crack depths of 1.7 mm (0.2 t) and 4.3 mm (0.5t) and 4.3 mm (0.5 t).
Internal pressure (denting pressure) ranging from 0% to 80% of yield pressure, P (P
t). Internal pressure (denting pressure) ranging from 0% to 80% of yield pressure, Pyy (Pyy = 12.67 MPa), = 12.67 MPa),
was maintained
was maintained in in the
the pipe
pipe during
during dent
dent formation
formation as as crack
crack length
length and
and dent
dent depths
depths were
were varied.
varied.
Denting the pipe at a pressure of 0.8P (=10.13 MPa) caused
Denting the pipe at a pressure of 0.8Pyy (= 10.13 MPa) caused cracks to propagate in cracks to propagate in the
the
circumferential direction
circumferential direction during
during formation
formation of of the
the unrestrained
unrestrained dent-crack
dent-crack because
because the
the total
total bending
bending
and membrane strains normal to the circumferential plane surpassed the threshold
and membrane strains normal to the circumferential plane surpassed the threshold fracture strain fracture strain inin
the process. The risk of circumferential propagation increased with dent depth and
the process. The risk of circumferential propagation increased with dent depth and denting pressure. denting pressure.
It was
It was impossible
impossible to to dent
dent the
the pipe
pipe toto 6%
6% OD
OD depth
depth atat 0.3
0.3 PPyydenting
dentingpressure
pressurewith
with200200mmmmlonglongcrack.
crack.
Similarly, creating 6%OD deep dents at 0.5Py denting pressure was generally
Similarly, creating 6%OD deep dents at 0.5Py denting pressure was generally problematic for problematic for all crack
all
lengths because large strains are involved.
crack lengths because large strains are involved.
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 7554 10 of 18

Table 2. Burst pressure of pipes with unrestrained concentric dent crack defects.

Crack Size (mm) Denting Pressure (MPa)

0.0 Py 0.3 Py 0.5 Py 0.8 Py
Dent Depth (%OD)
Depth Length
2% 4% 6% 2% 4% 6% 2% 4% 6% 2% 4% 6%
Burst Pressure (MPa)
20 15.08 i 15.12 i 15.25 i 15.49 i 15.69 14.29 i 15.51 i 15.16 i ** ** ** **
60 15.11 i 15.13 i 15.21 i 15.71 i 15.83 i 14.5 15.58 i 14.8 i ** ** ** **
0.2 t
100 15.03 i 15.26 i 15.18 i 15.59 i 15.64 14.37 15.17 i 14.66 i 6.3 * ** ** **
200 15.96 16.42 i 15.19 i 15.65 i 15.64 i ** 15.3 i 10.8 ** ** ** **
20 15.01 15.13 15.19 15.59 14.9 14.15 15.33 13.7 10.45 ** ** **
60 13.63 10.51 10.12 11.78 11.14 11.66 10.7 11.76 ** ** ** **
0.5 t
100 12.68 10.28 9.89 11.07 10.12 3.8 * 10.14 6.3 * 6.3 * ** ** **
200 11.18 9.57 9.62 10 8.34 ** 8.18 ** ** ** ** **
i:Pipe plasticizes without crack propagation; *: Crack propagated by denting pressure; **: Crack propagates during
denting, dent formation unsuccessful; t: wall thickness; OD: Outside diameter; Py : yield pressure.

3.1.1. Effect of Crack Depth on Burst Pressure

Unrestrained dent-cracks having 0.2 t deep cracks of any length inside dents less than 6% OD
deep had no tangible effect on the burst pressure if the defects were formed at <0.5 Py denting pressure.
A denting pressure of 0.5 Py for dents of depths < 6% OD and crack of lengths ≤ 200 mm, was not
consequential to operations of pipeline if crack depths were ≤0.2 t. The pipes sustained pressures
higher than 10.13 MPa -the MAOP of the pipe- without bursting. Most specimens with 0.2 t deep
cracks inside dents sustained very high internal pressure and plasticized significantly without crack
propagation. On the other hand, all specimens with 0.5 t deep crack in the dent failed by fracture and
their burst pressures decreased with crack length, for all dent depths and denting pressures. Specimens
with shallow cracks tend to fail by plastic collapse, while deeply cracked specimens tend to fail by
fracture [19,24].

3.1.2. Effect of Crack Length on Burst Pressure

Crack length was varied from 20 to 200 mm while maintaining crack depth at 0.5t, varying dent
depths from 0% to 6% OD, and denting pressures from 0 to 0.8 Py . Increasing crack length from 20
to 200 mm in a 2% OD deep dent formed at zero pressure caused a 25% drop in the burst pressure
and a 36% drop for dent depths ≥4% OD. Dent-crack defects with ≤2% OD dent depths formed at 0
pressure had the same burst pressure as plain cracks (Figure 7a). With cracks of lengths >20 mm and
dent depth >2% OD, dent cracks were more severe than plain cracks, as shown in Figure 7b,c, with the
disparity increasing with crack length and denting pressure.
According to Ghaednia et al. [2–4], dent-crack defects with cracks of 0.5 t depth inside dents of 4%
OD depths were unable to sustain pressure equivalent to the MAOP of the pipe if crack lengths were
greater than 75 mm, regardless of the pressure at which the dents were formed. This study shows that
the margin of safety is higher and varies with pressure. All dents formed at zero pressure with a 0.5 t
crack would sustain the MAOP for crack lengths < 200 mm as shown in Figure 7a, while Figure 7b
shows that 0.5 t deep cracks inside 4%OD deep dents formed at 0.3 Py denting pressure have limiting
length of 100 mm. The same defect if formed at 0.5 Py would have a limit length less than 100 mm.
Ghaednia et al. [2] applied the J-integral concept to decide whether the pipe had failed.
Failure occurred when the J-integral value at any point in the crack reached 1.15 J1c , the critical
value of J-integral at which the material fractured. We believe, based on our analysis, that using the
J-integral value at the tip of an existing crack to determine burst pressure of pipeline is conservative.
Whereas crack growth in the model initiated at lower pressure, its progression beyond the immediate
vicinity of the original crack tip was slowed by plasticity, enabling the pipes to sustain more pressure
before bursting.
Appl. Sci.
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x7554
2020, 10, FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 18

(a) (b)

(c)
Figure 7. Variation of burst pressure of specimens with 0.5 t deep crack inside dents of different depths
formed 7.
Figure at:Variation
(a) Denting
of pressure = 0, (b)ofDenting
burst pressure specimens with=0.5
pressure 0.3t Pdeep
y ; (c) crack
Denting dents=of
pressure
inside 0.5different
Py .
depths formed at: (a) Denting pressure = 0, (b) Denting pressure = 0.3 Py; (c) Denting pressure = 0.5 Py.
3.1.3. Effect of Dent Depth on Burst Pressure
According
Increasing the to Ghaednia
dent depth etfrom
al. [2–4],
0% todent-crack
6% OD whiledefects with the
keeping cracks of length
crack 0.5 t depth
and theinside dents
crack of
depth
4% OD depths
constant did notwere unable
change the to sustain
burst pressure
pressure if theequivalent
dent was to the MAOP
formed at zeroofpressure
the pipe(Figure
if crack8a).
lengths
But,
were greater
where dentingthan
of the75pipe
mm,wasregardless of thewith
accomplished pressure at which
the pipe alreadythe dents
under were formed.
pressure, increasingThis
thestudy
dent
shows
depthsthat the margin
at constant oflength
crack safety is
andhigher
crackand varies
depth with pressure.
reduced the burst All dents formed
pressure, as shown at in
zero pressure
Figure 8b,c.
with a 0.5
The rate of tdrop
crackinwould sustain
the burst the with
pressure MAOP fordepth
dent crackincreased
lengths <200
withmmcrackaslength
shown in denting
and Figure 7a, while
pressure.
Figure 7b showsdefects
Dent-crack that 0.5 t deepdents
having > 4%
cracks inside 4%ODformed
OD deep, deep dents formed
at denting at 0.3 >
pressure Py0.3
denting
Py withpressure
a crack
have
of length > 100length
limiting mm and of 100 mm.
depth Thet same
≥ 0.5 defecttoif burst
were likely formed at 0.5 Py would
at pressures have MAOP
lower than a limit of
length less
the pipe.
thandents
All formed at 0.5 Py denting pressure and having crack of lengths > 100 mm inside them did not
100 mm.
Ghaednia
sustain the MAOP et al.of[2]
theapplied
pipe. the J-integral concept to decide whether the pipe had failed. Failure
occurred when the J-integral value at any point in the crack reached 1.15 𝐽1𝑐 , the critical value of J-
integral at which the material fractured. We believe, based on our analysis, that using the J-integral
value at the tip of an existing crack to determine burst pressure of pipeline is conservative. Whereas
crack growth in the model initiated at lower pressure, its progression beyond the immediate vicinity
of the original crack tip was slowed by plasticity, enabling the pipes to sustain more pressure before
bursting.

3.1.3. Effect of Dent Depth on Burst Pressure

Increasing the dent depth from 0% to 6% OD while keeping the crack length and the crack depth
constant did not change the burst pressure if the dent was formed at zero pressure (Figure 8a). But,
8b,c. The rate of drop in the burst pressure with dent depth increased with crack length and denting
pressure.
Dent-crack defects having dents >4% OD deep, formed at denting pressure >0.3 Py with a crack
of length >100 mm and depth ≥0.5 t were likely to burst at pressures lower than MAOP of the pipe.
All
Appl.dents formed
Sci. 2020, at 0.5 Py denting pressure and having crack of lengths >100 mm inside them did
10, 7554 not
12 of 18
sustain the MAOP of the pipe.

(a) (b)

(c)

Figure 8.
Figure Variation of
8. Variation of burst
burst pressure
pressure with
with dent
dent depth,
depth, for
for pipes
pipes having
having 0.5
0.5 tt deep
deep cracks
cracks of of various
various
lengths inside
lengths inside dents
dents formed
formed at:
at: (a)
(a) Denting pressure == 0,
Denting pressure 0, (b) Denting pressure == 0.3
(b) Denting 0.3 Pyy;; (c)
(c) Denting
Denting
pressure ==0.5
pressure 0.5PPy.y .

3.1.4. Effect of Denting Pressure

3.1.4. Effect of Denting Pressure
Figure 9 shows the variation of the burst pressure with denting pressure for pipes having different
Figure 9 shows the variation of the burst pressure with denting pressure for pipes having
dent depths and crack dimensions. The results show that dent-crack defects formed when the pipe
different dent depths and crack dimensions. The results show that dent-crack defects formed when
was under pressure were more severe on burst strength. For a given crack length and dent depth,
the pipe was under pressure were more severe on burst strength. For a given crack length and dent
burst pressure dropped with increase in denting pressure. Specimens having crack length ≥ 100 mm in
depth, burst pressure dropped with increase in denting pressure. Specimens having crack length ≥100
dents of depth ≥ 4% OD formed at 0.3 P were likely to burst at pressures lower than MAOP of the
mm in dents of depth ≥ 4% OD formed aty 0.3 Py were likely to burst at pressures lower than MAOP
pipe. All specimens with dents formed at 0.5 Py and having crack length ≥ 100 mm burst at pressures
of the pipe. All specimens with dents formed at 0.5 Py and having crack length ≥100 mm burst at
lower than MAOP. It is thus valid to say that dents augmented the effect of cracks on burst pressure,
pressures lower than MAOP. It is thus valid to say that dents augmented the effect of cracks on burst
and denting pressure magnified the effect of the dent depth. Dent-crack defects formed at 0.3 P or
pressure, and denting pressure magnified the effect of the dent depth. Dent-crack defects formedy at
lower denting pressures sustained the MAOP if the dent depths are less than 4%OD and cracks inside
0.3 Py or lower denting pressures sustained the MAOP if the dent depths are less than 4%OD and
the dents were less than 100 mm long and 0.5 t deep. Defects formed at 0.5 Py only sustained the
cracks inside the dents were less than 100 mm long and 0.5 t deep. Defects formed at 0.5 Py only
MAOP if the crack lengths were less than 100 mm. As concluded by Ghaednia et al. [2], dent-crack
defects having 4% OD deep dents formed at 0.3 Py are likely to sustain the MAOP if the crack length is
<75 mm and crack depth is 0.5t.
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 18

sustained the MAOP if the crack lengths were less than 100 mm. As concluded by Ghaednia et al. [2],
dent-crack
Appl. Sci. 2020,defects
10, 7554 having 4% OD deep dents formed at 0.3 Py are likely to sustain the MAOP13
ifofthe
18
crack length is <75 mm and crack depth is 0.5t.

(a)
(b)

(c) (d)

Figure 9. Variation of burst pressure with denting pressure, for pipes with 0.5 t deep cracks of varied
Figure 9. Variation of burst pressure with denting pressure, for pipes with 0.5 t deep cracks of varied
lengths inside dents of varied depths: (a) Crack length = 20 mm, (b) Crack length = 60 mm, (c) Crack
lengths inside dents of varied depths: (a) Crack length = 20 mm, (b) Crack length = 60 mm, (c) Crack
length =100 mm and (d) Crack length = 200 mm.
length =100 mm and (d) Crack length = 200 mm.
3.2. Restrained Concentric Dent-Crack Defects
3.2. Restrained Concentric Dent-Crack Defects
Figure 10 shows the von Mises stress distribution at different stages of crack propagation through
Figure
the wall 10 specimen
of the shows the von Mises
having a 60 mmstress
× 4.3distribution
mm crack inata different
4% OD deep stages of crack
restrained propagation
dent formed at
through the wall of the specimen having a 60 mm × 4.3 mm crack in a 4% OD deep
0.3 Py denting pressure. The remaining ligaments experienced large stresses similar to the ligaments restrained dent
formed at 0.3 P y denting pressure. The remaining ligaments experienced large stresses similar to the
in the unrestrained dent-cracks prior to the start of crack propagation under pressure. Plasticization
ligaments
accompanied in the unrestrained
fracture but upward dent-cracks prioroftothe
displacement theinternal
start ofsurface
crack of
propagation
the pipe was under
limitedpressure.
by the
Plasticization
dent restraint. There is negligible difference between the pressure required to propagate the crack was
accompanied fracture but upward displacement of the internal surface of the pipe and
limited by theofdent
burst pressure restraint.
the pipe There is negligible
with restrained dent. This difference
is in sharp between the pressure
contrast with the response required
of pipesto
propagate
with the crackdent
unrestrained and cracks,
burst pressure of the
where the pipe
crack with restrained
propagated dent.internal
at 9 MPa This is in sharp contrast
pressure and burstwithat
the response of pipes
11.14 MPa internal pressure.with unrestrained dent cracks, where the crack propagated at 9 MPa internal
pressure and burstdents
Unrestrained at 11.14 MPa internal
rebound pressure.
before the cracks begin to propagate through the wall, hence releasing
elastic bending stresses. The crack is then free tocracks
Unrestrained dents rebound before the open and begin to propagate
propagate when the through the wall,at hence
stress intensity its tip
releasing elastic bending stresses. The crack is then free to open and propagate
exceeds material strength. The rebound action is prevented in restrained dent-crack defects. Therefore, when the stress
intensity
the cracksatare
its tip
notexceeds
free andmaterial
requirestrength. The rebound
high internal pressureaction
to openis prevented
and beginin restrained dent-crack
propagation. The high
defects. Therefore, the cracks are not free and require high internal pressure to
internal pressure also plasticizes the pipe wall around the crack tip to the extent that the pipe cannotopen and begin
propagation. The high internal pressure also plasticizes
sustain significant additional pressure once crack propagation begins. the pipe wall around the crack tip to the
extent that the pipe cannot sustain significant additional pressure once crack propagation begins.
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 7554 14 of 18
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 18

Figure 10. Distribution of von Mises stress in pipe wall at various stages of propagation of a crack
Figure 10. Distribution of von Mises stress in pipe wall at various stages of propagation of a crack
inside a restrained dent: (a) Model of pipe with restrained dent-crack; (b) Before applying pressure;
inside a restrained dent: (a) Model of pipe with restrained dent-crack; (b) Before applying pressure;
(c) At start of crack propagation; (d) After fracture is complete.
(c) At start of crack propagation; (d) After fracture is complete.

Table 3 shows the predicted burst pressure of specimens with various sizes of restrained dent-crack
Table 3 shows the predicted burst pressure of specimens with various sizes of restrained dent-
defects. All specimens with cracks of depth 0.2 t inside dents sustained pressures greater than the yield
crack defects. All specimens with cracks of depth 0.2 t inside dents sustained pressures greater than
pressure, Py , of the pipe without fracturing. Crack length, dent depth, and denting pressures had no
the yield pressure, Py, of the pipe without fracturing. Crack length, dent depth, and denting pressures
measurable effect on the burst pressure of the specimens, as they failed by plastic collapse. Releasing
had no measurable effect on the burst pressure of the specimens, as they failed by plastic collapse.
the indenter from the pipe surface with the pipe operating at MAOP did not cause crack propagation
Releasing the indenter from the pipe surface with the pipe operating at MAOP did not cause crack
in the specimens (Table 4).
propagation in the specimens (Table 4).
With a crack of depth
Table 3. Burst0.5t, burstofpressures
pressure pipes withdropped
restrainedwith increasing
concentric crack
dent-crack length, dent depth,
defect.
and denting pressure similar to the pipes with unrestrained dent-crack defects. However, burst
Crack Size (mm) Denting Pressure (MPa)
pressure of specimens with restrained dents-cracks were generally higher than burst pressures of the
corresponding specimens with unrestrained dent-cracks (Table 0.5
0.0 Py 0.3 Py
2) Pand
y
plain cracked 0.8 Py
specimens
Dent Depth (%OD)
(Table
Depth 5).Length
2% 4% 6% 2% 4% 6% 2% 4% 6% 2% 4% 6%
Restraining dents contribute in two ways to improve pipe resistance to fracture. First,
Burst Pressure (MPa)
compressive stresses i from the restraint reduce stress triaxiality at thei crack itip andi secondly, they
20 16.76 15.97 i 15.83 i 15.73 i 15.72 i 15.94 i 15.75 i 16.26 15.81 16.05 15.80 i 15.98 i
counteract 60 hoop stresses
17.25 from
16.87 i internal
15.80 i pressure.
15.69 i 15.63 Therefore,
i 15.78 i high
15.62 i pressure
15.68 i is
15.91required
i 16.06 to develop
15.95 i 15.88the
i
0.2 t
fracture strain 100 and 15.82 i cracks
propagate
16.62 15.93 i in15.66 i 15.79 i dents.
restrained 15.91 i 15.59 i 15.63 i 15.60 i 15.95 i 15.80 i 15.81 i
200 16.45 15.84 i 15.79 i 15.60 i 15.93 i 15.65 i 16.01 i 15.75 i 16.10 i 15.74 16.03 16.47 i
Restrained dent-crack i
defects
i
with
i
crack
i
lengths
i
≥100i
mm inside
i
dents
i
ofidepth ≥6% i
ODi formed
20 16.26 16.22 16.03 15.95 15.83 15.98 15.76 15.71 16.06 16.03 16.04 16.03 i
at any pressure 60 were
15.67 problematic
16.03 16.18as
i they
15.53 displayed
15.61 i susceptibility
16.10 i 15.76 to unstable
15.98 16.14 i crack
15.58 propagation
15.91 16.06in
0.5 t h i h h
circumferential and longitudinal directions.
100 15.35 15.86 15.97 15.5 Denting pipes
15.65 14.06 at 0.8 Py propagated
15.45 15.71 6.47 cracks of length ≥100
15.28 15.22 **
200 14.93 15.23 13.76 h 14.83 15.16 11.82 h 14.77 15.09 10.06 h 14.36 ** **
mm inside dents of depths ≥4% OD. Releasing the dent restraint at MAOP did not propagate cracks
i : Pipe plasticizes without crack propagation; h : Longitudinal crack propagates in circumferential direction; **: Crack
of length <60 mm.
propagates duringCracks of length
denting, dent formation>60 mm propagated
unsuccessful; but only
t: wall thickness; those with
OD: Outside lengths
diameter; >100
Py : yield mm and
pressure.
inside dents of depth ≥4% OD deep formed at 0.8 Py denting pressure propagated until the pipes burst
when the dent restraint was released.
 t i i 0.5100 t i i i 0.5100 200
t i i hii i 0.5100 16.45
i i i i 16.26 i i i i i16.22iiii i i i15.60
ti15.53 i16.03 16.18
ti15.53 i 16.18
iii ii i i i 15.95 iiii iiii i i i i 16.18
15.83 ii iiiiii i i 200
ii15.61
16.26 i i15.61
16.18
i15.98 ih
16.22iiiii ii i i16.45
ii16.10 ii15.61
16.18
15.7616.10
ihiiiii ii ii i 16.18
ii16.03 ii15.61
ii 16.10
ih iiiii ii ii ii 16.18
15.71
ih15.95 16.26 15.61
i16.10
i3
i 16 iih ii ii 16.10
i i15.83
i 26
ii ii 16.18
16.22 i 15.61
i316.10
16 ih ii ii i15.74
iii i16.03
i2215.98 16.03ii15.61
i 16.18i3 16.10
ihiiii 16.04
i 16 ii ii 16.03
i03
15.76 i15.61
16.18i16.10
i3
15.95 iih15iii iii 16.0
i 15.71
95 15.61
ii 16.18
16.0
i3
i3i16.10
15.83 ihii15 ii iii i16.18
83 15.61
16.18
16.0
i3
i3i16.10
ihiiii 15
15.98 ii ii 16.0
98 15.61
i3
i3 i16.10
16.03ihiii i i 15
15.76 16.10 i15.6
76315.6
ii 16.0i3i16
16.ihii
0.5100
60 t i 0.5100
15.35
15.67
60 15.35
15.86
15.67
60
16.03 15.35
15.86
15.67
60
16.03 15.35
15.86
15.67
60 15.5
t15.53
16.03 0.5100
15.35
15.86
15.67
hi i 15.67
60
16.03 15.5 0.5100
hi i i 15.67
15.35
15.86
15.67
60 15.5
t15.53
16.03 i h h0.5 100
15.35
15.86
15.67
6016.03 15.5 15.45
i 15.76
0.5 100
15.35
15.67
60 15.86
16.03 15.5
15.53
it15.53 15.45
15.71
i15.76 100
15.35
15.98
0.5 15.86
15.67
60 15.5
i15.53
16.03
t15.53 15.45
15.71
15.76 6.47
100
15.35
15.98
16.14
i 0.5 15.86
15.67
60
16.03 15.5
15.53 15.45
i hi 15.76
t15.53
113.76 15.71
6.47
15.98
i 16.1415.28
100
15.35
15.86
15.67
15.58
60 15.5
15.53
16.03 15.45
15.7615.71
6.47
15.98
16.1415.28
15.22
15.35
15.86
i 15.67 15.5
15.53
15.58
16.03
15.91 15.45
15.7615.71
6.47
15.98
16.1415.28
15.22
15.86
15.58 15.5
**
15.53
i16.03
15.91 15.45
15.76
0.5 15.71
6.47
15.98
16.14 15.28
t15.22
15.58 15.5
**
15.53
15.91 15.45
i 15.76 15.71
6.47
15.98
16.14
60 15.28
15.22
15.58 15.5
**
15.53
15.91 15.45
15.76 15.71
i15.98
ii15.76 6.47
15.28
16.14 15.22
15.58
15.6715.91** 15.45
15.76
ii15.76 15.71
6.47
15.98
i16.1415.28
15.22
15.58
15.91
16.03 7** 15.45
15.71
15.76 6.47
15.98
iii15.76 16.1415.28
15.22
i 15.58
15.91** 15.45
i 15.7615.71
6.47
15.9815.28
16.14i15.22
15.58
15.91
15.53** ii15.76 15.71
6.47
15.98 15.28
16.1415.22
15.58
15.91 ** ii11
15.97
13.76 20 6013.76 15.97 6013.76 15.65
15.97 60
16.03 i i i 15.67
15.65
15.97
13.76 14.06
11.82 60
16.03 13.76 i i hi 15.67
h11.82
15.65
15.97 ii14.06
60
16.03 20
13.76 i i hi 15.67
h11.82
15.65
15.97 ii14.06
60
16.03 13.76 h11.82
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ii14.06
i ii
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6016.03 15.9715.65
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60
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15.6511.82i 15.98
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hi16.14
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15.97 6ihi15.76
i6 15.98
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i 15.58
iii i 10.06
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6616.10 i 15.98
i i16.14
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15.6 i
0.5100
200t 100
15.35
200
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0.5 t 100
15.35
20015.86
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0.5 15.23
t 0.5 100
15.35
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14.93 16.18
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15.23
t 0.5100
15.35
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14.93 16.18
15.86
t 15.5
14.83
15.23 i 16.18
0.5100
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200 15.86
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t 15.61
15.5
14.83
15.16 0.5 i 16.18
100
15.35
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15.5
14.83
15.23 16.10
15.16 0.5 100
15.35
200
14.93i16.18
15.86
15.23
t 15.61
16.18
15.5
14.83 16.10
15.16 15.45
14.77
0.5 100
15.35
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14.93 16.18
i 15.61
16.18
15.86
15.23
t 15.5
14.83 16.10
15.16 15.45
15.71
14.77 100
15.35
15.09
0.5 200 15.86
14.93
15.23
t i15.61
16.1815.61
16.18
15.5
14.83 16.10
15.16 15.45
15.71
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100
15.35
15.09
0.5 200
14.93 16.18
15.86
15.23
t 15.61
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14.83 h i15.45
i16.10
15.61
16.10
15.16 15.71
14.77 6.47
15.09 15.28
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14.36
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14.93 15.61
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15.61
16.18
15.5
14.83
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16.10
14.7715.71
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14.93 15.61
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15.86 15.61
16.18
15.5
14.83
15.23 **
15.16h i15.45
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i 15.61
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15.22
14.36 15.5
14.83
**
15.16h i15.45
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16.10
14.77 15.71ii16.18
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15.22
14.36 i i16.10
15.61
16.10
15.61
15.5
14.83
** h i15.45
15.16 14.77 15.71
6.47
15.09 15.28 15.61
i 16.18
i 16.0
15.22
14.36 15.61
**
15.16h i15.45
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16.1014.7715.71 3
6.47
15.09 16.18
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15.61
16.0
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15.22
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14.77 6.47
15.09 15.2815.61
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14.77 6.47
15.0915.28 15.61
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16.0
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15.09 16.0
16.0
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4 15.79
60 15.60 15.67
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60 6015.930.515.67
16.03 60
16.0315.65
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h 0.5
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60
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60
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16.03 15.53 15.98i 0.5
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60
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16.14 h15.53
15.67
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60 15.53
16.03 15.76
i 0.5
i15.76
15.76
h11.82 60
h15.98
16.14 16.22
t13.76
15.67
15.67h15.53
16.03
15.53
15.58
16.03
15.91 i15.76
15.76
h14.06 15.71
i 0.5
15.98 60
15.67
h15.98
16.14 h16.03
t15.53
16.03
15.5815.53
16.03
15.91 h11.82 0.5
i 0.5
i15.7615.98
15.7616.14
h15.98 t15.91
15.67
60
16.03
16.14 15.58 15.95
t13.76
h15.53
15.53 ii15.76
i 15.98
i15.76
h11.82 100
16.14
15.67
h15.98
16.14 h15.53
15.58
16.03
15.5815.53
15.91 15.83
ii15.76
i 15.98
15.76 15.35
16.14
h15.98
16.14 16.04
15.58
16.03
15.91
15.53
15.58
15.91
h 15.65 i15.98
15.76i 15.98
i15.76h15.9815.86
16.14
16.14 h16.0
15.5815.53
15.91
15.58
15.91 15.76
ii15.76
15.98
15.7616.14
h15.98
16.14 h15.53
15.58
15.91
15.58h 15.76
15.91 15.71
15.98
ii15.76
16.14
15.98
16.14 h15.5
15.58
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15.58
15.91 i 15.98
i15.76 16.14 h ii11
15.91
15.58
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15.58
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20 11.82
i i16.10 15.97ii14.06
i i i 15.74 15.9715.65
15.97 i14.06
i i i 16.03
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15.65
15.97 ii i 10.06 20 15.97
15.97 15.65
i14.06
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14.06ii ii 10.06 15.65
15.97 i14.06
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15.97
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15.97
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ii ii 16.06 15.65
15.97i614.06
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11.82
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i i i 10.0615.97 14.06
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6 i15
15.65i i 10.06
15.9715.65
15.976614.06
i 10.06 15.65
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i i 10.06
16.06 66hhi i
15.6
15.614
100i
200 100
15.35
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15.35
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15.35
20015.86
14.93
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14.93 14.83
15.23 i
15.5 100
15.35
200 15.86
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i15.5
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15.35
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14.93 15.5
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15.2315.16
i
i16.18
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200 15.86
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14.83 i 15.45
15.16 14.77 100
15.35
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14.9315.86
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14.83
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14.77 15.61
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15.23 15.5
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15.35
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i h 15.45
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15.35
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14.93 15.5
14.83
15.2315.16i
i16.18
h 15.45
14.7715.71
6.47
15.09 15.28
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15.35
15.86
14.36
i 14.93
i
15.5
14.83
15.23 **
15.16i
i 15.45
h 14.7715.71
6.47
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15.22
15.86
14.36 15.5
14.83
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15.16i
h
i15.61
15.45
14.7715.71
6.47
15.09 15.28
15.22
14.36 15.5
14.83
**
15.16i
hi
h 15.45
i
i 16.10
14.77 15.71
6.47
15.09 16.18
15.28
15.22
14.36 i
14.83
** 616
15.5
i15.16
h i
h 15.45
14.77 i18
i15.716.47
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14.36 6hhi 15.45
**
15.16h i
14.77i
i16.0
15.71
6.47
15.09 15.28
15.22
14.36 36hhh11.82
15.61
** hi i
15.45
15.71
14.77 61
6.47
15.09 15.28
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i 14.36 16.10
** i
h 15.45
h 16
15.71
14.77 10
6.47
15.0915.28
i15.22
14.36 ** h 6.47
15.09 15.28
15.22
14.36 ** h
0.5i:plasticizes
t Pipe i
0.5i:plasticizes
t Pipe i
0.5
0.5i:plasticizes
t Pipe 0.5crack t13.76
t Pipeh i 60
i:plasticizes 100
0.5
0.5 t13.76 i 100
0.5
h 15.67
t Pipe
i:plasticizes 0.515.35 t13.76h i16.03
t Pipe
i:plasticizes
i 100
0.5
0.5 15.35
15.86
tLongitudinal
t Pipe
13.76 i 0.5
i:plasticizesh0.5
h11.82 100
15.35
15.86 tLongitudinal
t Pipe
13.76 h 0.5
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ii:plasticizes 100
15.35
15.86
15.53
i h0.5 15.5
t 60
13.76 h i 0.5
ti:plasticizes
h11.82
h0.5100
15.35
15.86 15.5
tcrack
t15.67
13.76 h i 0.5
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i:plasticizes 100
h0.5 15.35
15.86
10.06 713.76
t 15.5
tcrack
h 16.03
h11.82
i:plasticizes 0.5 100
i hh10.0615.35
15.86 15.5
h15.76 h 15.45
tplasticizes
13.76h11.82
i 0.5 100
6015.35
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tcrack
h 60
13.7615.98 15.45
h15.53
h11.82 h15.71
i 0.5 100
15.35
hh15.67 15.86
10.06 15.5
tcrack
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13.76 15.45
h16.14
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i 15.71
67 hh6.47100
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10.06 i 15.5
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13.76 h h 15.45
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03 hh 100
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6.47
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15.28
15.35
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6.47
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15.28
15.22
15.35
15.86
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i 15.71
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16.14
10.06 hh 15.45
** h 15.71
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10.06h76 **
15. i11h
Pipe 200 200
14.93 without without 15.97 200 without
propagation;
crack 15.97 without
propagation;
crack 15.65
15.97 without
hpropagation;
:crack 15.65
15.97 without
hpropagation;
14.06200:crack 15.97 h
15.65
15.97 14.06without
hpropagation;
:crack crack
Longitudinal
15.97 Pipe
h
15.65
15.97 14.06without
hpropagation;
:crack
propagates
Longitudinal
i Pipe
15.65
15.97 h
15.65
15.97 ii without
14.06
hpropagation;
:crack
propagates
Longitudinal
15.97
15.97Pipe
h
15.65
i14.06
15.65
hwithout
ii h
14.06 in propagation;
:crack
propagates
crack
Longitudinal
circumferential
h
15.65
15.97 14.06
15.65
15.97
hiwithout
ii h
14.06 inpropagation;
:crack
propagates
Longitudinal
circumferential
15.97 h
15.65
14.06
15.65
15.97 ii h
14.06 without
in propagation;
:crack
propagates
Longitudinal
circumferential
h
15.65
15.97 14.06
15.65
15.97
hin
ii h
14.06 propagation;
i :crack
propagates
crack
Longitudinal
circumferential
15.97 h
15.6514.06
15.65
15.97 ii h
14.06 inpropagation;
: ipropagates
crack
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circumferential
15.97 15.65
14.06
15.65
i ii h
14.06 in : propagates
crack
Longitudinal
circumferential
h
15.65
15.97 14.06
15.65 ii h
14.06
hin : propagates
crack
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circumferential
614.36
15.65hi i h
**14.06
15.97 14.06 in propagates
crack
circumferential
13.7615.65
14.06 iiihin propagates
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15.65
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circu
**14 ih
2 16.03
100 15.95 200
100
15.35
14.93
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15.23
15.83
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100
15.23
15.35
15.8615.98
13.76 h
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100
100
15.35
14.83
15.23
15.86 15.76
15.5
13.76h
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14.93
100
100
15.23
15.35
15.35
15.86
14.83
15.16
h 15.71
15.5
13.76
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14.93
100
15.35
15.86
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15.35
14.83
15.23
15.86
15.16
15.5
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h11.82
14.93
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15.35
15.86
15.35
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14.83
15.16
16.18
15.5
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14.77
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14.93
16.03
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15.35
100
15.35
15.23
15.86
15.86
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15.5
13.76
14.77
15.09
15.45
h11.82 100
200
14.93
16.04
h15.71
100
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15.86
15.35
15.86
14.83
15.16
15.61
15.5
15.5
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15.09
15.45
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14.93
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15.35
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6.47
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15.23
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15.86
15.35
10.06 15.86
14.83
13.76
15.16
h 15.5
15.5h
14.77
16.10 15.09
15.45
0.5
h11.82 100
h15.71
14.36
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14.93
15.86
6.47
015.28
100
15.35
10.06
14.83
15.23
15.86
t
15.16
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15.35 15.5
13.76
14.77
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15.45
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15.09
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6.47
14.36
14.93
15.35
14.83
15.23
15.28
10.06 15.22
15.35
15.86
**
15.16
h 15.5
15.86 15.5
13.76
14.77
h15.45
15.45
h11.82
15.09
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14.36
15.86
15.35
h15.71
6.47
10.06
14.83
15.23 **
15.16
16.18
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15.28
15.22
15.86 15.5
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13.76 h11.82
14.77
h15.45
15.45
15.09
15.71
6.47
h15.71100
14.36
15.35
15.86
6.47
10.0615.28
14.83
15.22
**
15.16
h 15.5
15.5
**
13.76
14.77
hhh15.45
15.45
11.82
15.09
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15.71
6.47
h15.71
6.47
10.06
14.36
15.28
14.83
15.22
**
h 15.5
15.28
15.35
15.86
15.16
15.5
** 15.6114.77
hh15.45
15.45
11.82
15.09
15.71
h15.71
14.36
14.93
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15.28
6.4715.22
15.86
**
15.16
h15.5
15.28
10.0615.22**hh15.45
11.82
14.77
16.10
15.45
15.09
15.71
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6.47
6.47 h16.0
15.28
15.22
15.28
10.06 15.5
**
15.22 **
14.77
hh15.45 15.09
15.71
15.45
11.82 6.47
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6.47
14.36
15.28
10.06
**
h 15.5
15.28
15.22**
15.22**
14.77
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6.47
15.45
14.36
15.28
15.71
6.4715.22
**
14.83
h **
15.28
10.0615.22h** h15.45
15.09
15.71
6.47
15.71
14.36
6.47 h15.1
15.22
15.28
15.28
15.22
10.06 **
**hh11
Pipe200
rection;
i:plasticizes
direction;
i
Pipe200:plasticizes
i **: Crack
Pipe
direction;
i:plasticizes
without Pipe
i **: propagates
Crack
direction; withouti:plasticizes
crack
i **: propagates
Crack Pipe
direction;
h**: without
during
i:plasticizes
propagation;
crack
60
propagates
Crack Pipe
direction;
h**: withouti
15.67
during
denting, :plasticizes
propagation;
crack
i propagates
Crack Pipe
direction;
h**: without
h
during
identing, i:plasticizes
propagation;
:Crack
crack Longitudinal
16.03
ipropagates
dent Pipe
direction; without
i16.06
h**:
during
denting,
i
formation :plasticizes
propagation;
:Crack
crack
propagates
dent Longitudinal
Pipe
ihh i without
direction; i**:
during
denting,
formation
i :plasticizes
h propagation;
:Crack
crack
propagates
dent crack
Longitudinal
Pipe
hh i without
15.53
direction;
unsuccessful;
**:
h
during
denting,
i
formation :plasticizes
h propagation;
:Crack
crack
propagates
crack
Longitudinal
propagates
dent Pipe
hh ii without
direction;
unsuccessful;
**:
during
h
identing,
i
formation :plasticizes
h propagation;
:Crack
crack
propagates
60crack
Longitudinal
propagates
dent Pipe
direction; iihwithout
unsuccessful;
t:14.83
i h**:
hwall hin
during
hpropagation;
:Crack
denting,crack
propagates
formation plasticizes
crack
Longitudinal
circumferential
15.67
i propagates
dent hwithout
hin
i15.76
unsuccessful;
t:
thickness;
h**:
wall
during
hpropagation;
:Crack
crack
identing, propagates
formation crack
Longitudinal
circumferential
16.03
propagates
dent iihwithout
unsuccessful;
t:
thickness;
hwall
duringinhpropagation;
:dent
h15.98
denting,crack
propagates
formation
OD: crack
Longitudinal
circumferential
propagates iihhin
unsuccessful;
t:
thickness;
hwallduring
hpropagation;
16.14
denting, :dent
crack
formation
OD: propagates
crack
Longitudinal
circumferential
15.53 i
unsuccessful;
t:
thickness;
hiwall hhin
during
hpropagation;
identing,:dent
propagates
crack
Longitudinal
circumferential
15.58
formation
OD: ihi hin
unsuccessful;
t:
thickness;wall
h
denting,:dent
propagates
formation
OD: crack
Longitudinal
circumferential
15.91 iihhin
unsuccessful;
t:
thickness;
wall
h :dent
formation
OD: propagates
crack
Longitudinal
circumferential
unsuccessful;
t:
thickness; hhin
15.76 propagates
crack
circumferential
13.76h ih in propagates
15.98 crack
circumferen i hin prop
16.14circu i
6h wall formation
OD: unsuccessful;
t:
thickness;
wall OD: unsuccessf
t:
thickness;
wall OD: t:
thic w
13.76 13.76 13.76 13.76 h11.82 13.76 h11.82 h11.82
13.76 13.76 h11.82 10.06 13.76 h11.82 10.06 13.76 11.82 10.06 13.76 h11.82 h11.82 h
i10.06 13.76 10.06 13.76 11.82 10.06 **11.82 10.06 **11
h15.97 15.65 14.06 15.97 h15 i 15
14.93 200
14.93
15.23 200
14.93
15.23 200
14.93
200 14.83
15.23 200
14.93
200 15.23
14.93 14.83
15.16 200
14.93
200
14.93
15.23 14.83
15.2315.16 200
14.93
15.23 14.83
15.16 14.77 200
14.9315.2314.83
15.16 14.77
15.09
200
14.93 i14.83
15.23 15.16 14.77
15.09
200
14.93
15.23 15.16 14.77
15.09 14.36
200
14.93 14.83
15.2315.16 14.7715.09 14.36
14.93 14.83
15.23 **
15.16 14.7715.09 14.3614.83
15.23 **
15.16 i15.65
14.7715.09 14.36 14.83
**
15.16 14.06
14.77 15.09 15.97
14.3614.83
**
15.16 14.77 97
15.09
i15.09 14.36 **
15.16 14.7715.09 15.65
14.36** 14.77
15.096514.36 14.06
** 14
14.77
15.0906
14.36 15.09 14.36
h i100 h 15.35 h 15.86 h hh200 14.93
15.23 h hh200 14.93
15.23
15.5 i 14.83
100 h hh200 14.93
15.23 14.83
15.16
15.35 h hh200 14.93
15.233h14.83
15.16
15.86 hh200 h14.83
14.93
15.23 15.16
15.45 h 14.77 14.93
200 14.83
15.23 15.16
h100 h 14.77
15.71 15.09 200
14.93 h14.83
15.23 15.16h 14.77 15.09
hh200 hh14.83
14.93
15.23 15.16h 14.77 15.09
hh200
20014.36
14.93h14.83
15.23 15.16 14.77 14.36
15.23
14.93
14.93 **
15.16
14.83 14.7715.09 14.36
15.23h14.83
15.23 **
15.16 14.77
15.09
h 14.36 h14.83
**
15.16 14.7715.0914.36 **
15.16
14.83
h14.83 14.7715.09
1514.36 **
15.1
15.1 11h
h 15.5 15 h 6.47 35 15h 15.28 86 15.45
h15.22 h 15
i:plasticizes
i:plasticizes i:plasticizes i:plasticizes i:plasticizes i:plasticizes i:plasticizes ih:plasticizes i:plasticizes i:plasticizes i:plasticizes hh100 hh15.35 15.86 hh h15.5 hh5 15.71
** 6.47 h 15.28 15.45 h45 15.
Pipe
rection;
utside Pipe
direction;
**:
Outside Crack
diameter; Pipe
Outside without
direction;
**:
diameter; Pipe
propagates
Crack
direction;
:Outside
Py200 yield without
0.5
**:
diameter; crack t
propagates
Crack Pipe
direction;
13.76
ypressure.
:Outside
PSci. yield
diameter; without
**: propagation;
crack
during
propagates
Crack Pipe
direction;
13.76
pressure.
:Outside
Py200 yield **:
diameter;without
propagation;
crack
during
denting,
propagates
Crack Pipe
direction;
13.76
pressure.
:Outside
Py200 yield **:
diameter; without
hpropagation;
during :
Py200crack
denting, Longitudinal
propagates
Crack
dent Pipe
direction;
13.76
pressure.
:15.23yield
Outside **:without
11.82
diameter; propagation;
during:
Py200crack
denting,
formation
propagates
Crack
dent Longitudinal
13.76Pipe
direction;
13.76
pressure.
:15.23 yield
Outside
h without
h
**:
during
11.82
diameter; propagation;
Py200:crack
denting,
formation
propagates
Crack
dent crack
Longitudinal
13.76
pressure.
:15.23 Pipe
13.76
yield
Outside
h without
direction;
unsuccessful;
h
**:
11.82
diameter; propagation;
0.5
during :crack
denting,propagates
formation crack
Longitudinal
propagates
Crack
dent ti Pipe
13.76
13.76
ypressure.
:15.23
P15.09 yield
Outside
h without
direction;
unsuccessful;
h
**:
during
11.82
diameter; propagation;
:crack
denting,
10.06propagates
formation crack
Longitudinal
propagates
Crack
dent 13.76
ypressure.
:15.23
P15.09 13.76
yield
Outside Pipe
direction;
hhh h
unsuccessful;
t: **:
wall
11.82
11.82
diameter;
hwithout
in
during propagation;
:
denting,crack
propagates
formation
10.06 plasticizes
crack
Longitudinal
circumferential
propagates
Crack
dent
13.76
13.76
ypressure.
P15.09 :14.36
yield
h h
unsuccessful;
t:
thickness;
h
**:
wall
11.82
11.82
diameter;
hwithout
duringinpropagation;
:crack
denting, propagates
formation crack
Longitudinal
circumferential
propagates
Crack
dent unsuccessful;
t:
thickness;
13.76
10.06 13.76
ypressure.
P15.09:15.23
yield
h
11.82wall
11.82
hwithout
during
h in propagation;
:
denting,crack
propagates
formation
OD: crack
Longitudinal
circumferential
propagates
dent
10.06 unsuccessful;
t:
thickness;
13.76
13.76
ypressure.
P15.09 :15.23
yield
h
11.82wall hin
during
11.82 propagation;
i i:dent
denting,
h crack
formation
OD:
10.06:
10.06propagates
hcrack
hLongitudinal
circumferential
unsuccessful;
t:
thickness;
13.76
Pipe
13.76
pressure.
h
11.82wall hin
during
11.82 propagation;
denting,
h :hpropagates
formation
OD: dent
10.06
10.06
hcrack
hLongitudinal
circumferential
unsuccessful;
t:
13.76thickness;
plasticizes h h
h11.82 wall
11.82 in
denting,: propagates
formation
OD: hcrack
dent
10.06
10.06hLongitudinal
circumferential
unsuccessful;
t:
thickness;
13.76 h
11.82wall
11.82 hhin :
formation
OD:
without propagates
hcrack
dent
10.06
10.06hLongitudinal
circumferential
unsuccessful;
t:
thickness;
13.76 h hinpropagates
iwall
11.82
11.82h
formation
OD:
10.06
crack
10.06
hcrack
hcircumferential
hh hhinpropagates
unsuccessful;
t:
thickness;
11.82wall OD:
10.06
10.06
hcrack
hcircumferen
unsuccessf
t:
thickness;
propagation; wall
11.82 hin
h
OD: prop
hcircu
h
10.06
10.06 t:
thic 11 w h
16.18
200 200
14.93
i:plasticizes
i:plasticizes 15.61
Appl.
14.93
i15.23 200
14.93
ii15.2316.10
2020, 200
14.9310,14.83
ii15.23 7554 14.93
200
14.93
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15.16
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15.09 14.36**
** h11h
Pipe
3
rection; Pipe
direction; Pipe
15.53
i **: Crack
direction; :
withoutplasticizes
Pipe
**:Ppropagates
yCrack
:direction; without
i **:
:
crackplasticizes
Ppropagates
yCrack
Pipe
:idirection; without
**: 100
iduring
:
propagation;
crack plasticizes
Ppropagates
yCrack
Pipe
15.76
:idirection; **:without
15.35
during
denting, :
propagation;
crack plasticizes
Ppropagates
yCrack
Pipe
:idirection; without
15.98
**:
during
denting, :
hpropagation;
:crackplasticizes
Longitudinal
15.86
Ppropagates
yCrack
dent Pipe
:idirection; without
16.14
**:
during
denting,
formation :
hpropagation;
:crack plasticizes
propagates
Crack
dent Longitudinal
:idirection;Pipe
i
h**:
without
during15.58
denting,
formation :
hpropagation;
:crack
propagates
Crack
dent plasticizes
crack
Longitudinal
:idirection; Pipe
15.5 without
unsuccessful;
**:
h
during 15.91
denting,
formation :
propagation;
:crack
propagates
plasticizes
crack
Longitudinal
propagates
Crack
dent
:idirection;Pipe
unsuccessful;
**: without
during
identing,
i
100
formation :
hpropagation;
:crack
propagates
plasticizes
hpropagates
Crack
dent crack
Longitudinal
:iidirection;Pipe without
inhpropagation;
:crack
propagates
plasticizes
crack
Longitudinal
circumferential
15.35 without
15.45in
hpropagation;
:crack
propagates
crack
Longitudinal
circumferential
15.86 without
inhpropagation;
:
15.71crack
propagates
crack
Longitudinal
circumferential in
hpropagation;
:
6.47crack
propagates
crack
Longitudinal
circumferential
15.5 in
hpropagation;
: propagates
crack
Longitudinal
circumferential
15.28 in propagates
crack
Longitudinal
circumferential
15.22 in propagates
crack
Longitudinal
circumferential
** in
15.45 propagates
crack
circumferentialin propagates
15.71 crack
circumferen in prop
6.47circu
6unsuccessful;
t:diameter;
**:
wall
during
denting,
formation
hpropagates
Crack
dent unsuccessful;
t:
thickness;
**:
wall
during
denting,
formation
hpropagates
Crack
dent unsuccessful;
t:
thickness;wall
during
denting,
formation
OD:
hpropagates
dent unsuccessful;
t:
thickness;
wall
during
denting,
formation
OD:
h ident unsuccessful;
t:
thickness;
wall
during
denting,
formation
OD:
h dent unsuccessful;
t:
thickness;walldenting,
iformation
OD:
h dent unsuccessful;
t:
thickness;
wall formation
OD:
h dent unsuccessful;
t:
thickness;
wall formation
OD: unsuccessful;
t:
thickness;
wall OD: unsuccessf
t:
thickness;
wall OD: t:
thic w
utside Outside
diameter;
Outside
diameter; yield
Outside
diameter; :yield
pressure.
Outside
Pipeh
diameter;200
h
:plasticizes
pressure.
yield
Outside
diameter;
Pipe 14.93
h
:plasticizes
pressure.
yield
Outside
diameter;
Pipe without
15.23
h
:plasticizes
pressure.
yield
Outside
Pipe h
diameter;
P 13.76
without
ycrack
h
Pipeh
:plasticizes
pressure.
yield
Outsidediameter; h
P
without
propagation;
ycrack
14.83
h
Pipe
200
h
:plasticizes
pressure.yield
Outside
diameter; h
P
without
propagation;
ycrack
15.16
h
Pipe
14.93
h
:plasticizes
pressure.
yield
Outside
diameter; h
P
without
h h
11.82
propagation;
:crack
y
h
:plasticizes
pressure.
yield
Outside h
Longitudinal
Pipe
15.23
hh
P
without h
hhpropagation;
:crack
y
h h
13.76
:i:plasticizes
pressure.
yield
diameter;
Longitudinal
Pipe
14.77
h
Ph
without
h :ii:plasticizes
h h
pressure.
yield
propagation;
:crack
y
200 crack h
Longitudinal
Pipe
200 15.0914.83
h
Ph
without
h :crack
y
14.93
h
pressure.
yield
propagation;
propagates
crack
h
:ii:plasticizes
h
h10.06
Longitudinal
Pipe
14
h h
without
15.16
93
h :i:plasticizes
hh
Pipe
pressure.
propagation;
:15.23
crack
propagates
crack
h h
Longitudinal
direction;Pipe
15
h h
11.82
without
in
h
14.36
23
hh
propagation;
:crack h
plasticizes
13.76
propagates
plasticizes
crack 13
Longitudinal
circumferential
**:
h h 76
without
inh hh
propagation;
:crack
h
propagates
Crack
14.77
** crack
Longitudinal
circumferential
14.83
h h
without
14without
in
hh
hpropagation;
h :crack
83 propagates
**
15 crack
h
Longitudinal
circumferential
propagates 0915
15.16
h h
in crackhh
10
hpropagation;
:16
crack
propagates
crack 06
11.82
Longitudinalh
circumferential
during
h 82
11
in
h h h
propagation;
propagation;
:propagates
crack
Longitudin
circumferen
1414.77
h
36in
denting,
h
h
14
hh
:propa
crack
Long
circu
77 ** 1
rection;
utside
Pipe idirection;
**:
Outside
: Crack
idirection;
diameter;
Outside
:
plasticizes
Pipe **: propagates
diameter;
P
plasticizes
Pipe Crack
:idirection;
:
withoutyield
Outside **:
diameter;
P
plasticizes
Pipe propagates
Crack
iidirection;
without:
pressure.
: :
crack yield
Outside
plasticizes
Pipe
direction; **:
diameter;
Pipe during
P propagates
Crack
iidirection;
without:
pressure.
: : yield
Outside
propagation;
crack **:
during
plasticizes
Pipe
direction; denting,
diameter;
plasticizes
Pipe P propagates
Crack
iidirection;
without:
pressure.
: : yield
Outside
propagation;
crack
**:releasing
Crack **:
during
diameter;
plasticizes
Pipe
plasticizes
Pipe
direction; denting,
P propagates
Crack
dent
withoutiidirection;
without :
pressure.
: : yield
Outside
hpropagation;
:crack
**:releasing **:
during
denting,
plasticizesformation
diameter;
plasticizes
Pipe P
Longitudinal
propagates
Crack Pipe
direction; propagates
Crack
dent
withoutiidirection;
crack
without
h
:
pressure.
: : yield
Outside
hpropagation;
:crack
**:releasing **:
plasticizes
propagates
Crack during
diameter;
plasticizes
Pipe
Longitudinal
direction; Pipe**: denting,
formation
P propagates
Crack
dent
:
without
during idirection;
pressure.
icrack
without :
propagation;
hpropagation;
:crack
propagates
Crack unsuccessful;
yield
Outside
Pipe
plasticizes
crack **:
during
diameter;
plasticizes
Longitudinal
direction; Pipe**: denting,
formation
P
during propagates
Crack
dent
without idirection;
: unsuccessful;
pressure.
: : yield
Outside
diameter;
ipropagates
propagation;
crack Pipe
plasticizes
without
hpropagation;
:crack
denting, plasticizes
crack **:
Longitudinal
propagates
Crack
direction; Pipe**: during
denting,
duringformation
P propagates
Crack
dent
without
without idirection;
:
pressure.
:
hpropagation;
:crack
denting, unsuccessful;
t:
Outside
: yield
hpropagation;
:crack
h **:
diameter;
ipropagates
plasticizes
Longitudinal
Pipe
plasticizes
crack
Longitudinal
propagates
Crack
dent
direction; Pipe wall
**:during
denting,
formation
P
withoutpropagates
without
duringin
denting, Crack
dent
:
formation unsuccessful;
t:
thickness;
pressure.
icrackyield
Pipe
hpropagation;
:crack
propagates
plasticizes
crack **:
wall
diameter;
hpropagation;
: plasticizes
Longitudinalduring
Longitudinal denting,
hformation
circumferential
propagates
Crack
dentdirection; **: P
during propagates
withoutCrack
dent
hcrack
denting, : unsuccessful;
t:
thickness;
pressure.
: yield
ipropagates
hpropagation;
: crack
Longitudinal
Pipe
plasticizes
without
inpropagation;
:crack
formation crack wall
Longitudinalduring
circumferential
propagates
Crack
dent
direction;
unsuccessful;
**: denting,
P
duringformation
OD:
hhpropagates
without
: dent
without
in : unsuccessful;
t:
thickness;
pressure.
:
crack yield
ipropagates
propagates
plasticizes
crack
Longitudinal
propagation; Pipe
propagation;
denting,:crack
formation crack wall
Longitudinal during
circumferential
propagates
Crack
dent
direction;
unsuccessful;
**: denting,
during formation
OD:
hh dent
hpropagation;
without
in :crack unsuccessful;
t:
thickness;
pressure.
propagates
plasticizes
crack
Longitudinal
propagation;
denting,
formation:crack
propagates
propagates
Crack
dent crack wall
Longitudinalduring
circumferential
direction;
direction;
unsuccessful;
t: **:
wall denting,
formation
OD:
without
duringhin dent
h unsuccessful;
t:
thickness;
propagation;
:
in
h wall
propagates
hcrack crack
circumferential
Longitudinal
propagation;
denting, :
formation propagates
crack
Longitudinal
circumferential
propagates
Crack
dent **:
unsuccessful;
t:
thickness;
**:
wall denting,
formation
OD:
without
duringin dent
hh:crack
in
denting, :
formation unsuccessful;
t:
thickness;
propagates
crack
Longitudinalwall
circumferential
propagation;
propagates
Crack crack
Longitudinal
circumferential
propagates
Crack
dent unsuccessful;
t:
thickness;
wall
duringformation
OD:
in dent unsuccessful;
t:
thickness;
hpropagation;
in h:crack
denting, :
formation
OD: propagates
Longitudinalwall
circumferential
crack
propagates
crack
Longitudinal
circumferential
propagates hformation
OD:
in
in unsuccessful;
t:
thickness;
propagation;
: crack wall
h OD:
circumferential
propagates
Longitudinal
propagates
crack in
circumferential
during unsuccessf
t:
thickness;
h: propagates
in crack
Longitudin
circumferen
propagates
crack wall
circumferen in OD:
in
denting,h: propat:
thic
Long
crack
circu
prop
circu wf
able 15.97
4.
TableEffect4.
Table
of
Effect
releasing
4.Table
ofEffect
releasing
4. indenter
TableofEffect releasing
4. indenter
TableofEffect
from 4. indenter
Table
pipe
ofEffect
from surface
4. indenter
Table
pipe
of
Effect
from surface
4.
with
indenter
Tablepipe
ofEffect
from
13.76 releasing
pipe
surface
4.
with
indenter
Table
pipe
ofEffect
from operating
releasing
pipe
surface
4.with
indenter
Table
pipe
of Effect
from operating
releasing
pipe
surface
4.
atwith
indenter
Table
pipe
of Effect
from
maximum
operating
11.82releasing
pipe
surface
4.
at
with
indenter
pipe
ofEffect
from
maximum
operating
releasing
pipe
surface
allowable
atwith
indenter
pipe
of from
maximum
operating
releasing
pipe
surface
allowable
atwith
indenter
pipefrom
maximum
13.76 operating
pipe
surface
allowable
at
10.06with
indenter
pipefrom
maximum
operating
pipe
surface
allowable
at
with
pipe from
maximum
operatingpipe
surface
allowable
at
with
pipemaximumoperating
11.82 ypropagates
dent
pipe
surfaceunsuccessful;
t:
thickness;
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Table
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Tab
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Pressure
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re
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ace
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w
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Depth
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Pressure
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p
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er
P
pe
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P
(%OD)
Depth yy
Denting
Pressure
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rom
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0.8
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6%
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6%
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Depth
p
Denting pe
Pressure
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ng
surface
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aPressure
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Depth
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wmum h0.5
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aPpe op
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o
Crack Size Crack (mm)Size
Crack(mm) SizeCrack (mm) Size
Crack (mm) Size
Crack (mm) Size
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Crack (mm) SizeDenting
Crack
Pressure
(mm) Size
Denting
Crack
Pressure
(MPa)
(mm) SizeDenting
Crack
Pressure
(MPa)
(mm) Crack
SizeDenting
Crack
Pressure
(MPa)
(mm)Size
Size
Denting (mm)
Pressure
(MPa)
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(MPa) PPressure
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Pres (M
ld pressure.
pth Depth Length
20DepthLength
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 Length
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Length of
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PPLength
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PPfrom
Length
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
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Depth
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PPPyLength
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
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Depth 
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
rack Size
Crack (mm)Size
Crack(mm)Size
Crack Depth
(mm) Crack
Size
Crack(mm)Size
Size Length
Crack
Crack (mm)
(mm)Size
Crack
Size
Crack(mm)
(mm) Size
SizeCrack (mm)
Denting
Crack 0.0
(mm) Size
Size P
Crack y (mm)
Denting
Crack
Pressure
y 0.0
(mm) Size
Crack
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Denting
Crack (mm)
Pressure
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y 0.0
Size
(mm) Size P
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Crack (mm)
Pressure
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0.3
(mm) Size
Size PP
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Crack
Denting
Crack (mm)
Pressure
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Pressure
Denting (mm)
Pressure
y y(MPa)
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Size
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Crack
Pressure
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Denting (mm)
Pressure 0.0
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Pressure
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Denting (mm)
Pressure
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Pressure
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Denting (mm)
Pressure
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Pressure
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Pressure
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Pressure
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Pres
(Myy
pth Depth Length
20Depth
60 Length
60  Length
20Depth
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Depth
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Depth
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60 Length 
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 De
Dept
2t 0.2 t 0.2 t 0.2 t Crack
0.00.2PytSize (mm)
0.00.2Pyt 0.00.2 Pyt 0.3 0.0
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yyt 0.0 0.0
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t 0.5 mm
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PPyy Pressure
ng 0.5
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ng indenter 20 from
60
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20
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operating
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2ptht Depth
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t Depth0.2Length
t Depth t Depth
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t(mm)Depth
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20
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60 

4%2%2% 60
204%




6% 4%60 
606%
4% 

 

2%6% 6%2% 




4% 2% 4% 


  6%
4% 6% 


 
6%
2% 2% 
 
2% 4%
2t 0.2 t 20 0.2 t 20 0.2
100
200
20
60 20  100
100
200
60 200
60
0.2
20Depth
Denting
0.2
 t 100
200
60  Length
Pressure
20 0.2
20 0.2
t 100
200
20
60
0.2
(MPa)
 t 10020 0.2
200
20
60 
0.2
 t 100
200
20
60
0.2
0.2

  t 100
200
20
60 
0.2
0.2
 t 100
200
20
60 
0.2
Depth
0.2


 t 100
200
20
60 
0.2
0.2

 tt 100
Dent
Length
200
20
60  Depth
0.2
 t 100
200
20
60 (%OD)
0.2

 t 20  0.2

 t 2% 0.2
0.2
 tt  
  
 Dent 
 Depth (%OD)
  
  

5 t 0.0 0.5 t 60 0.5 t 60 
0.5 t 60 
0.5 t 60 
0.520t 100
60
60 

0.5 t100 2%
60
60 

0.5 t  4%
100
60
60 

0.5 t 
100
60
60 

0.5 t 
100
60
60 
20



0.5 t 
100
6060 


0.5  t 
100
60
60 


  
100
60
60 

  
100
60
20 

20
  
100
60 


  
100
60 




   
200
100
100 

 
   



  


   


 
  
 
  
2t Py t 100
0.2 20 0.2 t 100
200
60 200
60 0.3
 t 100
20 0.2 20 0.2
200
60 Py tt 100
0.2 20 0.2
200
60  tt200
0.2 200
60
100 
 tt200
20 0.2
0.2 0.5
20 0.2
200
60
100 P
y tt200
0.2 20
200
60
100 
 h tt200
0.2
0.2 200.2
200
60
100 6%

h t t200
0.2 0.8
20
200
60
100 2%
P


hy tt200
0.2
0.2 20
200
60
100 4%


0.2
hh tt 100
0.2 20
200
60 6%
0.2
 
hh t 100 202%
200
60  
2%

0.2
hh t 4%
 4%
x
0.2
 3 t
hh 6%

x6%
hh
3 2%
2%


x hh
3 4%
x

hh
3 6%

6%

x

hh3 2%

x hh
3 4%

 x
h3 6%
x
h3
5t 0.5 t 100 0.5 t 100 0.5  t 100 0.5  t 100 0.5  60t100 200
100  t100
0.5  
200
100 
0.5  
200
t100
100 
0.5  
200
t100
100  t100
0.5 
  60
200
100 
 t100
0.5  
200
100 
200
0.5 
 t100 20
200200
100  
  100 100

200 


 100200

200
60 


60
  200
 100 
200
 
  20 
200  
 100 
200 
  

 200  
 
    
  
   
   

    

 
20
60
100
200 20 
60
100
200 x 100 20 
0.2
60
200 txDent 20Depth
60
100
200 x 100 20
20
60
200 (%OD)

xx 100 20 
60
200 
x
x 100 20
60
200 
x

xxh 0 2100 20
60
200 x

x
xh 100 20
60
200 x


xxh 100
x 20
60
200  
x
x
xxhh  100 20
60
200 
x

0.2
x
xxhh 0 t 2100 20
60
200 
x
 
xxx
 hh 
x
x xh
x h
3
2 
x
x xh
x h
3
2 x

 
x x
xhh3
2 
xx 
x
xhh32  
x
xx

xhh32  
x
x
xxhh32 
 
x
x 
xxh32 

x
x
xxh32
5 t 4% 0.5 t 200 0.5 t 200 
0.5 t 200 
0.5 t 200 
0.5100 t 20
20
200
200 
0.5 t 
20
200
200 

0.5 t 
20
200
200 


0.5 t 
20
200
200  
0.5 t 
20
200
200100



0.5 200
t 
20
200 

0.5 t 
20
200
200 



 
20
200
200 


  20
200
100 

100

   20
200 


   
20
200 



    
60
20
20 


 
  


  

  


 
  


 

6%
60
100
200 2%
60
100
200 
x 200 4%
60
100 xCrack 60
100
2006% xCrack 60
60
100
2002% 
xxCrack 4%
60
100
200 
x

xCrack 6%
60
100
200 


xnot
xxCrack
h 2%
60
100
200 
x
x

xCrack
h 60
100
2004% 


x:
x
xx h 6%
60
100
200 
 

x:
xnot
xxCrack
h h 60
60
100
200 


x
x
xxCrack
hh 60
100
200 


x
xnot
xxCrack
hh 

x
xinx 
xCrack
h h
3 
0.5

x
xin x 
xCrack
h h
3 t 

x

xinx
x: propagated
h h
3 
 x
xin 

xx: propagated
h h 3 
x

xin 

xx: propagated
h h 3 
x

xin
xxpropagated
h h 3 
 
x
xin
xxpropagate
h 3 
x

xin
xxh32pro
5 No
t  :
crack
0.5 No
t 20 : No
propagation,
crack 20 : :
propagation,
crack
 No t 20 :
propagation,
crack
0.2
 No :
tt 20 :
propagation,
crack
propagates
 200 No 60
60
20
20: :
propagation,
crack
propagates
 Not 60:

20
20but :
propagation,
crack
propagates
 does
No
t 60
20
20:
but:
propagation,
crack

propagates
 does
No 
60
20:
t burst
but
20 :
propagation,
crack
not
propagates
 does
No
the
60
20:
t burst
but
20propagation,
200crack
pipe;
not
propagates

 Crack
0.2 doesNothe
tt20

60:

burst
but
20propagation,
crack
pipe;
h
propagates
 : does
Crack
 No
the
60
20:

t burst
but
20propagation,
crack
pipe;
h
not
propagates
 : propagated
does
Crack
 the:
60
20
burst
but
propagation,
20 pipe;

 hpropagates
   :
: propagated
does
Crack
the60
20
200 
burst
but
pipe;


200hnot

2
propagates
: propagated
does
Crack
the
 :
60
20 
burst
but 
pipe;

h not

2
propagates
: propagated
does
Crack
the
60
20
burst
butpipe;

hnot

2
propagates
does
Crack
the
100
60
60
burst
but

pipe;
 h not

2
does
Crack
the 
burst
but


pipe;

hnot

2
does
Crack
the  

burst

pipe;
h
not
:
2
Crack
the  
burst


pipe;
 h
:
2
 the
Crack 
pipe;

 h
: Cr
100
2000.5 t 100
2000.5

x 100
200 0.5
0.5

0.5
x tt 100
200
0.5
0.5x
t 100
t 100
200
0.5
0.5

xx t 100
200
0.5
 0.5

x

x t 100
200 
x
0.5


0.5
xxh t 100 200 x
0.5

x

0.5
xh t 100 200  
x
0.5


0.5
x
xx h t 100 200
x

x
0.5

0.5
xxhh t 100 100
200 
x

x
0.5
xx hh t 100 200 


xx
0.5
xx 
hh t 

x
0.5
x x
x 
h 2 t
h
3 
0.5

x
0.5
x x
x 
h 2 tt
h
3 

x
xx
x
hh3 
x 
x x

x hh 3 
x
xx

x hh 3 
xx

x x hh 3 
x
x
x x h3 

xx

xhhxh3h3h:322pro
:
No crack No
cumferential :
propagation,
crack
circumferential
60 No 60 :

circumferential
direction :
propagation,
crackNo 60 :
propagation,
crack

circumferential
direction
but Crack
No :
circumferential
no
direction
but
60 :
propagation,
crack
propagates

burst; Crack
20 No 100:
circumferential
no
direction
but
x:
100
60
60 :
propagation,
crack
propagates

burst;Crack
No :
but
circumferential
Pipeno
direction
but
x:
100
60
60 :

propagation,
crack
propagates

burst;
burst Crack
does
No :
but
circumferential
Pipe
no
direction
as
but
x:
100
60
60 :
propagation,
crack

not
propagates

burst;
burst Crack
does
No 
circumferential
Pipe
indenter
no
direction
as:
burst
but
but
x:
100
60
60 :

propagation,
crack
not
propagates

burst;
burst Crack
does
No
the :
burst
but
circumferential
Pipe
indenter
no
direction
is as
but
x:
100
60
60 
20:

propagation,
crack
pipe;
not
propagates

 Crack
released;
burst;
burst doesNothe
circumferential
Pipe
indenter
no
direction
is 
as:

burst
but
but
x:
100
6060 :

propagation,
crack
pipe;
h
not
propagates
 Crack
released;
burst;
burst : nodoes
Crack
 No
the
circumferential
Pipe
indenter
x 
2direction
:is :

burst
but
Pipe
as
but
x:
100
60
60 

h
 hh
released;
burst;
burst
Pipe :hno
propagation,
crack
pipe;
not
propagates
Crack
indenter
x  
direction
bursts
:is :
2propagated
does
Crack
the 
Pipe
as
but
x: 
burst
but



propagation,
pipe;
hnot
propagates

released;
100
60burst;
burst
60 PipeCrack
h: no
indenter
xh :
direction
during
bursts
:is 
2propagated
does
Crack
 the
burst
 but
Pipe
as
but
x: 

pipe;
in
hnot
propagates

released;
burst;
100
60
20 burst
20 PipeCrack
h: no
indenter
xh during
bursts
:is :
2propagated
does
Crack
the
Pipe
as
but
x: 
burst
 but
pipe;

in
h
released;
burst;
100
60 burst not

hh
Pipe h:hno
propagates
Crack
indenter
x
h 2propagated
does
Crack
the
during
bursts
: is 
Pipe
as
x: 
burst
but


pipe;
in
hnot

hh
released;
burst;
100
60burst
Pipe
2
propagates
h: 2

indenter
x
h during
bursts
:is 200
100
propagated
does
Crack
the
Pipe
as
x:
100 
burst
but


 
pipe;
inh
released;
burst not
Pipeh: 2
hh
indenter
x
h
2
 during
bursts
:is 
propagated
does
Crack
the
burst
but
Pipe
as 


pipe;
in
hnot

hh
released;
burst
x 3:32
3h
indenter
x
h
2
 during
bursts
:is 
Pipe
as 
propagated
does
Crack
the
burst

pipe;

in
h
not
 hh
released;
x 3: 2
3h
indenter
x
h
2
 during
bursts
:is 
propagated
Crack
the
Pipe
burst


pipe;
in
h

released;
x x
hhh 33:
2
during
bursts
:is 
2propagate
Crack
the
Pipe
pipe;


xin
h

releasex  
duCr
bu
:P
t 
5 No 0.5 No
t 2000.5 t 200 0.5
x No t 2000.5
0.5 tt 200
xCrack 0.5
0.5
xCrack 200
tt 200 0.5
0.5
xxCracktt 200 0.5
0.5
x tt 200
xCrack 
0.5
x0.5
xxCrack tt 200  0.5
x0.5
x tNo
xCrack t 200 
x0.5
0.5
x
xxCrack tthe
t 200  
0.5
0.5
x:
x h tt 200
xxCrack 200 x
0.5
x h t 200
xxhCrack 
x0.5
 x 
h t
xxhCrack 0.5
xin
xhnot
x  2 t
xhCrack 
xin
xhnot
x 
xhCrack  
xin
xxx xin x
xhhnot
xhh:h232propagated x
xinx 
xh322h:h2322propagated 
xin
xxhhxh322h:h232propagated 
xin
xxhhx322hh:232propagate 
xin
x
hx xh322h:232pro
:
crack
cumferential
nting, :
propagation,
crack
circumferential
100 No :

circumferential
direction
100 :
propagation,
crack :
propagation,
crack

circumferential
direction
but
100 No :
circumferential
no
direction
but
100 :
propagation,
crack
propagates

burst; 60 No 200:
circumferential
no
direction
but
x:
200
100
100 :
propagation,
crack
propagates

burst; No :
but
circumferential
Pipeno
direction
but
x:
200
100
100 :
propagation,
crack
propagates

burst;
burst does
No :
but

circumferential
Pipe
x no
direction
as
but
x:
200
100
100 :
propagation,
crack
not
propagates

burst;
burst does
No 
circumferential
Pipe
indenter
x hno
direction
as:
burst
but
but
x:
200
100
100 :
propagation,
crack
not
propagates

burst;
burst  does
the :
burst
but
circumferential
Pipe
indenter
x hno
direction
is as
but
x:
200
100
100 :
propagation,
crack
pipe;
not
propagates


released;
burst;
burst
60 doesNo
circumferential
Pipe
indenter
x
x hno
direction
is 
as:

burst
but
but
x:
200
100100propagation,
crack
pipe;


h
not
propagates
 h:hno
released;
burst;
burst does
Crack
 No
the
circumferential
Pipe
xindenter
xx 
2direction
:is :

burst
but
Pipe
as
but
x:
200
100 propagation,
crack
pipe;


h
not
propagates

released;
burst;
burst
100 Pipe
x
x :
indenter
xx hno  
direction
bursts
:is :
2propagated
does
Crack
the 
burst
but
propagation,
Pipe
as
but
x:
200
100
100 pipe;



hnot
propagates

released;
burst;
burst
xxPipe :
indenter
xx hno   :
direction
during
bursts
:is 
2propagated
does
Crack
the
burst
but
Pipe
as
but
x:
200
100
60 pipe;

x
 
released;
burst;
burst
x
60xPipe
h
propagates
:
indenter
x
x 3no
h 
during
bursts
:is  :
2propagated
does
Crack
the
Pipe
as
but
x: 
burst
butpipe;


x
:
released;
burst;
200
100 burst
xx 
h
Pipe
h 2
propagates
:3h
indenter
x
x
h h 2propagated

nodoes
Crack
the
during
bursts
:
No is  
burst
but
Pipe
as
x: 
pipe;
x

h

h
h2
not
propagates
h:h
released;
burst;
200
100burst
xxPipe 3
indenter
crackx
x
h 
during
bursts
:is 
2propagated
does
Crack
the
burst

200but
Pipe
as
x:
200 

pipe;

x 
released;
burst
x xPipe
h
indenter
x
x
h
propagation,  does
Crack
the
during
bursts
:is 
burst
but
Pipe
as 
pipe;

x

hnot

h
released;
burst
xx indenter
x
x
h  does
Crack
the
during
bursts
:is 
burst
:
Pipe
as 

pipe;
x

xhnot

released;
x indenter
xxx
Crack  Crack
the
during
bursts
:is 
burst

Pipe

x
pipe;

h

released;
x xhxx
propagates
h Crack
the
during
bursts
:is 
Pipepipe;



x 
release
xx xx
hh
 
duCr
bu
: Pb
denting,
x : Pipedenting,
xbursts
: Pipe
denting,
xduring
bursts
: 0.5
Pipe
denting,
xduring
bursts
pressurization,
: Pipe
denting,
xduring
bursts
pressurization,
: 20
Pipe
denting,
xduring
bursts
pressurization,
: with
Pipe
denting,
xdent
during
bursts
pressurization,
: with
Pipe
denting,
restrained;
x0dent
during
bursts
pressurization,
: with
Pipe
denting,
restrained;
xdent
during
bursts
pressurization,
: with
t:
Pipewall
denting,
restrained;
xdent
during
bursts
pressurization,
: with
thickness.
t:
Pipe
wall
denting,
restrained;
xdent
during
bursts
pressurization,
: with
thickness.
t:
Pipewall
restrained;
x0dent
during
bursts
pressurization,
: with
thickness.
t:
Pipe
wall
restrained;
dentduring
bursts
pressurization,
with
thickness.
t: wall
hrestrained;
dent during
pressurization,
with
thickness.
t: wall restrained;
dent pressurization,
with
thickness.
t: wall restrained;
 dent with
thickness.
t: wall restrained;
 dent with
thickness.
t: wall restrained; dentthickness.
t: wallrestrained; thickness.
t: wall thickne
t: wall
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
tCrack 5burst    
200.5 tthe 5burst       
:
No crack No
cumferential :
propagation,
crack
circumferential No :
circumferential
direction :
propagation,
crackNo :
propagation,
crack
:
circumferential
direction
but No :
circumferential
no
direction
but :
propagation,
crack
:propagates
burst; CrackNo :
circumferential
no
direction
but
x: :
propagation,
crack
propagates
:
burst;Crack
No :
but
circumferential
Pipeno
direction
but
x: :
propagation,
crack
propagates
:
burst;
burst Crack
does
No 
::
but:
propagation,
crack
:
circumferential
Pipe
no
direction
as
but
x: not
propagates
burst;
burst Crack
does
No 
:
circumferential
Pipe
indenter
no
direction
as:
but
but
x: :
propagation,
crack
:not
propagates
burst;
burst Crack
does
No
3the
::
burst
but
circumferential
Pipe
indenter
no
direction
is as
but
x: :
propagation,
crack
pipe;
:not
propagates
Crack
released;
burst;
burst doesNo
3the
circumferential
Pipe
indenter
no
direction
is 
:
as:

burst
but
but
x: :
 :
propagation,
crack
pipe;
hnot
propagates
Crack
h: no
released;
burst;
burst does
Crack
 No
3the
circumferential
Pipe
indenter
x :
2direction
:is :

burst
but
Pipe
as
but
x:propagation,
hcrack
pipe;
hnot
propagates
Crack
h: no
released;
burst;
burst
Pipe
indenter
x  :
2propagated
does
Crack :
direction
bursts
:is3:Pipe
as
but
propagation,
but
x: pipe;
:

hnot
propagates
released;
burst;
burst
PipeCrack
h: no
indenter
x :
:
direction
during
bursts
:is 
2propagated
does
Crack
 the
burst
 but
Pipe
as
but
x: pipe;
in
: not
propagates
released;
burst;
burstPipeCrack
h:2no
indenter
x during
bursts
:is  :
:h
2propagated
does
Crack
the
burst
but

Pipe
as
but
x:  pipe;

:
 in
h
released;
burst;
burst not
propagates
hCrack
Pipe h:2no
indenter
x 2propagated
does
Crack
the
during
bursts
: is 
burst
but
Pipe
as
x: pipe;

in
hnot
propagates
hh:2
released;
burst;
burst
Pipe
indenter
x during
bursts
:is 
2propagated
does
Crack
the
burst
but
:

Pipe
as
x: 

pipe;
inh
released;
burst not
Pipehh:2
indenter
x during
bursts
:is 
2propagated
does
Crack
the
burst
but
:

Pipe
as 3
pipe;
in
hnot
h2h:2
released;
burst indenter
x :
during
bursts
:is 
2propagated
does
Crack
the
burst

Pipe
as 
pipe;
in
hnot
h2h
released;
indenter
x : during
bursts
:is 
propagated
Crack
the
burst


Pipepipe;
in
h2: 2propagate
released;
x h2 Crack
the
during
bursts
:is 
Pipepipe;
in
hh2: 2pro
release h2 Cr
 :th
x du
bu P
22
60: : :crack :
nting, 3:200
denting,
x Pipe 3:200
denting,
xbursts
Pipex 3:200
denting,
xduring
bursts
Pipe x No
3:200
denting,
xduring
bursts x100
crack
pressurization,
Pipe No
denting,
x 3:200
during200
bursts xx
pressurization,
Pipe 3:200
propagation,
crack No
denting,
xduring200
bursts crack
xx
pressurization,
with
Pipe No3:200
propagation,
denting,
xdent 200
during
bursts xxx
pressurization,
with
Pipe denting,3:200
propagation,
crack
CrackNo
restrained;
xdent
during propagation,
200
bursts crack
xpropagates
xCrack
x
pressurization,
with
Pipe No
denting,
xdent 200
during200
restrained;
bursts 100x x
propagation,
crack
propagates
Crack
xx
pressurization,
: with
t:
Pipewall No
denting,
restrained;
x dent 200
during
bursts but
200 xx
propagation,
crack
propagates
xCrack
pressurization,
: with
thickness.
t:
Pipe
wall
denting, does
No
restrained;
xdent
during200
but
200
bursts xx
propagation,
crack
not
propagates
xCrack
pressurization,
: with
thickness.
t:
Pipewall does
restrained;
x dent
during200
burst
but
200
bursts xxx
propagation,
not
propagates
xCrack
pressurization,
with
thickness.
t:
Pipe
wall does
No
restrained;the
dent burst
200
100
during but
bursts x
100
xx
crack
pipe;
not
propagates
xCrack
pressurization,
with
thickness.
t: wall does
No
restrained;
dent 200
the
burst
during but xx
propagation,
crack
pipe;
xnot
propagates
h xCrack
pressurization,
with
thickness.
t: wall : does
Crack
No
restrained;
dent 200
the
burst
butxxx
propagation,
pipe;
xnot
propagates
h
crackx:
pressurization,
with
thickness.
t: wall propagated
does
Crack
the
restrained;
dent withx
burst
but x x
pipe;
x hnot
thickness.
t: wall xCrack
propagation,:
restrained;
dent x
propagated
does
Crack
the
burst
but
withxx
xx
pipe;
in
not
propagates
h xCrack
thickness.
t: wall :
restrained;propagated
does
Crack
the
burst
dent xxxx
pipe;
in
xnot
propagates
h x
Crack
thickness.
t: wall :
restrained; propagated
Crack
the x
burst
but xxhx
pipe;
in
x h :
propagates
thickness.
t: wall propagate
does
Crack
the but
xx
xx
thickne
t: x
pipe;
in
not
h
wall : pro
do
Cr bb
   : No crack  propagation, 60    : Crack  propagates  but does not  burst  No
the pipe;crack
 : Crack h propagation,
 propagated  No
h
circumferential h
in Crack propagation,
circumferential hpropagates
direction h
  but buth Crack no does burst;not
propagates
h
 burst
x: h
Pipe
cumferential
circumferential
circumferential
direction 3: but 0.5
circumferential
direction 3t: but
circumferential
no
direction
burst;
circumferential
no
direction
but
x:burst;
circumferential
Pipeno
direction
but
x:burst;
burst
circumferential
Pipe
no
direction
as
but
x:burst;
burst
circumferential
Pipe
indenter
no
direction
as
but
x:
burst;
burst
circumferential
Pipe
indenter
no
direction
is as
but
x: 0.5
released;
burst;
burst 3:twith
circumferential
Pipe
indenter
no
direction
is as
but
x:
released;
burst;
burst
circumferential
Pipe
indenter
x no
2direction
:is3:Pipe
as
but
x:
released;
burst;
burst
Pipe
indenter
x no
2direction
bursts
:is Pipe
as
but
x:
released;
burst;
burst
Pipe
indenter
x no
2direction
during
bursts
:is Pipe
as
but
x:
released;
burst;
burstPipe
indenter
x no
2during
bursts
:is 
Pipe
as
but
x:
released;
burst;
hburstPipe
indenter
x no
2during
bursts
: is Pipe
as
x:
released;
burst;
burst
Pipe
indenter
x 2during
bursts
:is Pipe
as
x:
released;
burst
hPipe
indenter
x 2during
bursts
:isPipe
as
released;
burst indenter
x 2during
bursts
:isPipe
as
released;
indenter
x  2during
bursts
:isPipe
released;
x 2during
bursts
:isPipe
releasex 2du
bu
: P
nting,
Noӿ : Noӿpropagation,
denting,
⍻ x
crack3: Pipe
: Noӿpropagation,
denting,
⍻ xbursts
crack3: Pipe
: Noӿ
denting,
⍻ x
crack :
during
bursts :
:
Pipe
denting,
⍻ xduring
Noӿ
direction
No
propagation,
crack
Crack :
bursts :
:
⍻
but200
pressurization,
Pipe denting,
crackxduring
No
propagation,
crack
circumferential propagates
CrackNo ӿ:
bursts
circumferential
100 :
:
pressurization,
3:noPipe denting,
⍻ x
burst;during
bursts
Noӿ
propagation,
crack No
propagation,
crack
propagates
Crack
circumferential
direction x
: :
:
but
 :
pressurization,
3: with
Pipe denting,
⍻ xdent
during
Pipe
propagation,
crack No
propagation,
crack
propagates
Crack
does
No :
burstsx
ӿ::
but
circumferential
direction
but :
pressurization,
3: with
Pipe denting,
⍻restrained;
burst
 xdent
during
3as
propagation,
crack
CrackNo
propagation,
crack
not
propagates
Crack
does
No :
bursts x:
ӿ:
burst
circumferential
no
direction but
but :
pressurization,
: with
Pipe denting,
⍻
indenter
propagation,
crack
burst;propagates
Crack
 No
propagation,
crack
not
propagates
Crack
does
No
the:
restrained;
xdent
during
bursts
circumferential
no
direction x
but
x: 200
ӿ:is:
:
pressurization,
3: with
t:
Pipewall
denting,
⍻
crack
burst
but

burst; restrained;
 x dent
during
propagation,
crack
pipe;
not bursts
released;
propagation,
propagates
Crack No
propagates
Crack
doesNothe
circumferential
Pipe no
direction :
x
ӿ:

but::
pressurization,
thickness.
t:
Pipe
wall
denting,
⍻
crack
propagation,
burst
but
but
x: 
propagation,
crack
pipe;
h
burst;
burstnot x
restrained;
xdent
during
propagates
Crack does
No
propagates
Crack
:no does
Crack
No
circumferential
Pipe the
direction:
x
ӿ:
burstsP
but:
pressurization,
with
thickness.
t:
Pipe
burst
asbut
but
x:
100 wall
pe
propagation,
crack
not
propagates
Crack
propagation,
crack
pipe;
h
burst;
burstnot No
propagates
Crack
:no x
restrained;
x dent
during
does x
::
bursts
propagated
does
Crack
circumferential
Pipe
indenter
h the
direction as
but
x: :
pressurization,
: with
thickness.
3burst:
Pipe
burst
butwall
crack

burst
butCrack
h
burst;
burst 
propagation,
pipe;
not x
restrained;
s
propagation,
not
propagatesdent
propagates
Crack
:no
circumferential
Pipe
indenter x
during
dur :
200:
bursts
does
No :
200
pressurization,
with
thethickness.
t: ng
burst
but wall
crack
propagation,
propagated
does
Crack
istheburst
direction
asbut
but
x: propagates

pipe;
in
hnot
released;
burst;
burstPipe  x
circumferential
restrained;
pipe;
notCrackdendent
during
does
propagates
Crack
:no
indenter No :

:
propagated
does
Crack
istheburst
direction
asbut
but
x: x
denting,
pressurization,
with
thethickness.
t:
burst
butngwall
h
pipe;
in
h
xnot 2 x
propagates
Crack
:no
circumferential
released;
burst;
burst x
restrained;
propagation,
crack
pipe;
not
propagates
Crack
: dent
does
Crack
circumferential
Pipe
indenter
h 2direction:
x
but
propagated
does
:Crack
isthe burst
but
Pipe
as
x: x
pipe;
pressurization,
thewith
thickness.
t: P
burstwall
h
Crack

in
h
released;
burst;
burst
Pipe
xnot x
does
2
propagates
x:no
indenter
2 x
restrained;
pe
propagation,
pipe;
not
propagates
: dent :

x
with
propagated
does
:Crack
is:the
direction
bursts
3 Pipe
as
but
x: x
pipe;
thickness.
propagated
Crack
the t:
burs wall
burst
butpipe;
not
propagates
burst
but inh
released;
burst;
burst
Pipe Pipexnot
indenter 2x x
restrained;
s
Crack
: dent
dur
:direction
no :
x2 x
pipe;
with
thickness.
t:
propagated
does
Crack
the ng
but
burst
propagated
does
:Crack
isthe
burst
direction
2during
bursts but
Pipe
as
but
x: wall
h
in
h restrained;
pipe;
in
not
propagates
Crack
:
not
released;
burst;
burst
Pipe
indenter
xx :no 2
3x
2 x
dent
the 
but x
pipe;
thickness.
t:
propagated
does
Crack
burstwall
in
propagated
does
:Crack
isthe
burst
but
bursts
Pipe
as
during
h x: h restrained;
not
propagates
pipe;

in
xnot
h
released;
burst;
burst
Pipe :
indenter :no
no x
does
2
2 
propagated
:Crack
isthe
during x
pipe;
thickness.
t:
propagated
Crack
the wall
burst
butpipe;
in
not
h
burst
burst;
bursts
Pipe
as
x: :
in
x: during
h
released;
burst;
burst
Pipe
indenter
pressurization, 2xxthe
Crack
2  x
Pipe
thickne
t:
propagate
does but
burst
propagate
:Crack
isthe
x:
bursts
Pipe
as
x: wall
pipe;
in
not
h
pipe;
in :
x: du
h
release
burst
Pipe
inde prop
h2
2x
do
Cr
pro
bu x
the
:Cr
isw
Pab
pressur za on wdenting,
hxduring
3den res 3:ra ned wa 3h
nting,
ӿ denting,
⍻ x : Pipe
ӿ denting,
⍻ xdirection
bursts : :  ӿckness 
:   :  
3: Pipe
ӿdenting,
⍻ xdirection
during
bursts
3: Pipedenting,
xduring
bursts
pressurization,
3: Pipe denting,
⍻xxnoduring
33bursts
pressurization,
3: Pipe
33bursts
pressurization,
:: with
Pipe denting,
xdent
during
33bursts
pressurization,
: with
Pipe denting,
restrained;
xdent
during
33bursts
pressurization,
3: with
Pipe denting,
restrained;
xdent
during
33bursts
pressurization,
:: with
t:
Pipewall
denting,
restrained;
x dent
during
33bursts
pressurization,
3: with
thickness.
t:
Pipe
wall
denting,
xrestrained;
xdent
during
33bursts
pressurization,
3: with
thickness.
t:
Pipewall
restrained;
x dent
during
33bursts
pressurization,
3: with
thickness.
t:
Pipe
wall
restrained;
dent
during
3bursts
pressurization,
with
thickness.
t: wallrestrained;
dent
during
33pressurization,
with
thickness.
t: wall
xrestrained;
dent
33pressurization,
with
thickness.
t: wall
xrestrained;
dent with
thickness.
t: wall xrestrained;dentwith
thickness.
t: wall
xrestrained; :dentthickness.
t: wall
xrestrained; thickness.
t: wall thickne
t: wall
3
cumferential
circumferential
circumferential ӿ ⍻No
circumferential
but denting, ӿburst;
crack
circumferential
circumferential
circumferential
no
direction
but denting, ӿburst;
: 200
circumferential
direction
but
x:
Pipe ⍻
propagation,
denting,
bursts ӿburst;
circumferential
xdirection 
circumferential
Pipeno
direction
but
x:
Pipe ⍻
burstxx
denting,
during
bursts ӿburst;
circumferential
direction
but
circumferential
Pipe
no
direction
as
but
x: ⍻
Crack
circumferential
burst
Pipe xxno
direction ӿburst;
No
: but
circumferential
Pipe
indenter
no
direction
denting,
during
bursts as
but
x: ⍻
propagates
burst;
burst xcrack
no
direction
circumferentialbut
x:
circumferential
Pipe
indenter
pressurization,
Pipe no
direction
is
denting,
x during
burstsas
but
x: 
burst;⍻propaga
xx
released;
burst;
burst but
circumferential
Pipe no
direction
circumferential
Pipe
indenter
pressurization,
Pipe no
direction
denting,is
during
bursts ӿreleased;
but
x:
as
but
x: ⍻
does
burst;
burst
burst;
burst xdirectionon
circumferential
Pipe no
circumferential
Pipe
pressurization,
: with
Pipe indenter
denting, xno ӿreleased;
not
as
but
x:
burst;
2direction
:bursts
is
dent:Pipe
during asburst
200
but
x: Pipe
burst;
burst
Pipe
xx
pressurization,
with
Pipe denting,burst
indenter
no No
no Crack
direction
circumferential
xindenter No
as
x:
:but
2direction
bursts
:bursts
restrained;is
dent
during burst;
burst
Pipe
as
but
x: the
crackxno
released;
burst;
burst
Pipe xcrack
indenter
pressurization,
with
Pipedenting, nopropaga
circumferential
Pipe
indenter
xrestrained; pipe;
xdirection
is as
but
x:
burst;
2direction
during
bursts
:bursts
is
dent:Pipe
as
but
x: propaga
propagation,
released;
burst
circumferential
Pipe
indenter
x
released;
burst;
burstPipe no
indenter
pressurization,
with
t:
Pipe
wall
denting, nois
xdirection
xx2during
burstses
h
as
but
x:
:bursts
restrained;is
dent :Pipe
as
but
x: : denting,
Crack
bu
released;
burst;
burstindenter
Pipe
released;
burst;
burst xhxx
Pipe no
indenter
pressurization,
with
thickness.
t:
Pipe wall
denting, no
2during
restrained; on
2direction
:is
bursts does
:Pipe
as
:bursts
is
dent x:
Pipe
as
x: propagated
Crack
released;
burst;
but
burstPipe
indenter
xno
released;
burst;
burst
Pipe
indenter
pressurization,
with
thickness.
t:
Pipe
wall xx no Crack
2direction
2bursts
3:is
3::Pipe
during
bursts but
x:
as
:bursts
restrained;is
dent Pipe
as
x: burs
propagates
released;
burst
burst;Pipe
indenter
released;
burst Pipexxno
indenter
pressurization,
with
thickness.
t:
Pipe
wallrestrained; propaga
2duringin
2bursts
:is
during
bursts he
isPipe
as
but
x:released;
burst;
burst
:bursts
dentPipe
as indenter
Pipe
x x2no
released;
burst indenter
pressurization,
with
thickness.
t: wall
restrained; 2p pe
es
but
2bursts
is isPipe
as
x:
during
bursts bu
burst; xdoes
Pipe
indenter
released;
burst
:pressurization,
dentPipe
duringas
released;
with indenter
thickness.
t: wall
restrained;
h does
2duringCrack
2bursts
:is
isPipe
x:
as
during
bursts not
released;
burst
xPipe
xx2:during
indenter
:pressurization,
dentPipe
released;
pressurization,
with
thickness.
t: wall
restrained; no propaga
burst
2bursts
is as
during
bursts
:is
dentPipeburs

release
burst
Pipe inde
xxbur
release
with
thickne
t: wall
restr h2du
is:the
2du
bu
:w
de PPwtar
ӿ denting,
nting,⍻ x3: Pipe
ӿ denting,
⍻ xburstsӿdenting,
3: Pipe⍻ xduring
Table ӿdenting,
bursts ⍻
3: circumferential
:xduring
Table
5. Burst
Pipe No
denting, ӿpressure
Table
5.
bursts ⍻
h
denting,
xxduring
crack
Burst
pressurization,
3: Pipe denting, ӿpropagation,
33: Pipe
:Table
5.
bursts ⍻xxduring
direction
denting,
bursts
33: Pipe
pressure
Burstof
pressurization,
Pipe denting, ӿspecimens
:Table
5.
bursts ⍻xxbut
pressure
denting,
during
Burst
pressurization,
with
Pipe bursts
of
denting,
dent ӿ:
33: Pipe
:Table
during5.
bursts h⍻cburst;
no
specimens33rcum
denting,
xxduring
bursts
pressure
Burst
pressurization,
with
Pipe of
denting, ӿspecimens

:Table
restrained;
dent
during 5.
bursts ⍻propagates
pressurization,
Crack :having
Pipe xxx:
eren
during
bursts
pressure
Burst
denting,
pressurization,
with
Pipe of
denting, ӿspecimens
having
:Table
5.
restrained;
dent
during 
plain
bursts ⍻:
pressurization,
33: Pipe
xax3during
denting,
pressure
Burst
pressurization,
with
t:
Pipewall of
denting, burst
bursts
restrained;
dent
duringd ӿbut
rec
having
cracks.
burstsTable
5.
plain⍻
3 as
xpressure
pressurization,
3No with denting,
crack
specimens
with Burst
:pressurization,
:Pipe
thickness.
t:
Pipe
wall
denting, 33on
xxbursts
dent
during
of
restrained;
dent
during ӿspecimens
indenter
bu
pressurization,
does:having
:with
Pipe
cracks.
Table
5.
plain
bursts pressure
Burst
denting,
pressurization,
with
thickness.
t:
Pipewall cxdent
restrained;33rcum
circumferential
xduring
propagation,
not of
restrained;
dent no
bursts
during burs
is
pressurization,
:having
:with
Pipedenting,
burst
cracks.
Table
5.
plain
burstsspecimens
pressure
Burst
pressurization,
with
thickness.
t:
Pipe
wall eren
released;
restrained;
3dent
during
bursts
of
restrained;
dent :
with
thet:
havingxwall
wall
cracks.
Table
5.
during plain
burstsspecimens
with adirection
denting,
pressure
xpressurization,Burst
:pressurization,
Pipe
thickness.
t: P
restrained;
pipe; 3:d
xbursts
dent
during
of
restrained;
dent pexspecimens
rec

having 2:burs
⍻
pressurization,
Crack with
thickness.
t:
Pipe wall
cracks.
5.
during plain
pressure
Burst
pressurization,
with
thickness.
t: wall :Pipe
restrained; 3on
xduring
dent
of
dent but
bursts
propagates
hrestrained; as
bu
ӿwithbursts
having
cracks.
plain no
pressurization,
Crack:with
thickness.
t:
Pipe
wall
restrained;
specimens
pressure
pressurization,
thickness.
t: wall dentnden
during
of
restrained;
dentno
bursts
withduring
havingburs
burst;
thickness.
t:
propagated wall
but
cracks.
plain
specimens
pressurization,
with restrained;
thickness.
t: wall erdent
restrained;ofx:
duringsspecimens
xwall
having
dent re
Pipe
pressurization,
with
thickness.
t:
does wall
cracks.
plain
with restrained;
in
thickness.
t: not
restrained; Peased
dentpe
burst
having
cracks.
dent plain
with
t: burs
pressurization,
thickness.
restrained;
wall
thickness.
t: wall
restrained; xhaving
dent as Pas
with
t:
the wall
cracks.
plain pedent
indenter
pipe;
thickness.
restrained;
thickness.
t: wall nden
burs
with
thickne
t: wall
cracks.
plain
thickne
t: wall her
restr sde
:is Crd
tctr
ӿ x⍻ ӿ x⍻ Table ӿ x⍻ Table ӿW
5. ⍻
x⍻
Burst
denting, ӿӿaxxpressure
thTable
5.
circumferential⍻⍻
crack
Burst
3: Pipe
ӿӿxpressure
Table
5. ⍻⍻
of
Burstof
bursts depthӿӿspecimens
⍻
Table
5.
direction ⍻⍻ of
xpressure
Burst
during ӿӿ5t

0Table
ӿ⍻
5.
but
h⍻
⍻ burst
specimens
pressure
Burst ӿӿburst;
ofhaving
Table
5.
pressurization,
den
no ⍻⍻pressures
xpressure
ngӿ⍻
specimens
Burst ӿspecimens
ӿx:
ofhaving
xTable
5. x⍻
plain
P ⍻
pressure
Burst
Pipe ӿ⍻
peofhaving
with ӿspecimens
ӿplain
burs
circumferential ⍻
cracks.
Table
5. ⍻
xpressure
2
dropped
Burst
dent
burst ӿ⍻
of
shavingӿspecimens
ӿplain
cracks.
Table
5.
dur pressure
Burst
restrained;
as denting,ng w
den
indenter ӿ⍻ th
ofhaving
direction ⍻
cracks.
Table
5.
plain xncreas
specimens
pressure
Burst
pressur
ng ofӿ⍻ ӿplain
ishaving
3t:: x
⍻
cracks.
Table
5. specimens
wall
za
Pipe pressure
PBurst
released;
but pe ng
of ӿ⍻ӿplain
having ⍻
crack
cracks.
5. specimens
thickness.
on
bursts
no burswpressure
Burst
burst; xduring2h
ӿ⍻
:of ӿplain
shaving ength
cracks.
specimens
den
dur
Pipe
x: pressure
Pipeng ӿ⍻
ofhaving
res cracks.
plain
specimens
pressur
ra
pressurization,
bursts burst dent nedӿ⍻ depth
ofhaving
cracks.
duringplain
specimens
asza indenter ӿ⍻
wa on having
cracks.
plain
withwh dent ӿ having
cracks.
ckness
his plain
den restrained;
released; rescracks.
plain
ra xned 2: tc P
n, :
ӿ Crack ⍻ Table
⍻ ӿpropagates Crack
ӿ ⍻andbut⍻
Table
5. Burst
ӿdent
⍻does ӿCrack
ӿng
denting,
Size
⍻
Table
5. (mm)
ӿCrack
pressure
Burst Size
ӿPipe
⍻
:Table
5.
⍻pressure
not ⍻ the
x3burst ӿ(mm)
pressure
Burst
ofTable
5.
bursts
Crack
Size
⍻ ӿ(mm)

ӿsspecimens
pressure
Burst
ofar
⍻ during
pipe;
m Crack
Size
h
⍻
Table
5.
ӿspecimens
pressure
Burst of
:⍻Crack
to theӿ(mm)
Crack
Size
having
Table
5. ⍻⍻ (mm)
ӿspecimens
pressure
Burst
pressurization,
Crack
Size
⍻
ofhaving
ӿTable
5.
plain
ӿspecimens
⍻
ppropagated
pes w th (mm)
pressure
Burst
of Crack
Size
ӿplain
⍻
having
cracks.
Table
5.
ӿspecimens
pressure
in
denting, Burst
of
⍻ xdent
unrestra
with
(mm)
Crack
Size
ӿplain
3having
cracks.
:Table
5.specimens
pressure
⍻Burst
ӿPipeof (mm)
Crack
Size
⍻
having
nedӿcracks.
Table
5.
plain (mm)
specimens
pressure
Burst
of
havingCrack
Size
ӿt:plain
⍻
cracks.
Table
5. specimens
pressure
dent-crack
restrained;
bursts during Burst
wallof (mm)
Crack
Size
ӿplain
having
cracks.
5. (mm)
specimens
pressure
Burst Size
ofhaving
cracks.
defectsplain (mm)
specimens
pressure
pressurization,
thickness. ofhaving
cracks.
plain
specimens
However
with of
having
cracks.
plain
specimens
Table
dent having
burstcracks.
5.plain having
Burst
restrained; cracks.
plain cracks.
plain
t:pressure
wall of c
thickne
Crack Crack
Size (mm)
Crack
Size Burst
(mm)
Crack
Size Pressure
Burst
(mm)
Crack
Size Pressure
Burst
(mm) (MPa)
Crack
Size Pressure
Burst
(mm)
Crack
Size(MPa)Pressure
Burst
(mm) (MPa)
Crack
Size Pressure
Burst
(mm) (MPa)
Crack
Size Pressure
Burst
(mm) (MPa)
Crack
Size Pressure
(mm)Burst
(MPa)
Crack
Size Pressure
Burst
(mm) (MPa)
Crack
Size Pressure
Burst
(mm) (MPa)
Size Pressure
Burst
(mm) (MPa)Pressure
Burst
(MPa) Pressure
(MPa) (MPa)
n but no burst; x:Table
Pipe Table
5. Depth
⍻ Burst
burst
pressure Table
5.indenter
ӿas
of pressure
Burst
Depth
spec Table
5.mens
pressure
Burst
Length isof
Depth Table
5.specimens
Lengthwpressure
Burst
of
Depth
released;
Table th Table
5.specimens
pressure
Length
Table
5. Burst
Depth
x 2:⍻
Burst
restra
Burst(mm)
of
Pressure
having
Table
5.specimens
Length
Pipe pressure
ӿ
Table
5.
Burst(mm)ned Burst
of
Depthhaving
Table
5.
plain
pressure
Burst specimens
Length
bursts pressure
Burst
Table
5. of
Depthhaving
cracks.
Table
5.
pressure
Burst
of plain
specimens
pressure
Length
during
Table
5.
dents-cracks
Pressure
Burst
(MPa)
Burst
of
Depth having
cracks.
specimens
Pressure
Burst
(MPa)
Table
5.
pressure
Burst
of plain
specimens
Lengthpressure
⍻
Table
5. Burst
⍻of
Depthhaving
ӿ
specimens
were
Pressure
Burst
(MPa)
cracks.
Table
5.
pressure
Burst
of plain
specimens
Lengthpressure
ӿ
having
Table
5. Burst
of
having
Depthcracks.
Table
5.
specimens
genera
Pressure
Burst
(MPa)
plain
Length
pressure
Burst
of specimens
having
Table
5. pressure
plainBurst
of
Depthhaving
specimens
y
Pressure
Burst
(MPa)
cracks.
5.
pressure
Burst
h of plain
specimens
Lengthpressure
havingBurst
cracks.
5.
plain
gher of
Depthhaving
cracks.
specimens
Table
Pressure
Burst
(MPa)
plain
pressure
Burst
of specimens
pressure
Length
having
than of
cracks.
Table
plain
Pressure
Burst
having
cracks.
plain
specimens
Length
specimens
(MPa)pressure
of
having of
cracks.
Table
5.
burstplain having
cracks.
plain
specimens
5. Pressure
Burst
Burst
(MPa)Burst
of specimens
having
cracks.
5.
plain having
cracks.
specimensplain
pressure
Burst
Table
pressures
pressure
Table
Pressure
Burst
(MPa) ofhaving
cracks.
plain
5.
of
Pressure
Burst
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20
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14
10014.04
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14.04 15 32100 0.5 t 60 13 00 10010014.04 13 00
13.00
20 15.32 100 60 13.00 14 04 100 13.00
05
0.5 t 60 14.04 100 13 00
100 13.00 200 11 39

Restra n ng dents contr bute n two ways to mprove p pe res stance to fracture F rst compress ve
stresses from the restra nt reduce stress tr ax a ty at the crack t p and second y they counteract hoop
stresses from nterna pressure Therefore h gh pressure s requ red to deve op the fracture stra n and
propagate cracks n restra ned dents
Restra ned dent-crack defects w th crack engths ≥ 100 mm ns de dents of depth ≥ 6% OD formed
at any pressure were prob emat c as they d sp ayed suscept b ty to unstab e crack propagat on
n c rcumferent a and ong tud na d rect ons Dent ng p pes at 0 8 Py propagated cracks of
ength ≥ 100 mm ns de dents of depths ≥ 4% OD Re eas ng the dent restra nt at MAOP d d
not propagate cracks of ength < 60 mm Cracks of ength > 60 mm propagated but on y those
w th engths > 100 mm and ns de dents of depth ≥ 4% OD deep formed at 0 8 Py dent ng pressure
propagated unt the p pes burst when the dent restra nt was re eased
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 7554 16 of 18

4. Conclusions
Burst pressure of pipeline with restrained and unrestrained concentric dent-crack defects was
investigated in this study, considering the effect of varying crack geometry, dent depth, and denting
pressure. Predicted burst pressures are compared with burst pressure of longitudinally cracked pipes
without dents. Lastly, the effect of releasing the indenter from pipe surface when the pipe is operating
at its maximum allowable operating pressure on crack propagation was assessed.
Specimens with unrestrained concentric dent-crack defects with dent depth of 2% OD formed
at zero denting pressure had the same burst pressure as plain cracked specimens, but dent-crack
defects were more injurious than plain cracks with increasing dent depth and denting pressures.
A 0.2 t deep crack in dents formed at zero pressure was not problematic because the affected specimen
sustained the MAOP of the pipe without the crack propagating, for crack lengths ≤ 200 mm and dent
depths ≤ 6% OD.
Unrestrained dents of depth 6% OD formed at pressures > 0.3 Py , with cracks of depth ≥ 0.2 t, did
not sustain the MAOP of the pipe. The cracks propagated at pressures lower than MAOP of the pipe,
and risk of bursting at pressure lower than MAOP increased with crack length and denting pressure.
Specimens with restrained dent-crack defects had higher burst pressure than the corresponding
specimens with unrestrained dent-crack defects and releasing the restraint at MAOP did not propagate
0.2 t deep cracks but propagated 0.5 t deep cracks. Risk of propagation and bursting increased with
crack length, denting pressure, and dent depth. All cracks with length > 60 mm propagated but only
those of length > 100 mm propagated until the pipes burst when dent restraint was released at MAOP
of the pipe.
Increasing crack depth, crack length, and dent depth were more detrimental to pipe integrity than
increasing denting pressure. But, deep dents (>4% OD) disproportionately increased the effect of the
other defect parameters on pipeline integrity and burst pressure.
Pipelines with restrained concentric dent-crack defects are safe for service at maximum allowable
operating pressure of the pipe if the restraints remain in position on the pipe surface.
Integrity of pipelines with unrestrained concentric dent-cracks vary with defect geometry.
Affected pipelines retain significant strength and may be maintained in service with careful assessment.
Although only two crack depths were considered in this study, the results suggest that dent-crack
defects are not too severe on integrity of pipelines subjected to monotonically increasing pressure.
A study involving more crack depths and locations within dents other than the dent center (apex) is
required for a broader understanding of the effect of dent-crack defects on the integrity of pipelines.
Our future work will investigate more crack depths and the effect of cracks located in the flank of dents
on burst pressure. Additionally, the fatigue life of pipelines with dent-crack defects, which has not
been the focus of the present study, will be investigated.

Author Contributions: The authors have agreed upon the following credit statement for this manuscript.
Conceptualization: A.O., Y.L., and S.A.; Methodology: A.O. and S.A.; Investigation: A.O. and S.A.; Formal Analysis:
A.O., Y.L., and S.A.; Resources: S.A., N.Y.-G., M.K., and R.C.; Writing—original draft preparation: A.O. and
Y.L.; Writing—review and editing: Y.L., S.A., R.C., and N.Y.-G.; Supervision: S.A.; Project administration: S.A.;
Funding acquisition: S.A., N.Y.-G., R.C., and M.K. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: The authors wish to acknowledge funding received from NSERC and Enbridge Pipelines Inc.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Disclaimer: Any information or data pertaining to Enbridge Employee Services Canada Inc., or its affiliates,
contained in this paper was provided to the authors with the express permission of Enbridge Employee Services
Canada Inc., or its affiliates. However, this paper is the work and opinion of the authors and is not to be interpreted
as Enbridge Employee Services Canada Inc., or its affiliates’, position or procedure regarding matters referred to
in this paper. Enbridge Employee Services Canada Inc. and its affiliates and their respective employees, officers,
director, and agents shall not be liable for any claims for loss, damage, or costs, of any kind whatsoever, arising
from the errors, inaccuracies, or incompleteness of the information and data contained in this paper or for any
loss, damage, or costs that may arise from the use or interpretation of this paper.
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 7554 17 of 18

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