Applied Behaviour Analysis (ABA)

Applied Behaviour Analysis (ABA)
Module 2: Increasing Behaviour

Table of contents
A Objectives ......................................................................................................................... 4
B Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 5
1 Activity reinforcers ................................................................................................. ...... 6
2 Token economy ............................................................................................................. 6
C Catch them being good ................................................................................................... 8
D Social reinforcers ........................................................................................................... 10
1 Verbal statements ........................................................................................................ 10
2 Activity reinforcers ..................................................................................................... 11
3 Making reinforcers effective ....................................................................................... 13
E Token economies ........................................................................................................... 14
1 When to use a token system ........................................................................................ 14
2 How it works ............................................................................................................... 14
3 Where to start .............................................................................................................. 15
4 Fading out the system.................................................................................................. 15
5 In summary.................................................................................................................. 16
6 Examples ..................................................................................................................... 17
7 Points to remember: .................................................................................................... 18
8 Behavioural contract ................................................................................................... 19
F Common mistakes ......................................................................................................... 21
1 Overload ...................................................................................................................... 21
2 Keep it simple.............................................................................................................. 21
G Reinforcer sampling ...................................................................................................... 24
1 Ask/interview .............................................................................................................. 24
2 Experiment .................................................................................................................. 24
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3 How to find out what is reinforcing ............................................................................ 25
H Reinforcer satiation ....................................................................................................... 27
1 Be positive ................................................................................................................... 27
I Schedules of reinforcement .......................................................................................... 28
1 Continuous reinforcement ........................................................................................... 28
2 Intermittent reinforcement........................................................................................... 29
3 When reinforcement doesn't work............................................................................... 31
4 Is reinforcement bribery? ............................................................................................ 31
5 Words of encouragement ............................................................................................ 31
6 Negative reinforcement (SR-) ..................................................................................... 32
J Shaping and fading........................................................................................................ 33
1 Fading.......................................................................................................................... 34
K References ...................................................................................................................... 35
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A Objectives
Our objectives for this module are to:
• Introduce you to the basic principles of reinforcement;

• Explain reinforcement as a consequence for behaviour;
• Explain situations where reinforcement does not work;
• Discuss token economies and the use of stronger reinforcers;
• Define negative reinforcement.
Upon completion, you should:
• Be able to define reinforcement;

• Understand when and how reinforcement works;
• Be able to describe different types of reinforcement;
• Have developed a knowledge of the shaping and schedules of reinforcement;
• Understand the selection of reinforcers, particularly in relation to non-verbal children
and children with developmental disabilities;
• Understand why sometimes reinforcers do not work;
• Understand token economies and how they work;
• Understand the difference between negative and positive reinforcement;
• Identify examples of negative and positive reinforcement.

B Introduction
Often in our work with children we look for proven ways Food, water, sex, shelter,
to increase behaviour or to teach new behaviour. An warmth are all examples of
effective way to do this is to use reinforcers. Basically, a unlearned reinforcers
reinforcer is a consequence that follows a behaviour and
results in an increase in that behaviour in the future. The only way we can know if a
consequence actually works as a reinforcer is to try it out. If the item follows the behaviour
and results in an increase in the behaviour, then it is a reinforcer.
The two critical issues in reinforcement are (1) choosing effective reinforcers and (2) having a
choice of reinforcers available.
There are two main categories of reinforcers:
1. Unlearned reinforcers (also called unconditioned or primary reinforcers). Food, water, sex,
shelter, warmth are all examples of unlearned reinforcers. They are all essential for long-term
survival and we are naturally inclined to repeat behaviours that produce these consequences.
2. Learned reinforcers (also called conditioned or secondary reinforcers). Learned reinforcers

are things that we learn to like or learn to find reinforcing. They fall into three main
categories:
- Social reinforcers, e.g. praise, some kinds of touch, facial expressions; - Activity reinforcers,
e.g. swimming, playing games, watching TV; - Token reinforcers, e.g. bonus points, money,
sticker charts or good behaviour. Basically, these are consequences that can be exchanged for
other things we like at a later time.
We use social reinforcers very frequently with children,

Specific praise (also called
particularly praise. From an ABA perspective, it is
descriptive praise) is an
important to make a distinction between praising a child
important teaching tool in ABA
and praising their behaviour. We always want to convey
the message that we care about and value a child. So, we always want to be able to say "Good
girl, Mary" or "Tommy is a great little boy". But we also want to be able to use praise
sometimes to show approval of some of the childs behaviours and not of others. That is why
specific praise (also called descriptive praise) is an important teaching tool in ABA.
For example: Nora is making a great effort to hold her pencil the right way and write her
letters clearly and legibly. Instead of saying "Nice job, Nora", we would make a point of
describing the behaviour we want to reinforce when we praise her: "Nora, youre doing a
lovely job of holding your pencil right. And look at how easy it is to read your letters!"
We will talk more about specific praise, why it is important and how to do it, later on.

1 Activity reinforcers
Activity reinforcers can be very effective in developing There has to be a structured
behaviours. We frequently make use of them in the way approach to fading out the token
we schedule activities. For instance, when dealing with system or the behaviour will
children we are all familiar with the expressions, "Eat your reoccur
dinner before your dessert" or "Do your homework and
then you can watch television". This is sometimes called Grandmas rule (Becker, 1971).
Within the field of ABA, it is known as the Premack principle (Premack, 1959). Most of us
use this principle (or try to!) regularly. We treat ourselves after we have completed a difficult
task. For example, we say things like, "When I finish exercising I will go take a nice bubble
bath" or, "When I finish this assignment I will take a coffee break". We try to make a highly
preferred activity depend on (contingent upon, in ABA terms) a less-preferred activity.
2 Token economy
The token economy is a useful way to help motivate children. Typically, with younger
children we use star charts for specific behaviours, while we may use points, signatures or
coins with older children. These are tokens and can be exchanged for preferred items. The
exchange rate of tokens for behaviour is based on how frequently the behaviour occurs. We
teach the child the value of the token and how to exchange it for some preferred item or
activity. The skill in using a token economy is how to fade it out! There has to be a structured
approach to fading out the token system or the behaviour will reoccur. To do this, you change
the rate of exchange or look for more of the behaviour for one token. This can be done by
gradually moving to one token per hour, three hours, one day, two days, etc. Gradually you
get to a weekly token which represents the typical schedule of reinforcement in everyday life
most children get a weekly treat or weekly pocket money.
One problem with using positive reinforcement to increase behaviour is finding reinforcers
that work for children, particularly children with disabilities. If a child can communicate well,
the best option is to ask them what they like. If, however, a child has communication
difficulties, you may have to ask someone who is familiar with the child what they like. Or
you may need to observe them closely to identify their likes and preferences. In addition,
there are more formal methods of assessment, such as using checklists to rate food, activities
and possessions that might be reinforcing. For children who have very limited communication
skills, a strategy of systematically presenting pairs of items that might be used as reinforcers
is also used. The child is asked to pick one of the two items presented from a group of
possible options, with every possible pair presented. By noting the childs preference each
time, you can rank the options from most to least preferred.
Making a list of 10 to 15 reinforcers is a good start. This

Reinforcer satiation occurs
list is called a menu of reinforcers. It allows for variety
where the child has had too
and helps us to avoid reinforcer overload or satiation.
much of the reinforcer and it
Reinforcer satiation occurs where the child has had too
loses its value
much of the reinforcer and it loses its value. If you already
have £100 million in the bank, then winning the Lottery is not as reinforcing to you as it is to
someone who only has £50 in the bank.

When someone engages in behaviour in order to avoid or escape from an aversive
consequence, we describe this as negative reinforcement. For example, being nagged is an
aversive experience for most of us. If a parent nags a child to wear warm clothes going
outside (and if the nagging is aversive enough to the child) the child will be quicker to wear
warm clothes the next time in order to avoid or stop the nagging. The behaviour of wearing
warm clothes when going outside allows the child to avoid being nagged (an aversive
consequence) and getting cold (also an aversive consequence). Negative reinforcement refers
to increasing behaviour by making the removal of something negative dependent on the
behaviour (or in behavioural terms contingent on the behaviour).
Very often, when we want to teach complex behaviours, we teach it in phases. In ABA terms,
this is called shaping. Shaping is something parents and teachers tend to do naturally. For
example, when babies first start to make vocal sounds, parents give huge amounts of attention
and reaction to each utterance. Gradually though, parents become more selective in what they
react to. Initially, they tend to make a fuss over variations in basic sounds, then the first few
words repeated over and over, then new words, then two-word combinations and so on. We
shape language by reinforcing sounds, then words and finally sentences. Although parents and
teachers often do this naturally or intuitively, it is sometimes necessary to be more systematic
and objective in shaping behaviours by children with disabilities. ABA has described
techniques that can be used to shape behaviour in an effective and efficient way. In ABA
terms, shaping is a process by which we reinforce successive approximations or small
incremental steps towards a final or terminal behaviour.
In ABA, a schedule of reinforcement is the term used to

Unfortunately, many
describe the rate or timing of reinforcement. The two
inappropriate behaviours are
primary schedules are continuous reinforcement and
reinforced intermittently so they
intermittent reinforcement. With continuous
can be very persistent
reinforcement, we reinforce a behaviour every time.
Generally, we use continuous reinforcement with new behaviours to get them established
quickly. When the behaviour is well established we use intermittent reinforcement to maintain
it, i.e. we do not reinforce the behaviour every time, but we do reinforce it regularly. An
unpredictable intermittent schedule of reinforcement is the most effective means for keeping
behaviour going, e.g. buying Lottery scratch cards.
Unfortunately, many inappropriate behaviours are reinforced intermittently so they can be

very persistent. For instance, every now and then we may give in to a childs temper tantrum
or nagging. So the tantrums and nagging persist even though most of the time we dont give in.
That is why the ABA approach to dealing with challenging behaviour emphasises careful
planning and consistent implementation of the intervention.

C Catch them being good
Positive reinforcement describes a functional relationship between

two environmental events: a behaviour (any observable action) and a
consequence (a result of that action). Positive reinforcement is
demonstrated when a behaviour is followed by a consequence that
increases the behaviours rate of occurrence.
(Alberto and Troutman, 2006, p.12)
Reinforcement is, by definition, In order to increase positive behaviour, we have to

something which comes after a reinforce it. An object or event is defined as a reinforcer
particular behaviour and results only by its effect on behaviour (Martin and Pear, 1999).
in an increase in that behaviour So how do we reinforce behaviour? Reinforcement is, by
definition, something which comes after a particular
behaviour and results in an increase in that behaviour. The theory is that by following
behaviour with food, praise, hugs, a preferred activity or a token, for example, we can
increase the behaviour. The symbol for reinforcer is SR+.
The reinforcer itself can take many shapes and forms. What is reinforcing for one person may
not be reinforcing for another. Many people work at boring repetitive jobs over and over
again to earn money. Money is used to motivate people to complete even the most boring
tasks. For many of the children we work with, money has no value but they would probably
be motivated to get access to a toy they like. If access to the toy is contingent or dependent on
them performing some behaviour and results in an increase in that behaviour then it is a
reinforcer.
Whether something is a reinforcer for a person can only be demonstrated by its effect on their
behaviour (Grant and Evans, 1994). If a behaviour (response) increases when they get access
to a preferred toy, activity or food after they complete the behaviour (response), then it is a
reinforcer. For example, if we praise a child for saying ta-ta after we give him something, and
then the child says ta-ta the next time we give him something, we can say that praise is
reinforcing that childs behaviour of saying ta-ta. In a more extreme example, one young adult
with a severe learning disability was known to work for the plastic off a six-pack. He enjoyed
flapping it by holding it between his thumb and forefinger. Another child, who was diagnosed
with autism, liked to flick on and off the lights in the room in quick succession. This was used
as one of the reinforcers for that child in his programme.
In general, it is important to use age-appropriate It is important to use age-

reinforcers as this helps normalisation of children with appropriate reinforcers
disabilities and avoids stigmatising them. If you see an
older child with a baby toy you naturally talk down to that child. It takes a bit of thinking but
it is worth it in the end to come up with a replacement that is age-appropriate. This is also
consistent with the policy of treating people who have disabilities with respect and dignity.
Behaviourists did not invent reinforcement but they figured out how to use these principles in
a systematic and thoughtful way (Alberto and Troutman, 2006). There are learned and
unlearned reinforcers. Unlearned reinforcers are things that are essential to biological
survival, such as food, water, shelter, reproduction and warmth. We are biologically
programmed to like these things without ever experiencing them. They are necessary to our

survival as a species. These are also called primary reinforcers or unconditioned reinforcers.
The main primary or unlearned reinforcer we use in our work with children is food.
Learned reinforcers are things that we have learned to be reinforcing. We learn that money
can be exchanged for goods and services, which we enjoy. When we set up a star chart we
teach children that stars can be exchanged for things they like. We also learn to enjoy smiles,
hugs, and encouraging words. These are called secondary or conditioned reinforcers.
Unlearned = unconditioned = primary reinforcers
Learned = conditioned = secondary reinforcers
Learned reinforcers fall into three main groups: social reinforcers, activity reinforcers and
token reinforcers.

D Social reinforcers
We use social reinforcers every day. We use positive words, smiles, nods, and hugs when we
are pleased with someone or their behaviour. Research demonstrates that social reinforcers are
very effective in changing students behaviour (Alberto and Troutman, 2006 p.234). There are
three types of social reinforcers (1) physical contact (2) proximity and (3) verbal statements
(Cooper et al., 1987). Let us look at some of these examples of social reinforcers.
Physical contact
Physical contact can be reinforcing for most children. A small minority of children are tactile
defensive and do not enjoy being touched. However, the majority of children enjoy touch.
Examples of positive physical contact include hugging, sitting in lap, patting head shoulder or
back, stroking arm, shaking head, and holding hand. Initially physical contact can be paired
with praise.
Proximity
Nearness can also be used as a reinforcer, for example walking together, sitting on the child's
bed, talking and listening to each other, eating together, playing games with the child.
Facial expressions
Positive expressions that are reinforcing include smiling, a nod of the head, a wink, looking
interested, laughing, and clapping. Most people naturally combine these with praise.
Gradually the expression becomes as reinforcing as the words.
1 Verbal statements
Verbal statements can be affirmative or informative.
Possible praising words and phrases
Good; thats right; excellent; thats clever; exactly; good job; good thinking; that shows a great
deal of work; you really pay attention; you should show this to your father and mother; that
was very kind of you; thank you; Im pleased with you; great; I like that; I love that; thats
interesting.
Let us look at these phrases and words again. While these are all very positive, they are not
specific. For younger children, or those with poor verbal and comprehension skills, the praise
has to be very specific. It is important to name the behaviour that you want to encourage so
that the child makes the connection between your praise and their behaviour.

Here are some better examples:
Good, that is the right answer; thats clever the way you
You have to praise the
held the pencil behind you ear; you answered the question
behaviour not the child so be
exactly right; good job taking out the bin; that shows you
very specific in labelling the
did a great deal of work before break, you really pay
behaviour
attention to your maths; you should show this picture to
your father and mother; that was very kind of you helping Marie; thank you for picking up
your book; I am pleased with the way you brushed your hair this morning; great talking; I like
that picture you painted, I love the colours you used; thats an interesting model you made.
This takes practice you have to praise the behaviour not the child so be very specific in
labelling the behaviour. When working with children who have poor comprehension skills,
keep it brief, e.g. good drawing, good brushing, nice painting, etc. It is important when you
reinforce the child that you go up to the child, try to get his/her attention (use the childs name,
put your hand on their shoulder, or make eye contact), and then reinforce them by praising
their behaviour. This may seem artificial when you first do it but it can make a big difference
to the child on the receiving end.
When you use praise, it is also important to make sure your non-verbal behaviour matches
what you are saying. You must also communicate your approval and enthusiasm for the childs
behaviour non-verbally. If your facial expression is congruent or consistent with what you are
saying, children process the information faster and learn the association between the words
and the expression. In particular, visual cues are important for children who rely on visual
information to understand meaning.
Using specific or descriptive praise
• Move close to the child being at the childs physical level is always a good rule of
thumb.
• Get the childs attention, e.g. use the childs name or a gesture, or touch them lightly.
• Praise the behaviour not the whole child, e.g. "You did a good job tidying up, here is
the toy you earned", or "Good, looking at me" (when the child makes eye contact).
Make sure the child understands what behaviour you are reinforcing.
• Make sure your non-verbal behaviour matches what you are saying, i.e. positive tone
of voice, pleased look on your face, etc.
Rules for teachers using praise have been outlined by OLeary and OLeary (1977). They list:
• Praise is delivered contingent on performance;

• It should specify the behaviour or aspects of the behaviour being reinforced;
• It should sound sincere.
2 Activity reinforcers
Everyone has preferred activities some people enjoy going to the cinema, others prefer
swimming, bowling or going out to dinner. If you have an agreement with someone to do a
job in exchange for an activity, it has to be an activity that they find reinforcing and not one
that you think they will find reinforcing. Many programmes have failed because of
assumptions made about what are preferred activities. Activity reinforcers can also be doing

jobs for the teacher, playing a game, singing a song. Activity reinforcers can be very helpful
when devising a routine or schedule book.
Premack principle
The Premack principle states that access to a high-frequency

behaviour is contingent upon the occurrence of a low-frequency
behaviour. high-frequency behaviour can serve as a reinforcer for
low-frequency behaviour.
(Cooper et al., 1987, p. 267).
We have probably all said to a child: "You must clean By placing non-preferred
your room before you can go out to play" or "Eat your activities before a preferred
dinner before you can have dessert". This is called activity you can use the
Grandmas rule (Becker, 1971) or the Premack principle preferred activity as a reinforcer
(Premack, 1959). By placing non-preferred activities
before a preferred activity you can use the preferred activity as a reinforcer. The idea is that
you can get a person to do a less preferred activity by following it with an activity that is
reinforcing. We all do this naturally as part of our everyday lives. In the classroom setting,
you can arrange to have a difficult task followed by playtime. If the child has a schedule book
then you can have the child pick the preferred activity and place it after a work task in the
book.
Here is an example of an activity schedule for a child who enjoys lunchtime you set it up so
that his non-preferred activities come before his lunch. The child can see that he has to do his
reading, then he can participate in sports and then it is lunchtime.
Special consideration must be given to the sensory types of activities, particularly in cases
where a child has a sensory impairment or is tactile defensive. Think about the child in terms
of their senses what would they enjoy? A visually impaired child might enjoy the sense of
touch such as vibrating toys or a vibrating cushion, or even music. A child with autism who is
very visual might like a glitter stick or a snow scene. Think about favourite toys,

entertainment, sports activities, pampering activities, arts and crafts, personal appearance,
outings, changes to the normal routine (no homework, a longer lunch, a half day, staying up
late).
3 Making reinforcers effective

Cooper et al. (1987) identified three conditions we can control that impact on reinforcement.
• The persons history of reinforcement. Working with young people this is very
important. The majority of young people respond well to positive reinforcement,
however for a handful of children who live in aversive circumstances, scolding or
getting in trouble is actually positive reinforcement. If their behaviour is increasing
then the behaviour is being reinforced. We cannot change the history but we can
change our response to the students future behaviour, thus developing a new history
with different contingencies.
• Current environment timing, consistency, amount, quality, schedule and novelty all
impact on reinforcement.
• Deprivation state.
For reinforcement to be effective, i.e. to cause an increase in the behaviour:
• It must come after the behaviour;

• Initially when teaching a new behaviour it has to come immediately after the
behaviour;
• There must be a clear connection between the behaviour and the reinforcer;
• Initially you consistently reinforce the behaviour every time it happens;
• When the behaviour is established, you fade out the reinforcer by giving it
occasionally and unpredictably;
• Too much of the same reinforcers makes the reinforcer less potent.
Is the reinforcer the child wants available immediately? Sometimes with activity reinforcers
the child has to wait for the activity. A convenient way to hold the child while they wait for a
reinforcer is to use a token economy system. Token economy systems are also useful for more
stubborn behaviours. The next section reviews the token economy system.

E Token economies
When we set up a token economy we are setting up a currency that can be used to buy
preferred items
We live in a token economy we exchange money for goods and services. If we were stranded
on a desert island, money would lose its value because we could not buy anything with it.
When we set up a token economy we are setting up a currency that can be used to buy
preferred items. The token is currency; it can be used in exchange for preferred items. The
tokens only have the value we assign to them and only operate in the setting (classroom or
home) where we dispense them. With younger children the most common system is star
charts. With older children we can use signatures, points or actual money as the currency for
exchange.
1 When to use a token system

A token economy system is useful when more natural methods are not working. Some
children are very difficult to motivate. If matching tasks and activities to the child, changing
the schedule, group arrangements and other methods have not worked to increase the childs
motivation, a token system is a good option (Sulzer-Azaroff and Roy Mayer, 1991). If you
find you are in a negative cycle and you want to avoid reverting to aversive or negative
strategies with a child where you constantly focus on misbehaviour, then a token system is a
positive way out of this. In a token system you focus on positive behaviour (earning tokens)
and ignore the negative behaviour. When the child does not earn the token you just say
nothing. This helps to make the shift towards a more positive interaction with the child.
There are a number of advantages to the token system:
• It is a positive reminder to focus on appropriate behaviour;

• It can provide an objective record of behaviour the number of tokens earned each day
for appropriate behaviour;
• Once the token system has been agreed on, there is no need for nagging if the child
behaves appropriately they get the token(s), if not, they do not get the token(s);
• It is more convenient than giving out reinforcers every time the appropriate behaviours
happen;
• It can help a child to learn to wait for rewards for their behaviour an important part of
developing self-control;
• It can provide the child with a choice of reinforcers (menu). This choice, in itself, can
be quite reinforcing and it also contributes to the childs sense of self-control.
2 How it works
A token economy works in the same way as a customer A token economy provides a
privilege card. By itself it has no value other than the permanent prompt for
value assigned for exchange of the points or tokens. appropriate behaviour and a
Tokens such as star charts, poker chips, points or structured system of
signatures can be used depending on the age of the child. reinforcement
These are then exchanged for something which the child
has identified as reinforcing, contingent or dependent on certain behaviours. The purpose of

these systems is to establish positive interactions. It provides a permanent prompt for
appropriate behaviour and a structured system of reinforcement. Both the child and the adult
can see the chart, and it is a reminder to each of them that the focus is on the positive
behaviour of the child and the progress made so far. This type of system also reduces nagging
and scolding. If the behaviour happens it is reinforced. If it does not happen it is ignored, i.e.
no token is presented. The child knows what is expected and either complies with it or doesnt.
A typical target behaviour for the child in a toileting programme might be dry pants. For other
programmes the target behaviour might be bringing in completed homework assignments or
the absence of temper tantrums in the classroom. The idea is that the token holds the person
until it is time to get access to the actual reinforcer. This is particularly true when we set up a
contract for an activity reinforcer such as swimming or horse riding.
3 Where to start
Write the operational definition(s) of the behaviour(s) you want to reinforce.
Establish the baseline of the behaviour. How often you reward the child depends on the child,
their level of difficulty and the frequency of the behaviour.
For instance, homework or completing a maths worksheet is something that only happens
once per day and so you only have one opportunity to reward the behaviour.
A behaviour like fighting could happen many times per day or even many times per hour. If
the rate of the behaviour is high (for example a six-year-old child who fights on average four
times per day) then you could divide the day up into natural breaks (morning, afternoon,
evening and night time). This allows the child four opportunities to earn stars in a single day.
The frequency of the behaviour tells you how often to reward. Very often with a token system
every star or token is rewarded initially. Some children require immediate exchange of the
token for the reinforcer for a while. This is a training phase, where they learn the value of the
reinforcer. The child earns the star or token and it is immediately exchanged for the reward.
Then the child might require two out of three stars or tokens for the reward, etc. You
gradually raise your expectations: three out of three stars over two days, then over four days
and finally a reward weekly, or one star and one reward for the whole week.
The process of gradually increasing the requirements to get reinforcers, and of increasing
the delay between engaging in the behaviour and getting reinforcers requires good judgement,
based on careful recording of the childs behaviour.
4 Fading out the system
The skill involved in using this method is in fading out the system while maintaining the
improved behaviour
The initial goal of a token system is that the tokens become associated with real reinforcers.
The child then engages in the desired behaviour to earn the reinforcers. In order to fade out
the system, you gradually get the child to produce more of the appropriate behaviour for the
same reward. Raise the bar gradually. Once the behaviour is established, you change the

exchange rate. More behaviour is required for the child to earn the token. You need to
combine the token with verbal praise, encouragement and attention. This will help to maintain
the behaviour in the absence of tokens.
The child and their behaviour direct how quickly you fade out the system. If you increase the
requirements or demands for reinforcement and the childs behaviour deteriorates, you may
have moved too fast. You may need to move back a step for a while to re-establish the
effectiveness of system.
The skill involved in using this method is in fading out the system while maintaining the
improved behaviour.
5 In summary
Token systems work best for specific, recurring behavioural problems. In setting up the token
system you need to proceed in the following way:
• Write the operational definition of the behaviour(s) you wish to change or increase,
stating it as positively as possible. Test your definition by asking someone else to use
it, and see if you can both agree when you see instances of the behaviour(s).
• Observe and record a baseline of the behaviour. Using this, decide how frequently the
tokens need to be dispensed. The baseline tells you where to set the criteria for earning
the token(s). Initially, you should set the criteria for earning the token at baseline level
or a little below it to make it easy for the child to succeed.
• Make a list of reinforcers or a reinforcer menu for the child. This can be done by
asking the child, or by reinforcer sampling, or by using a standardised questionnaire or
reinforcer survey.
• Draw up a form for recording the behaviours (and the tokens).
• Explain the agreement in a clear and simple manner to the child:
• Conditions under which he/she earns the tokens, i.e. what behaviours;
• The exchange rate criteria: how many tokens for how many behaviours;
• The system for exchanging the tokens: when, what reinforcers.
• If the child understands the concept of the exchange of tokens then just explain what
he or she has to do to earn a token and to exchange the token. If the child does not
understand the token then spend time training the immediate exchange of tokens for
reinforcer. Once the idea of an exchange rate has been firmly established, explain the
token system to the child.
Alberto and Troutman (2006) identified four things that every student wants to know when
the teacher introduces a token system:
• What behaviour they can earn tokens for;

• What can they buy with the tokens?
• How many tokens does it take to buy each reinforcer?
• When can they cash in tokens?

Token systems can be used in many settings but are commonly used in classrooms (Alberto
and Troutman, 2006). If you are introducing a group token system keep it simple in the
beginning where all students earn tokens for the same behaviours and then gradually you can
have individual students with special terms or conditions for earning tokens.
Here are some examples of behavioural contracts based on token systems.
6 Examples
Example 1
Example 2

Example 3
Mrs Gs class. (Five groups of five students)
Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Group 4 Group 5 Total

Mon 100 80 100 50 100 430
Tues
Wed
Thurs
Fri
Two points earned for homework completed, books out, on time for class, no disruptions, two
points as bonus per student if win all other daily points. When the class earns 2,000 points
they get no homework for one night, when the class earns 7,000 they get to go to the
computer room for one class period (individual students have to earn a minimum of 100
points to earn the group privilege).
7 Points to remember:
• Keep the reward small. You can draw up a menu of reinforcers, as each child is
different and different reinforcers work for different children. You can also give the
child a choice between several different things.
• Be sure that the child is capable of doing what is expected of them. For example, if the
task is completing a page of work independently or dressing themselves make sure the
child can actually do this.
• You can use tokens for non-occurrence of behaviour, e.g. for not having temper
tantrums, but you might need to break the day into a.m. and p.m. Again, the baseline
rate is your guide as to where to begin.
• You need to make it easy and workable for the child. Stick to one or two behaviours.
Don't confuse things by trying to do too much at once. And don't keep changing the
goalposts, adding in the most recently observed annoying behaviour. This is not fair!
• Gradually increase the number of tokens needed to convert for the reward. Gradually
fade out the reward so that you are rewarding intermittently. This way the childs
behaviour is being reinforced every now and then.
• Take time to communicate your expectations clearly to the child.
• Token reinforcers should be paired with praise and affection, so that these social
reinforcers will gain reinforcing power.
• Consistency consistently dispense the tokens for the behaviour and do not give the
token if the behaviour does not happen.
• Foster cooperation between children tell other children about the token system. ("This
is to help Tom not to fight anymore" or, "This is to help Mary stay in her seat at maths
time.")
• Use "when" instead of "if" "what would you like to earn when you have your three
tokens."
• Never take back a reward or reinforcer after it has been earned.
• When a child does not earn a star or token don't focus on it, simply ignore it. Stay
positive do not use the reward system as a threat.

A token system may assist the student to view their performance in a positive way and so
influence self-perception and thus motivation. If the system turns into a negative one, where
the focus is on what the child did not earn or if the targets are unachievable so the child earns
very little, then it will have the opposite effect.
N.B. It is crucial not to overuse token systems, as children It is important to encourage

will learn to do things primarily for a reward, or develop a children to do things for the
whats-in-it-for-me attitude. It is important to encourage satisfaction of doing them or the
children to do things for the satisfaction of doing them or pride of a job well done
the pride of a job well done. How you fade out a token
system is important. You have to fade it out gradually. What you want to do is get to a
situation when you are only cashing in one token per day and then one token per week. This is
what happens in most classrooms or households where there is a weekly treat or pocket
money on a Saturday. If you move too fast the behaviour will reoccur. A useful rule of thumb
is: three days of success at each level is sufficient before moving onto more behaviour for the
reward.
8 Behavioural contract
A behavioural contract can be used to refer to a token system but usually the behavioural
contract is less elaborate and is a contract with one individual. The contract, as with any
contract, states obligations and responsibilities on both parties, so an 'if , then ' statement of
some sort (Alberto and Troutman, 2006). It is negotiated with the student and his/her teacher/s
and to formalise the agreement it is usually a written document or statement of some kind.
The complexity of the document is defined by the students ability. For a high-functioning
student the contract might include a self-monitoring component, for example the student has
to tick off each item of homework as it is completed. The contract should define the
behaviour, the reinforcer and the support the teacher will provide. There is usually a review
date and a pay-off date. The behavioural contract should contain behaviour, conditions,
criteria and reinforcer (Alberto and Troutman, 2006).
Using reinforcers in contracting should follow the follow these main principles:
• Behaviour is rewarded immediately to begin with;

• Reward is contingent on the behaviour occurring;
• Small rewards for small approximations towards final or terminal behaviour;
• Reward frequently with small amounts;
• Focus on accomplishment not obedience.
(Alberto and Troutman, 2006).
The contract itself has to contain a number of elements (Alberto and Troutman, 2006):
• It has to be fair;
• Terms of the contract must be clear;
• All dealing associated with the contract must happen as stated in contract;
• Keep the contract positive;
• Must be used systematically to avoid the student guessing will it happen or not.

Negotiating and selecting reinforcers underpins any contract. If the reinforcer is not selected
carefully the programme will not work.
How do we select reinforcers for a child? There are a number of ways we can do this, which
we will describe now. It is crucial to the success of any programme that you select the right
reinforcers for the child.

F Common mistakes
Simple explanations
Behaviour is complex and often we go for a very simple analysis. The most common analysis
is that the child was looking for attention. If we then decide to implement a programme based
on the child seeking attention and the behaviour has another function such as self-stimulation,
then our programme will not work. The data tells us what to do. If we have the analysis right,
the behaviour changes very quickly. It is worth putting the time in early on and getting the
analysis right before we move in and try to change the behaviour.
Stay positive
Another common problem is setting negative targets and writing programmes with the focus
on negative behaviour. Many children are discouraged and feel incompetent. By setting goals
in negative language we add to this. When writing a goal, ask yourself, Is there a way I can
phrase this in the positive? Try these examples. What would be the positive of hand flapping,
rocking, not paying attention, making screeching noises, and stripping off clothes?
1 Overload
Another common error is to try to work on too many behaviours at the same time. The best
thing to do is to have a meeting to plan the programme and set priorities to work on. Involve
as many people as possible who can contribute information about the child. Once you have
gathered the information then try to decide what behaviours you want to work on. How do
you pick the behaviours? Browns six questions provide a good guide. Also, you have to take
the age of the child and the childs level of ability into account. While Brown talks about the
criterion of ultimate functioning with younger children it is often worth looking at the next
stage, so with a toddler you would prioritise increasing skills needed for preschool and
decreasing any behaviours which would prevent the child from attending preschool.
Goals for preschoolers have been well-documented (Lovaas, 2002, Maurice et al., 1996, Leaf
et al., 1999). With a preschool-aged child, again look at the next environment primary school
and what skills the child requires and what will prevent the child from going to school. Once
in primary school think about secondary school and what are the skills needed to progress
onto this environment? The new legislation in the United States IDEA (1995/1997) requires
planning for transition from school to start at 12 years. So from the age of 12 years the
individual education plan contains goals towards this transition from school to a work or
after-school college or further training centre.
2 Keep it simple
Another problem is we try too hard and set ourselves, as teachers and parents, goals that are
too elaborate and data collection systems that are too extensive. The methods selected to
gather information depend on the information required and the resources available. Often we
get too ambitious and set up very elaborate data sheets. It is important that whatever way you
decide to track the behaviour that it is possible in the setting you work in and with the
resources you have. Here are some examples of data collection procedure.

There is a lull in the behaviour from 2.30pm to 3pm so you would try to reason why this
might be the case; in fact no behaviour occurs from 2.30pm to 2.40pm. With these behaviours
you try to figure out the reason for it is banging the windows and walls more stimulating in
terms of sound? What is the lead-up to these behaviours and what are the consequences of the
behaviours? All these questions have still to be answered so we might do an FAO (functional
analysis observation) next to see if we can see patterns or alternatively a functional analysis
actually manipulating the conditions to assess the function of the behaviour.
Example
One seven-year-old is out of bed during the early part of the night. This observation system
was set up to track this behaviour.

Operational definition
From this we can see that the child was out of bed more frequently in the early hours of the
night. On Thursday night it was noted that the child was agitated (she was louder then usual
and engaged in more motor activity) if this pattern continued on Thursdays then you would
look at the activities the child engages in on Thursday and see if this could be part of the
problem. Tracking this data over a number of weeks would help you establish a clear pattern.
Then an intervention could be planned including a bedtime routine, wind-down activities,
perhaps setting the bedtime later if this is an option. The data will guide you in the process. If
you set the bedtime later and find that the behaviour just moves to 9pm then going to bed later
is not working and you revert back to the earlier bedtime.
Example
Shane makes loud noises, which disrupt the class. It was decided to take a count between 2pm
and 2.30pm three days per week in school when the class is working on independent
assignments.
Operational definition
This again is a rate, as the behaviour is too frequent to do an all-day count.

G Reinforcer sampling
One mans meat
How do we know what is reinforcing for a child we are working with? Observe, ask, or
interview the child and the caregivers, or conduct a formal experiment. Post your report or
findings to the discussion board.
Observe
If you want to see what is reinforcing for a particular child, watch and see what they like to
do, especially when they are in a free-play situation.
With non-verbal children, you can observe to see what they choose to do if left alone. Another
informal method is to see what a child reaches for and then make it just a little more difficult
for the child to get it and see if he/she is still motivated to reach it (Lovaas, 2002).
1 Ask/interview
The simplest thing to do is to ask children what they like to eat, drink, play with, etc. If the
child is non-verbal then interview the parents or caregivers. Alternatively, you can ask the
child or people who know the child what they choose to do when left alone. You can do this
informally or there are more formal assessments you can use. For example, using lists of
reinforcers (Martin and Pear, 1999; Sulzer-Azaroff and Meyer, 1991; Willis et al., 1987) will
provide the basis for a comprehensive list of reinforcers. It is important that you ask the child
or interview parents a number of times a year as preferences can change over the year
(Cooper et al., 1987).
It is important to check out the reinforcers yourself. In one study, staff who worked with
students who had profound learning disabilities were asked about the students preferences for
certain reinforcers. However, when the students preferences were assessed based on whether
they approached or moved away from the supposed reinforcers, a very different picture of the
students preferences emerged (Green et al., 1988). Records may provide important
information as to what has been used in the past in a programme with a child. The best way to
assess reinforcers for children with severe and profound disabilities is to experiment.
2 Experiment
This represents a formal way to assess reinforcers. Looking at whether the person approaches
the item or not tells us their level of interest in the item (Green et al., 1988). This is
particularly useful if a child is non-verbal. Click here for operational definition of approach
avoidance used in this study. The reinforcers assessed in this study included hugs, vibrator,
juice, music, a tactile mitt and a mechanical toy. Notice how specific the definition of
approach and avoidance is.
In another study (Mazaleski et al., 1993), a similar approach/avoidance paradigm was used.
Click here for the operation definition used in this study. The reinforcers tried included
edible items, perfume, massager, wet cloth, electric piano, a cassette player, wind-up toys, an

electric fan, rocking chair, pat on the back and claps. These were presented as one item at a
time in order to compile a list of reinforcers or reinforcer menu for the child.
More recently (Lami and Sturmey, 2002), it has been demonstrated that a forced choice
procedure can help to differentiate which preferred reinforcers are stronger. In this procedure
the child is presented with two reinforcers on a table (0.7 m from the child and 0.7 m from
each other).
If the child touches one item, the other is removed immediately and the child is allowed to
interact with the chosen item for five seconds. If the child touches both items the child is not
allowed to have them and the experimenter holds both items down on the table. If the child
does not touch either item, allow the child to sample each individual item separately and
present them both again. Then record which item was picked on each occasion to compile a
list of preferred items in order of preference.
Simply put, you can assess what is reinforcing by presenting items individually or presenting
items in pairs, sequentially pairing each item with every other item to see which is the most
preferred item on the list of reinforcers for that child. Another advantage of this method is that
it gives the child an opportunity to sample a variety of reinforcers that he/she might not
otherwise experience (Cooper et al., 1987).
3 How to find out what is reinforcing

• Ask the child what he/she would like, or ask key people who know the child what are his/her
likes/dislikes.
• Observe the child give the child access to a range of reinforcers and see which ones he/she
chooses.
• Review records to see what has been used successfully in the past with this child.
• Use a standard form questionnaire. Click here for a reinforcer inventory.
• Conduct a formal observation (approach or avoidance or paired stimulus preference).
• Post your report and findings to the discussion board.
The next step is to identify a menu of reinforcers and allow the child sample them in the
situation where you are going to use them. If the item follows a behaviour and results in an
increase in that behaviour then it is said to be a reinforcer for that person.

Example menu of reinforcers
The menu of reinforcers can also be divided up into small, medium and larger reinforcers. It is
not possible to allow the child to have access to all the possible reinforcers for a programme.
The person running the programme may select two or three possible items that are available
and offer the child a choice. The reinforcers for the programme or the behaviour should be
reserved and only used at this time. If the child gets too much of the same reinforcer they lose
their value for the child. This is called reinforcer satiation.

H Reinforcer satiation
Too much of a good thing.
Too much of a good thing decreases your desire. Many programmes fail because a child
becomes satiated with the reinforcer that is being offered.
It is critical, therefore, to have a choice of reinforcers If the child gets too much of the
available. A study conducted on motivating children with reinforcer or is satiated, it
developmental disabilities found that varying the looses its value.
reinforcers helped to improve responses particularly when
using edible reinforcers (Egal, 1981). Egal concluded that children might be more motivated
in situations which contain change, variation and novelty.
For many reinforcers to be effective, it is also important to remember that they should not be
available to the child at other times. For example, if the child can get chocolate at home he
will not be as motivated to earn chocolate in school. This may involve coordination between
people working with the child. If the child earns watching his/her favourite video in school he
may not be motivated to earn the same video at home.
If the child gets too much of the reinforcer or is satiated, it looses its value.
1 Be positive
Using positive reinforcement helps avoid the criticism trap (Becker, 1971). Our natural
tendency is to focus on children when they misbehave. In a group, we may wind up paying
most attention to the children who misbehave. And often when children are playing quietly,
we say nothing in the hope that they will just continue. This is the very time we should be
reinforcing their behaviour! This tendency to give (negative) attention to misbehaviour and to
ignore positive behaviour is sometimes called the criticism trap.
Examples:
Positive
When asked to do his work, John will turn to the first page of his activity schedule book, point
to the picture and begin to collect the materials for the task quietly.
Negative
When asked to do his work, John will not shout or scream and throw himself on the ground.

I Schedules of reinforcement
Schedules of reinforcement refer to patterns of timing for the delivery of reinforcers (Alberto
and Troutman, 2006, p.243).
The schedules of reinforcement come from the early animal studies and tell us the patterns of
behaviour and learning that occur from different patterns of reinforcement. There are two
main schedules of reinforcement we use when teaching children continuous reinforcement
and intermittent reinforcement. The first one is continuous reinforcement or CRF schedule.
1 Continuous reinforcement
Initially, when you are trying to increase a behaviour, you use continuous reinforcement. This
means that you reinforce every occurrence of the behaviour. If you then stop reinforcing the
behaviour you will get an increase in the behaviour initially and then a dramatic decrease in
the behaviour. The technical term for this is an extinction burst. To avoid this scenario when
you have the behaviour well established, you have to fade out the reinforcement gradually and
move on to the intermittent schedule of reinforcement. If you withhold reinforcement and the
behaviour decreases rapidly it is called extinction.
This graph shows how during baseline conditions (i.e. when there is no programme in place)
the child is only on task or doing the work assigned for one to two minutes, when
reinforcement is introduced his on-task behaviour increases and eventually he is on task for
the full 15-minute recording period.

2 Intermittent reinforcement
Once a behaviour is well established you use intermittent reinforcement. This is the most
effective way to maintain a behaviour once it has been established. You reinforce now and
then. Reinforcement follows only some of the behaviours. The person keeps engaging in the
behaviour because they never know when they will get reinforced. This is a bit like gambling
you never know when you will get paid off so you keep playing.
This is an example of using continuous reinforcement to establish hand washing and then
using intermittent reinforcement to maintain this behaviour. In the baseline conditions (no
programme in place) the child is only completing one step of the task analysis for hand
washing. When continuous reinforcement is introduced this increases to 10 steps in the task
analysis completed. This is maintained by reinforcing the child every now and then for
completing the hand washing or steps in the task analysis independently.
It is important to remember that attention is a powerful If we give in to inappropriate

reinforcer. If, for example, a child has been getting
behaviour now and then we are
attention for negative behaviour (hitting, biting or temper
intermittently reinforcing it and
tantrums) and you withdraw the attention (reinforcer) you
so maintaining the behaviour
will get this burst of behaviour, or extinction burst, before
the behaviour disappears. The extinction burst actually signals that you are on the right track
and that attention had probably been maintaining the behaviour. If we give in to inappropriate
behaviour now and then we are intermittently reinforcing it and so maintaining the behaviour.
This is why a consistent approach to behaviour management is so important.

This example shows that in the baseline the behaviour of calling the parents at night is
between eight and 11 times between 8pm and 11.30pm. When the parents decide to ignore the
behaviour it increase to 15 times and then it decreases rapidly. In this situation it would be
easy to give up and say the ignoring is not working, however the fact that the behaviour is
getting worse means that the ignoring is working and it is a matter of waiting it out until you
get past the extinction burst. Click here for an example.
If you try to move too quickly There are two types of intermittent schedules of
reinforcement: ratio and interval. Ratio schedule is based
from continuous reinforcement
on the number of responses, so for example an FR8 is a
to an intermittent schedule, it
fixed ratio 8 schedule, where the reinforcer is dispensed
will not work
after the eighth response. An FR4 is where the reinforcer
is dispensed after the fourth response. The fixed-interval schedule is based on some allocated
time passing before the child is reinforced, for example, an FI 5 reinforcer is dispensed for the
first correct response given after five minutes have elapsed; an FI 2 reinforcer is given for the
first correct response after two minutes have passed. The goal of a programme is to move
from CRF or continuous reinforcement to an intermittent schedule (either interval or ratio) to
maintain the behaviour. These schedules produce very distinctive patterns of responding,
which can be easily identified. If you try to move too quickly from continuous reinforcement
to an intermittent schedule, it will not work. Keeping track of the data can help you avoid this
situation.

3 When reinforcement doesn't work
Sometimes reinforcement does not work. Why does this happen? Well, it can happen for a
number of reasons.
• The child does not understand the system, i.e. the connection between their behaviour
and the reinforcers.
• We have picked something that we think is reinforcing but the child does not find it
reinforcing.
• The child knows he will get the reinforcer whether he does the behaviour or not. The
reinforcer is not contingent or dependent on the behaviour occurring.
• We move too fast from continuous reinforcement to intermittent reinforcement.
• The bar is set too high. Sometimes the task is too hard and the child opts out. Can the
child actually do the behaviour? The child is motivated but does not have the
necessary skills.
• If the child has had too much of the reinforcer it loses its value (satiation). There are
only so many sweets a child can eat!
• Negative attention or, in fact, any attention may keep a behaviour going.
4 Is reinforcement bribery?
Often people become concerned that reinforcement is bribery. Usually a bribe is paid before
the behaviour, whereas reinforcement comes after the behaviour. The other main difference is
that we are not attempting to get any advantage over the person (Sulzer-Azaroff and Roy
Mayer, 1991). We are using reinforcement to increase and shape appropriate behaviour. In
fact, the long-term goal usually is to enable the child to develop self-control so they can
manage their own behaviour. Another important feature of ABA is that it should be a public
process: collecting data, designing a programme, giving reinforcers, etc. Unlike bribery, there
should be nothing hidden or secretive about using reinforcers.
5 Words of encouragement
Always use encouragement as well as praise and tokens. Encouragement is about the
Encouragement is about the process, and not the end process, and not the end result
result. Focus on participation, on effort, on persistence,
as well as on what the child has accomplished. Think of yourself as the mental coach urging
on the child who finds the task difficult. Think about what words you would find encouraging
or motivating? Also, it is a good idea to have the child evaluate his or her own performance so
they can take pride in their achievement and start to become motivated internally by feeling
good about their work.
What about other types of reinforcement? Many people mix up negative reinforcement and
punishment. Negative reinforcement is another tool to increase behaviour.

6 Negative reinforcement (SR-)
Negative reinforcement (SR -) is the contingent removal of an

aversive stimulus immediately following a response that increases the
future probability or rate of that response.
(Alberto and Troutman, 2006 p.250)
By definition, a reinforcer is something which increases a behaviour. People will produce a

behaviour or work for some reinforcer but they will also work to have something negative
removed or to escape some negative or aversive condition. This is called negative
reinforcement. Nagging is a perfect example of negative reinforcement most people will carry
out a behaviour to stop someone nagging them. A teenager may eventually tidy his room to
stop his mother nagging. The removal of the nagging actually increases the possibility he will
tidy away his things more quickly in the future. Removal of nagging increases his tidying
behaviour. A mother will pick up an infant who is crying and if the crying stops the mothers
behaviour is reinforced by the quiet and she will pick the infant up more quickly the next time
it cries. Even infants are expert behaviour modifiers!
In a classroom situation both students and the teachers may be operating under negative
reinforcement conditions. If the teacher sets an assignment that is very difficult and the
students complain, the teacher may modify the assignment or scrap it altogether. The students
complaining may increase because in the past the complaining removed the aversive
assignment. The teacher withdraws the assignment to stop the complaints and the teacher may
avoid giving assignments because she wants to avoid the complaining students.
Behaviour difficulties in the class may also be part of a negative reinforcement cycle. The
student may find the task difficult and so cause a disruption by shouting out or talking back to
the teacher and is asked to leave the room so avoiding the difficult work. Escape and
avoidance behaviours are sometimes a result of negative reinforcement and take the form of
temper tantrums, running out of class and destroying books or materials (Alberto and
Troutman, 2006).
Negative reinforcement can also be used as a teaching strategy, for example if you know that
a student throws the books across the room to avoid doing the work then it is important that
you teach a more appropriate escape response. The next time the student throws the books
there have to be different consequences. Teach an appropriate get-out or escape response,
such as a pass to get out of the classroom or allowing the student to use a language to be
excused. Again, this is the first step in a programme but gradually you build on this so the
student uses the appropriate response but does not get out right away. Using the Premack
principle, you build in a little of what I want for a little of what you want, e.g. do one piece of
work and then you can leave the room. In this example we use both positive and negative
reinforcement to work with the student.
What about using positive or negative reinforcement to teach more complex behaviours such
as language? Can we use reinforcement to teach more complex skills? A process called
shaping helps us to teach small units of a complex behaviour by reinforcing approximations
towards the complex behaviour.

J Shaping and fading
Shaping
Shaping is defined as differential reinforcement or successive

approximation to a specific target behaviour.
Shaping is a process by which we reinforce successive approximations (or becoming

increasingly closer) to the appropriate behaviour. We do this naturally in some situations. For
example, when a baby is learning how to speak we reinforce all sounds, and then certain
sounds, then one word and then a sentence. We naturally fade out our enthusiasm as the child
develops more complex sounds, words, sentences, etc. A parent would not reinforce a toddler
who is using single words for saying "baba" but would reinforce the toddler for putting two or
three words together like "baby go car". We do this naturally without any training. When we
shape a behaviour we gradually teach the child to do more and more accurate approximations
until they have the complete behaviour learned off. There are two elements to shaping. One is
that we differentially reinforce steps towards a goal and the other is that the criteria for
reinforcement changes as the student makes progress.
We can apply this to many complex behaviours, such as self-help skills (feeding or dressing);
independent living skills (cleaning room, washing the dishes, cooking, crossing the road,
catching a bus, etc); and academic skills (reading, spelling, arithmetic, writing). You might
want to shape the behaviour of a child using time as the criteria. For example, you might
reinforce a child for sitting in his/her seat. Your goal is that they will sit for the whole class
but your programme might start with reinforcing them for sitting for five minutes, then 10
minutes then 15 minutes. You shift the criteria for reinforcement as they reach each step
(usually on three successive occasions prior to moving onto next step). Eventually, the child
sits for the whole class your target or end goal.
Take the example of the student throwing books across the classroom. We shape the students
behaviour. We identified that throwing the books is an escape response so now we allow the
student to avoid the assignment by making an appropriate response, such as holding up a pass
card or saying quietly to the teacher, "I want to leave the classroom". Then we shape the
behaviour by asking the student to do one piece of the assignment before they get out. Step
two is requiring the student to complete two pieces of the assignment before leaving and so on
until they stay in class and complete the assignment prior to leaving.
You might want to shape fluency of a behaviour, rate of the behaviour or speed of the
behaviour. You might also want to shape time between giving a direction and the response
(latency) or force or intensity or volume, for example the volume of noise in the classroom,
the level of volume of a students voice, the force with which the student holds the pencil.
Shaping takes time and patience but you have to keep the end goal in sight and work towards
approximations of that end goal.

Both shaping and fading involve differential Shaping actually changes the
reinforcement and gradual change (Alberto and behaviour or response, whereas
Troutman, 2006). The difference is that shaping fading works on the antecedent
actually changes the behaviour or response, whereas conditions.
fading works on the antecedent conditions the cues
are faded out. Shaping is used to establish a new behaviour. Fading is used when a behaviour
is established but might only happen when given a specific prompt and we want the behaviour
to happen independently of the prompt or cue.
1 Fading
Gradual removal of prompts is referred to as fading.

We fade out our input as the child acquires the word. We say to the child, "What is this? It is a
biscuit". Then as the child learns the word, we say, "What is this? Its a bis---". The child
finishes the word biscuit. Finally, when we say, "What is this?" the child responds, "Biscuit".
We are fading out our prompts to the child and shaping the behaviour by reinforcing
responses that are closer to the end response we want. In classrooms teacher often do this with
rote responses. For example, first thing in the morning the teacher might greet the class by
saying, "Good morning" and then use a verbal prompt by saying to the class, "Say good
morning Mrs McDermott", and the class say, "Good morning Mrs McDermott". After a few
days of prompting, the teacher then fades out the prompt and just says, "Good morning class"
and the class responds, "Good morning Mrs McDermott". The difference here is that the
behaviour is established and it is not the behaviour we are changing but the prompts that
produce the behaviour. The skill is in moving at an acceptable pace. If we move too fast the
behaviour may be extinguished altogether and if we move too slowly the child may become
more dependent on the prompts and so make it difficult to fade them out.
There are four main fading procedures (Alberto and Troutman, 2006):
• Increasing assistance (least to most prompts);

• Graduated guidance (full physical prompts to shadowing);
• Time delay (wait for several seconds before prompting);
• Decreasing assistance (most to least prompts).
Shaping works best when used in combination with fading. Shaping and fading are two
powerful tools that are used to teach new skills and increase behaviour and help the student
achieve independent functioning.

K References
Alberto, P.A., & Troutman, A.C. (2006) Applied Behaviour Analysis for Teachers. Pearson:
Merrill Hall.
Becker, W. C. (1971). Parents are Teachers. A child management programme. Champaign

Illinois: Research Press.
Cooper, J.O., Heron, T.E, & Heward, W.L. (1987). Applied Behaviour Analysis. Prentice-
Hall.
Egal, A. (1981). Reinforcer Variation: Implications for Motivating Developmentally Disabled

Children. Journal of Applied Behaviour Analysis, 14, 345-350.
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Applied Behaviour Analysis (ABA)

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Applied Behaviour Analysis (ABA)

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Applied Behaviour Analysis (ABA)

Module 2: Increasing Behaviour

1 Activity reinforcers ................................................................................................. ...... 6

2 Token economy ............................................................................................................. 6

C Catch them being good ................................................................................................... 8

D Social reinforcers ........................................................................................................... 10

1 Verbal statements ........................................................................................................ 10

2 Activity reinforcers ..................................................................................................... 11

3 Making reinforcers effective ....................................................................................... 13

E Token economies ........................................................................................................... 14

1 When to use a token system ........................................................................................ 14

2 How it works ............................................................................................................... 14

3 Where to start .............................................................................................................. 15

4 Fading out the system.................................................................................................. 15

7 Points to remember: .................................................................................................... 18

8 Behavioural contract ................................................................................................... 19

F Common mistakes ......................................................................................................... 21

G Reinforcer sampling ...................................................................................................... 24

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H Reinforcer satiation ....................................................................................................... 27

I Schedules of reinforcement .......................................................................................... 28

1 Continuous reinforcement ........................................................................................... 28

3 When reinforcement doesn't work............................................................................... 31

4 Is reinforcement bribery? ............................................................................................ 31

5 Words of encouragement ............................................................................................ 31

6 Negative reinforcement (SR-) ..................................................................................... 32

J Shaping and fading........................................................................................................ 33

Note: Supplemental documents and additional resources featured in the online

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• Introduce you to the basic principles of reinforcement;

Upon completion, you should:

• Be able to define reinforcement;

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There are two main categories of reinforcers:

2. Learned reinforcers (also called conditioned or secondary reinforcers). Learned reinforcers

We use social reinforcers very frequently with children,

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Making a list of 10 to 15 reinforcers is a good start. This

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In ABA, a schedule of reinforcement is the term used to

Unfortunately, many inappropriate behaviours are reinforced intermittently so they can be

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Positive reinforcement describes a functional relationship between

Reinforcement is, by definition, In order to increase positive behaviour, we have to

In general, it is important to use age-appropriate It is important to use age-

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Unlearned = unconditioned = primary reinforcers

Learned = conditioned = secondary reinforcers

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Possible praising words and phrases

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Using specific or descriptive praise

• Praise is delivered contingent on performance;

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The Premack principle states that access to a high-frequency

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3 Making reinforcers effective

For reinforcement to be effective, i.e. to cause an increase in the behaviour:

• It must come after the behaviour;

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1 When to use a token system

There are a number of advantages to the token system:

• It is a positive reminder to focus on appropriate behaviour;