Base Units are fundamental and they do not consist of any

other units except for Ampere but it is considered.

as a base unit for electric current. The Standard international Base Units

Mass, length, Time, Current, Temperature. Quantity Unit Symbol

Mass Kilogram Kg

Length Meter m

Time Second s

Current Ampere A

Temperature Kelvin K
Measurements:
taking measurements of quantities is one of the most important skills a physicist needs to acquire in order to
perform correct calculations.
a) A meter rule measures the length of small regular objects.
b) A meter tape is used to measure long distances, dimensions.
c) A top pan balance measures Mass.
d) A spring balance measures Force.
e) A measuring cylinder measures the volume of liquid (narrow and tall is more accurate)

a) b) c)

d) e)
Density is defined as the Mass per Unit Volume. Units
Density
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔
𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 = Mass Volume
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 Kg / m3
In other words, it is the measure of the amount of matter concentrated in Solid, Liquid or
g / cm3
gas.
Density is constant for the same material, if you increase the volume of a material, subsequently the mass will
increase so the density stays constant, but if Mass is increased and Volume is kept constant or vice versa, the
density will definitely change.

Regular shape Irregular shapes: Displacement Method

Uniform shapes dimensions are
measured using:
1. A Ruler for small objects
2. A Meter Tape for larger objects
or dimensions.
Mass is measured using a balance
Its easier to measure the volume of irregular
shapes using;
1- A measuring cylinder with an initial volume of
water, ex; 50 ml. (V1)
2- Place the irregular shape in the measuring
cylinder.

𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 3- measure the new volume ex 75 ml(V2)

𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 =
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 4- Vshape = 75 – 50 = 25 ml = 25 cm3
1ml = 1cm3
5-Measure mass using a balance
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔
𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 =
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆
You may also be asked to apply this mathematical concept in different situations where the density is given and
you are asked to calculate the mass or the volume of a material.
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 = 𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 = 𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 × 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆
𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚
Calculating density
1) A wooden block has a mass of 500g, calculate its
Density.

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 500
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = = = 5 𝑔/𝑐𝑚3
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 2 × 5 × 10

2) A concrete block has a mass of 1000 Kg, Calculate its

Density.
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 1000
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = = = 10 𝑘𝑔/m3
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 2 × 5 × 10

3) A circular disc has a radius of 10 cm and it’s 1 cm thick,

It has a density 50 g/cm3, calc its mass.
Measuring density
(A) Measure the mass using a balance.
(B) If the solid is regularly shaped, measure its dimensions using a ruler
or other measuring tool, then use a mathematical formula to find the
volume.
(C) If the solid is irregularly shaped, immerse it in water (V1) and
measure the volume of the water displaced (V2). This is the volume of (A)

the solid.
V (irregular shaped object) =V2 – V1. = 75-50 = 25 ml = 25cm3
(D) Find the density using the equation of density.

(B) (C)
Floating and Sinking (can only be applied to Fluids <liquids and gases>)

Have you ever thought why helium balloons float, while regular balloons that is inflated with Air doesn’t?
Or why is it that a huge piece of wood will float on water while a small piece of Iron will sink!
This can be explained by reference to the density of the materials.
If a material that is less dense than another material interacts with each other, The less dense will float on the
other material as if the particles of the less dense material are being lifted by the particles that are more dense

Oil; 700 -950 kg/m3 Material Density

kg/m3
Steel 7500-8100

Varying Densities
Water 1000
Water; 997 kg/m3
air 1.29

Gold 19,300
Time measurements (Analogue and Digital)

Time can be measured using different instruments like a stop watch(A&D), Digital Display Watch and analogue
format watch

 For the first 2 images, calculate the time difference between the displays.
DESCRIBING MOTION

Motions is defined by how fast an object covers a distance in certain direction (Velocity) in a period of time, and
by how fast is the object gaining or losing speed (acceleration & deceleration),

Speed Units
 Velocity is the displacement traveled per unit time. distance Time
𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 meter / second
𝐚) 𝐒𝐩𝐞𝐞𝐝 =
𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞 Km / hour
Ex: I) A cyclist starts his journey and cycles 12 m in 10 seconds
𝑑 120
Calculate his speed. Solution: 𝑆 = = = 1.2 𝑚/𝑠
𝑡 10
Average speed
ii) The cyclist completes his 50 Km trip in 2 hours, calculate his average speed
A car travelling never maintains the
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 50 𝑘𝑚
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = = = 25 𝐾𝑚/ℎ same speed throughout the whole
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 2ℎ
trip, the speed rather varies from time
to another depending on the road
condition thus we calculate average
You may also be asked to apply this mathematical concept in different situations speed.
where the Speed is given and you are asked to calculate the distance or the
time.
𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞
𝐛) 𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 = 𝐒𝐩𝐞𝐞𝐝 × 𝐓𝐢𝐦𝐞 𝐜) 𝐓𝐢𝐦𝐞 =
𝐒𝐩𝐞𝐞𝐝
Math reminder
Straight line equation
Slope/Gradient
Y = mx + C
Where
Y:is the Y-axis coordinate (i.e. distance)
X:is the X-axis coordinate (i.e. time)
m: is the slope or the gradient.
C: is the y-axis intercept (if the line intersects the y-axis)

Slope and Speed

So, if the Y-axis is the distance, and the
X-axis is the time, applying the slope
equation will give us the Speed as slope
represented by the lines of the graph
Motion Graphs
Graphs of motion or any other graphs shows us how 2 variables change with respect to each other, the graph is
simple way to tell a story of data (information) collected.
Distance-Time graph (Slope = Speed)
A D-T graph shows how the speed of an object changes with time, each line drawn
between the coordinates (Points) of the graph represents a different status.

Constant Speed Increasing Speed

Stationary / at rest
both lines A&B but since A is The slope is an ascending
The slope is a flat
steeper than B that means that curve, this means that the
horizontal line, this means
the slope is greater, thus the speed is changing and
that the speed is zero and
speed of A is greater than B increasing
the body is not moving.
Acceleration and Speed-Time graph

Acceleration is the rate of change in speed (m/s2)

𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 − 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑣−𝑢
𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡

Speed (Velocity)-Time graph (Slope =acceleration)

Constant Velocity
The slope is a flat
horizontal line, this means
that the speed is zero and
the body is not moving.
Constant acceleration for both
lines A&B but since A is steeper Constant deceleration
than B that means that the
The Slope is a straight
slope is greater, thus the
descending line.
acceleration of A is greater
than B
Speed (Velocity)-Time graph (Slope =acceleration)

Decreasing
acceleration
Increasing
acceleration The curve is moving
upwards with a
decreasing slope
meaning that the
acceleration is
decreasing in value.
Forces
• A Force is a push or a pull upon an object, measured in Newtons
• A force is represented using a line that is pointing in the direction of the force, i.e. Up, Down, Left or Right
• A force can make an object change Shape, Speed and Direction (Velocity) but never in Mass.
Forces acting on the same axis can be added or subtracted from each other depending on the type of the
force, Driving Forces are positive, resisting forces are negative.
his can be done either by:

1-Calculation (If acting on the same line) • Driving Forces are in the direction of motion
2- Drawing (acting at an angle)

1-

• Resisting forces are in the opposite direction of

Resultant force = 60 + 30 = 90 N to the right motion

Resultant force = 30 -10 = 20 N to the right

Types of forces:
1-Weight
the gravitational pull on an object, due to its mass.
• Weight is always directed downwards from the Centre of mass.
• Weight (N) = Mass (Kg) x gravity (N/kg)
2- Normal Reaction (N)
The normal force is always perpendicular on the surface due to resting on it.

3-Friction Force (F):

The force due to interaction between two solid surfaces which impedes the motion and results in heating.
Most of the times friction is in the opposite direction of motion
Fluid (Gases and liquids) forces

Upthrust: is the uplift on an object partially or fully submerged in a liquid,

due to the difference in pressure between the lower surface and the
upper surface of the object.
Upthrust is equal to the weight of the object.
So, if the weight of the boat is 200 KN which is 200 x100 = 200,000 N
Therefor the Upthrust = 200 KN
Drag
The resistance to motion inside a fluid which is opposite to
direction of motion.
Types:
• Air resistance (friction with air)
• Water resistance (friction with water)
Factors affecting drag: As speed and surface area increases, the Drag increases.
1-Speed (Directly proportional with drag)
Forces can be added or subtracted from each other
2-Surface area (Directly proportional with drag) depending on the direction of the force

We calculate the net force of the forces acting on the

same axis

i.e : The air craft is in equilibrium.

GIVEN The Lift = 92000 N and Thrust= 12000 N

Upthrust Calculate the gravity and drag forces

Since the aircraft is in a state of equilibrium where all

the forces acting of the same axis are equal

Therefor gravity = 92000, Thrust = 12000 N

the aircraft is moving with constant velocity

Newton’s Laws:
1) Newton’s first law states that an object will stay at rest or move with constant velocity unless acted on by a
resultant force.
In other words, a body will not move unless there is a resultant force acting on it, also when the body starts to
move if the forces acting on it are balanced (equal) then the body will move at constant velocity (like the
aircraft example),
In both situations the acceleration is equal to Zero.
at rest Velocity = zero, acceleration
=0
Constant Velocity Velocity = constant,
acceleration =0

2) Newton’s second law states that ∑F𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆=𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 × 𝒂𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏,

∑𝑭=𝒎𝒂
Where;
F: is the resultant force acting on an object (driving forces – resisting forces) (N)
m: is the mass measured in Kilograms
a: is the acceleration measured in m/s 2 3) Newton’s third law states every action
This law is valid only if the mass is constant. there is an equal and opposite reaction.
i.e. balloon flying around, sitting on a chair, rowing
 Lets Consider the moion of a cyclist and a skidiver.

Start of trip Cycling Applying breaks

The cyclist has a The cyclist has a zero- The cyclist has a
forward resultant resultant force backward resultant
force(+ve), thus he (equilibrium), acceleration force(-ve), he will
will accelerate and = zero, he is moving with decelerate and his
his speed increases constant speed speed will decrease.
On leaving the After jumping and After a while Reaching Opening the Landing safely
helicopter (A) (B) & (C) Terminal parachute
Velocity (D)

Force = Weight Weight > Air Resistance Weight = Air Surface area Weight = Air
Resistance increased so air Resistance
ma=mg F= W- A.R.
Resistance
F= W- A.R.= o F= W- A.R.= o
a=g F>0 a>0 speed increases, so increased
A.R. increases F=0, a= 0 F=0 a= 0
W< resisting force
Constant (A.R) Constant Speed
Speed
F<0, a<0 (Terminal Velocity)
(Terminal
Velocity) speed decreases,
A.R decreases
(A) Initially there (B) the sky diver accelerates (D) Equal and Opening the Once again, the
is no air increasing his velocity and hence opposite, parachute air resistance =
resistance and air resistance forces are in increase S.A, Weight,
only force acting balance, so increases the
(c) This causes the Resultant force Now the sky diver
is on the man is there is no (Rf), resisting force
(Rf) downwards to decrease, can land safely as
his weight a=0 (A.R), therefor (Rf)
Therefore the acceleration he descends with a
terminal is in the opposite
decreases, so he is not gaining slower terminal
velocity is direction of
speed as fast as before. velocity
reached motion,
hence speed
decreases
Moments
The turning effect of a force
M𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 (N.m) = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 (F) measured in Newton × 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 from the Pivot measured in
meters. M = F × d
• Equilibrium conditions:
1- The resultant turning effect is zero
Sum of Clock Wise Moment = Sum of Anti Clock Wise Moment
2- The resultant force = zero
The pivot point is the point which the object can rotate about.
(A) If a force is applied in the same line as the pivot the object will not rotate, and will remain stationary.
(B) If the force applied is in a different line to the pivot, it will rotate in the direction of the force.
(C) If it is perpendicular to the object, then the perpendicular distance is the length of the object.
Fig1
• Sum Anti-clock wise moment = Sum Clock wise
moment
F×d=F×d

• The resultant force = Zero

F + F – Rp = zero
• Therefore, stable and in equilibrium.
Fig 2
• Anti-clock wise moment = Clock wise moment
F×d=F×d
• The resultant force = Zero
Rp = F + F
• Therefore, Stable and in equilibrium
Fig 3
• Notice here that both forces exert (produce)
an anti-clock wise moment, therefore the moment of
both forces will be added to each other to give a
greater turning effect, hence the beam will not be
stable.
• The resultant force = Rp+F – F = zero but the first
condition is not met so the bean is not stable, Not in
Equilibrium

Fig 4
• Notice here that the moments cancel out each other
no turning effect, hence the beam will be stable
• The resultant force = Zero
Rp = F - F = zero
Equilibrium
Stability
Centre of Mass: the point where the weight
the of body maybe considered to act.
A body is considered stable when it has
• A low center of mass.
• Wide base.
Pressure in Solids
Pressure is produced when a force is applied over an area.
𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆
𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 =
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂

Force is measured in Newton (N)

Area is measured in Meter Square m2 or Centimeter square cm2
Pressure is measured in N/m2 or N/cm2
Note that when pressure is measured in Newton per meter square N/m 2 this is called Pascal
It is easier sometimes to measure smaller areas in centimeters squared
But then the unit is N/cm2 which is not Pascal. Pascal = 1 N/m2

Ex 1
EX 2
A force of 50 N is spread over an area of 2 m2 A Force of 200 N is spread over an area of 4 cm 2
What is the pressure? what is the pressure?
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 50 𝑁 𝑁 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 200 𝑁 𝑁
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = = = 25 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = = = 50
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 2 𝑚2 𝑚2 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 4 𝑐𝑚2 𝑐𝑚2
50 N/cm2 ≠ (is not equal to) 50 Pascal
25 N/m2 = 25 Pascal
Pressure & Weight
Weight is a force, the weight of an object produces pressure over the area it is resting on, the red part in the
image represents the pressure caused by the weight of the block.
Weight is always directed downwards from the Centre of mass of the object, Revise Weight and Mass lesson if
you feel confused.
Force, Area & Pressure
Pins are Sharp pointy objects that can penetrate objects;
(a) A force directed at one point can easily penetrate objects because this produces high pressure (bottom of
the pin).
(Force on a Small area = High Pressure)
(b) the area is increased the force is distributed and the pressure decreases (top of the pin). (Force on a Large
Area = Low Pressure)

(b) (a)
Pressure in liquids
𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 = 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 (ƥ) × 𝑫𝒆𝒑𝒕𝒉 (𝒅) × 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚(𝒈)

Pressure in liquids is produced by the Density, Gravity and Depth of the liquid
As you dive deeper in a liquid pressure will increase, and if the liquid is dense this will create a higher pressure on
the person or the object descending through the water.
Pressure in water act in all of the directions on an object that is submerged, this is why when we dive in water, we
feel that we are being pressured from everywhere.

The tank has different shapes, one might

The Container has Three opening each with a different
height, accordingly the pressure of the water varies.
A: least depth under water level, least pressure.
B: more depth than A, pressure is greater
C: largest depth, largest pressure of water coming out.
think that each shape has a different
water pressure.
Actually, they all have the same
pressure different, volume won’t affect
the pressure of the water, only the
height/depth, density and gravity affect
the pressure of water.
Energy
“Energy cannot be created or destroyed it can only be transferred from one form to another”
Energy is the ability to do work, measured in Joules.
Energy is all around us, without energy one can’t complete daily tasks, like walking, lifting objects, charging your
phone or even driving a car, each example requires a type of energy, now let’s discuss these types.
Some energies can be stored and others are only transferable, they can’t be stored for later on use.
Stores of energy, I present to you the potentials!
Potential energy is the energy stored in a body; it consists of different types;
a) Gravitational Potential energy
It’s the energy due to the elevation of an object above the ground
The higher the object, the more GPE it has stored.
b) Elastic Potential energy
It’s the energy stored in any object that is being stretched, bent or twisted.
i.e. Springs of trampoline being repeatedly compressed and stretched
Or using a water balloon sling shot.
c) Chemical potential energy
It’s the energy released due to a chemical reaction,
i.e Burning fuel, burning food inside our bodies, batteries, and even burning matches.
Now let’s discuss the Transferable types
1- Kinetic energy (K.E)
It’s the energy of movement for a given mass
As the velocity increase, the K.E of the object increases
As the mass of an object increases, more K.E is required to make that object reach a high speed.
2- Thermal Energy
This type of energy is the most abundant type of energy, almost every reaction includes
thermal energy (heat energy) production, it is considered as the most energy dissipated (transferred) to the
surroundings.
3- Sound energy.
Sound is a series of vibrations through matter, vibrations is a form of movement which requires energy
4- Light energy.
light is somehow consisting of fast-moving particles.
5- Electric energy
Energy from generators
Energy Resources.
The Sun is the main source of all the energies, wind energy, water energy and light energy are due to the Sun’s
energy, without the Sun’s energy the particles will have no Kinetic energy to start their cycle, we use different
techniques to harness this renewable energy.
Non-renewable resources like Nuclear energy and fossil fuels; coal, oil, Natural gas and Petroleum these are
resources that can be found beneath the earth’s crust, they where formed from the remains of dead animals
and plants that where buried under high pressure and temperature.

Renewable energies Non-Renewable energies

1- Wind Energy Fossil fuels
2- Water energy
3- Solar energy
4- Geothermal energy (Earth’s Core)

Each type of resource is harnessed using a different method or technology, which includes the transfer of energy
from one form to another, yet the energy is always Conserved, lets have a look on these methods types,
advantages and disadvantages
Renewable Method of harnessing / Advantages Disadvantages
Energy Energy- transformation
Resource
Solar energy Solar Cells • Renewable • Not always available
Solar energy to Electrical energy • Low operational cost • High initial cost
• Clean source • Limited to Sunny
countries.
Solar Panels • Renewable • expensive to build
• Low operational cost
Heat is redirected from the sun to water • Clean source
pipes to heat this water, water turns into
steam which rotates the turbine which turn
the coils inside the generator.

Solar energy to Heat energy to

Kinetic energy to Electrical energy
Wind energy Windmills / Wind Turbines • Renewable • Limited to coastal
Wind turns very large fans which turns a • Low operational cost areas, noisy,
generator producing Electrical energy • Clean source expensive to build

K.E to Electrical energy

Hydrostatic Tidal • Renewable • Expensive to build,
energy As water rises and falls, it turns a turbine that • Low operational cost • limited to large scale
(Water drives a generator to produce electrical • Clean source coastal areas.
energy) energy
K.E to Electrical energy
 Dams
Water is stored behind a dam, water levels
rises, water flows to turn a generator.
G.P.E to K.E to Electrical energy
Waterfalls
Water falls on the turbines of a generator
G.P.E toK.E to Electrical energy
Geothermal Geothermal Power stations • Clean source • expensive to
energy Water flows through pipes that is buried • Renewable build
underground, the hot rocks turn the water • occupies a small area • location
into steam (very high K.E) which turns the • Doesn’t depend on • greenhouse
turbines of a generator. environmental factors emissions from
such as wind underground
Heat energy to K.E to Electrical energy • Low operational
expenses
Non-Renewable Method of harnessing / Advantages Disadvantages
Energy Resource Energy- transformation

Fossil Fuels Power Stations, that depends on burning fossil • Occupies a • Polluting,
fuels like Coal, gas or petrol to heat water to small area • expensive
produce steam that rotates the turbines of a • Generates large running
generator. amounts of expenses
energy
Chemical energy to Heat energy to
K.E to Electrical energy
Nuclear energy Nuclear power stations use fission reaction to • Generates large • Polluting
produce large amounts of energy to heat water amounts of • expensive
to produce steam that rotates the turbines of a energy • hard to find
generator. fuel

Nuclear energy to Heat energy to K.E to

Electrical energy
 Thermal Physics
Basically, its how energy is transferred between matter, we are going to learn how to qualitatively (by words) and
quantitively (by equations) describe Thermal physics and its applications.
States of matter

Solid Liquid Gas

Intermolecular Very strong strong Very weak
Forces
Intermolecular Very small (closely Medium (loosely packed) Very large
spaces packed)
Motion of particles Vibrations about mean Slide over each other Rapidly and randomly in all
positions directions

Volume and shape Fixed volume, fixed shape Fixed Volume, takes the shape Neither fixed volume nor
of the container fixed shape

Compressibility Incompressible Slightly compressible Compressible

Arrangement
Describing the states of matter:
Solids
Solid molecules are closely packed together due to their very strong intermolecular forces, this allows solids to
have a fixed shape and a fixed volume, making them incompressible.

Liquids
Liquids have strong intermolecular forces but they are loosely packed leaving some space between the
molecules for them to slide past each other allowing them to take the shape of the container, but the volume
remains constant due to the strong forces.

Gases
Gases have weak intermolecular forces and very large spaces between the molecules, this allow the gases to
be easily compressed, gases take the shape of the container and move randomly in all directions with no fixed
volume.
Temperature: is the measure of the average of kinetic energy of the molecules making up the system.
Thermal expansion
When matter is heated, particles gain energy, which is exerted as kinetic energy causing the particles to vibrate
more and expand, each type of matter differs from the other according to the intermolecular forces.

In solids, the particles vibrate harder and faster, creating more space between the particles, causing them to
expand.

In liquids, the particles slide over each other faster, weakening the intermolecular forces of attractions, and are
thus held less closely together, hence the liquid expands, forcing it to move through a container.

In gases, particles move faster as they are heated.

• If they are heated under constant pressure, the gas particles collide harder with the container surface area,
forcing them out, and allowing the gas to expand.
• If gases are heated at a constant volume– the gas pressure simply increases.

 Expansion: is the increase in volume of a solid, liquid or a gas, due to the increase in temperature.
Expansion in Gases > Liquids > Solids
But expansion is more noticeable in Solids > Liquids > Gases
This is due to the fact that the intermolecular spacing in the solid state is very narrow and the intermolecular force
are large so the increase in spacing is limited, while the intermolecular spacing in the gaseous state is very large
and the intermolecular forces are small so the spacing between the molecules increases greatly
 Thermal Capacity: The heat energy required to raise the temperature of the thermometer by unit temperature
(1 kelvin or 1 Celsius).
Expansion joints – Railways & Bridges
Heat causes the bridge to expand, the two sides of the expansion joint move towards each other. As the
temperature cools, they gradually retract. This gives the bridge room for expansion and contraction, preventing
the cracking/ deformation of the bridge, Railways are also treated the same.
Overhead cables have to be slack (Loose) so that on cold days when they contract, they won’t snap or detach.

Bridge expansion Joint Railway expansion Joint Overhead cables in the summer Overhead cables in the winter
Important Points
Melting point (MP): the temperature at which the solid
melts to become a liquid.
Boiling point (BP): the temperature at which the liquid
become a gas.
Freezing point (FP): the temperature at which the liquid
become a solid.
Graph showing the temperature of ice with time when
energy is given in at a constant rate:
● From A to B the ice is rising in temperature
● From B to C it is melting into water
● From C to D the water is rising in temperature
● From D to E the water is boiling into steam
● From E to F the steam is rising in temperature
Notice that at stages B-C, D-E the temperature is constant,
because all the energy supplied is being used to break the bonds between the particles

Condensation: when some molecules in a gas do not have enough energy to remain as separate molecules, so
they come close together and form bonds, becoming liquid.
Freezing (Solidification): As liquids lose energy, their molecules slow down and form more intermolecular bonds
with one another. They become locked in place, and thus, they form a solid.
  Evaporation: is the escape of the most energetic molecules from the surface of a liquid.

These molecules overcome the intermolecular forces with neighboring molecules and escape.

Effects due to evaporation

▪ Cooling effect: The molecules that escape take a part of the energy of the liquid, or the body it was on,
consequently the temperature of the liquid or body will decrease as the molecules evaporate
▪ Mass and Volume: decreases as particles escape.

What is the difference between Evaporation and boiling?

Evaporation Boiling
Surface molecules only Whole liquid
Any temperature Specific temperature only
No bubbles Effervescence (bubbles)
Thermal processes
 Conduction Is the heat transfer from high temperatures to low temperature by transfer of kinetic energy
between particles in the system.
Metals
are good conductors. free electrons can leave the atom and move freely among positively charged ions.
As the metal is heated, the ions and electrons vibrate more. The free electrons collide with ions throughout the
metal transferring heat energy from hot parts to cooler parts.

Heat enters the system, free electrons gain Kinetic energy and start vibrating and colliding with molecules all over
the lattice, the overall kinetic energy increases, thus temperature increases
Non-Metal
Non-metals are poor conductors known as insulators.
As a non-metal is heated up, the molecules vibrate more and cause adjacent molecules to vibrate more also,
transferring heat energy from hot parts to cooler parts.
Heat enters the system, molecules gain kinetic energy and start vibrating and colliding with neighboring
molecules in the lattice, so the overall kinetic energy increase, thus the temperature increases.

• Conduction can occur in Solids, Liquids and Gases.

• Requires a medium
• Can’t travel through Vacuum.
  Convection is the Heat transfer through changing density of fluids (liquids and gases)

Convection occurs when molecules in a fluid with high thermal energy move to an area with low thermal energy.
● When part of a fluid is heated, it expands and becomes less dense. It therefore rises up to less dense areas in
the fluid. Denser, colder fluid falls down to take its place.
● When heat is supplied fluid expands, volume increases, density decreases, so it rises up.
● When heat is taken out, fluid contracts, volume decreases, density increases, so it falls down.
• Convection can occur in liquids and gases.
• Requires a medium heat can’t be transferred by convection through vacuum.
  Radiation
Is the heat transfer via Infrared radiation, Infra-red waves are electromagnetic waves.
The infra radiation depends on
● Black bodies with a dull texture are the best absorbers and emitters of radiation.
● White bodies with a shiny texture are the best reflectors of radiation.
● The higher the temperature and the greater the surface area of a body the more infrared radiation emitted.
Radiation of objects is affected by
• Temperature
• Surface area
• Color and texture (shiny or dull)

• Can be transferred through vacuum

• Occurs in solids, liquids and gases
 Conduction Convection Radiation
• Is the heat transfer from high • Is the heat transfer through • Is the heat transfer via
temperatures to low changing density of fluids Infrared radiation
temperature by transfer of
kinetic energy between
particles in the system

• Occurs in solid, liquid or • Convection can occur in liquids • Radiation occur in all states
gases and gases of mater,
• Requires a medium • Requires a medium heat can’t be • it can travel through
• Can’t travel through vacuum transferred by convection vacuum as a form of
through vacuum. electromagnetic wave.
 How to reduce heat transfer?
1- Use of insulation (rubber, wood, glass) to decrease heat loss by Conduction
2- Use of a vacuum to decrease heat loss by Conduction and Convection
3- Use a Lid or a Cap to decrease heat loss by Convection and evaporation
4- Use of Shiny paint to paint surfaces to decrease heat loss by Radiation

Heat insulation applications

1-Vacuum: reduces heat loss by conduction and convection
2- Silver lining: to reduce heat loss by radiation
3- Cap: to reduce heat loss by convection and evaporation

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WAVES

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Waves
a) Types of waves
Mechanical waves: they are waves which require a medium to travel through
Longitudinal waves: they are waves in which the vibrations of the particles of the medium are parallel to the
wave’s direction, Ex; Sound waves.
Electromagnetic waves: they are waves which don’t require a medium to travel through
Transverse waves: they are waves in which the vibrations of the particles of the medium are perpendicular to the
wave direction, Ex; Electromagnetic radiation.

Waves pattern: (students should experiment drawing the shapes)

1-straight lines (wave fronts)
2-circular
3.ray

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Wave properties
Amplitude (a): The maximum displacement from the mean position (Meters)

Wavelength (𝝀): The horizontal distance covered by one complete oscillation (Meters)
Period (T): The time taken to complete a cycle (Seconds)
Frequency (F): The number of cycles completed per unit time (Hertz)

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 All Electromagnetic waves travel with the same high speed in a vacuum Speed = 3×108 m/s

Behavior of waves:

1- Reflection

Law of reflection: Angle of incidence (i) = Angle of reflection (r)

Angle of incidence (i): the angle between the incident ray and the normal
Angle of reflection (r): the angle between the reflected ray and the normal

Light waves are reflected off mirrors forming a Virtual image

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2-Refraction Is the bending of light when it travels from a less dense medium to a denser medium
• As light travels through the mediums it will either move towards the normal or away from the normal, it will
move closer to the normal if it is travelling from a less dense to a denser medium such as Air to Glass.
 The light ray will move away from the normal if it is travelling from a denser medium to a less dense
medium such as Glass to air.
 As the ray goes from the air into the glass it slows down. The ray bends towards the normal. The angle of
refraction is smaller than the angle of incidence.
 As the ray goes from the glass into the air it speeds up. The ray bends away from the normal. The angle of
refraction is bigger than the angle of incidence
 The ray going into the block is parallel with the ray coming out of the block
If the ray travels along the normal It does not change direction, but it will slow down

Medium 1 = Air

Medium 2 = Glass

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 ➢ Refractive Index (n):
The ratio of the speed of the incident wave to the speed of the refracted wave.

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3-Dispersion: is the splitting of white light into the colors of the spectrum when it passes through a prism.
We cannot see the light inside the prism, the image is just to show you the different paths the colors take

R
O
Y
G
B
I
V

❖ Red has the lowest frequency and the longest wavelength of the visible colors of light.
❖ Violet has the highest frequency and the shortest wavelength of the visible colors of light.
❖ A spectrum is formed when different colors are refracted by different amounts
❖ Rainbows are formed when rain drops split
sunlight into colors

Recombining the spectrum

You can recombine the spectrum using
second inverted prism.

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 Sound waves:
• A series of vibrations consisting of compressions and rarefactions
• Sound waves are mechanical longitudinal waves
Speed of sound in air is 330 m/s
Infrasonic waves Audible sound Ultrasonic sound
Speed of sound in solids > Liquids > Gases, waves waves
explain why? 0-20 Hz 20-20000 Hz US > 20000 Hz

Amplitude represents the Loudness of the sound

The higher the amplitude, the louder the sound,

Frequency represents the pitch of the sound

The higher the pitch, the sharper the sound

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Experiment to calculate the Speed of sound

1) Two people stand 750 to 1000 m apart, one has a starting pistol and the other a stopwatch.
2) The person with the gun fires it and the one with the watch starts it when he sees the smoke and stops it when
he hears the bang.
3) The distance between them is measured using a meter tap
4) the speed of sound worked out using the equation Speed = Distance/Time
5) Repeat and take the average.

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Electricity

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 Static Electricity
Insulators and conductors
Insulators; are materials which don’t allow current to flow through them, or in other words we can say that
charges build up on insulators.
e.g.: Glass, plastics, rubber, wood and nylon. (Non-metals)
Conductors; are materials which allow current to flow through them such as metals or Electrolysis
e.g.: Iron, steel, copper (best used for wires in circuits),
Static electricity: is the build of charges on an insulator, upon the interaction of the insulator with any of the
surrounding elements, charges will discharge causing a spark.
There are two types of charges, the positive charge and the negative charge,
“Unlike charges attract, like charges repel”
Applications of static electricity; printers, car paint, and pesticides

When an object;
Gain electrons, the object becomes negatively charge.
Loss of electrons, the object becomes positively charged.

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• Describe simple experiments to show the production and detection of electrostatic charges

Charging an object can be done:

• By Rubbing:

Experiment to charge an insulator:

1-wool cloth
2-polythene rod
3-rub both of the wool cloth and the rod
4-Electrons are transferred temporarily from the wool to the polythene rod.

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 Current Electricity
Current Electricity: is the flow of charges across a conductor, when electricity flow it produces an Electrical
current (I).
Electrical Current (I): The flow of charges per unit time across a conductor, measured in Amperes (A)
Current flows from the positive terminal to the negative terminal
• Electrons flow from the negative terminal to the positive terminal
Potential difference: is the energy lost per unit charge between two point in a circuit, measured in volts (V).

Electromotive Force: is the energy gained per unit charge between two points in a circuit, measured in volts (V).
Resistance(R): is the potential difference across a conductor per unit current intensity, measured in Ohms (𝜴)
Factors affecting resistance:
1-length of the conductor 𝑹𝜶𝑳
As the length increases, the resistance increases and vice versa

Conductor properties Resistance

Long and thin High Resistance
Short and Thick Low Resistance

𝟏
2-Cross sectional area 𝑹𝜶
𝐀

As cross-sectional area increase, Resistance decrease and vice versa

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3- Material: if both conductors are made of different materials, but of the same dimensions still their resistance
would be different, e.g.; Copper and steel
4- Temperature

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 Series Connection Parallel Connection

Properties Properties
• The current is the same • The current is divided
• The voltage is divided • The voltage is the same
• RT = R1 + R2 •
1
=
1
+
1
+…..
𝑅𝑇 R1 R2
• Since the voltage is divided, the lamps will
• Since voltage is the same the lamps will light with
light with a dimmer light
the same brightness.
• If one of the lamps broke the other will not
• If one of the lamps broke the other will still light.
light
• You can switch each lamp independently

Ammeter Voltmeter
• Measure current intensity • Measures potential difference and EMF
• Connected in series • Connected in parallel
• Very low resistance • Very high resistance

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▪ Electrical circuits components
Component Symbol Function

Cell • A cell is source of energy for the circuit.

• A battery consists of more than one cell connected to each
Battery other.
• A battery or a cell provides the circuit with EMF.

Wire • A wire connects the components together

• Preferably we use Copper Wires

Bell • A bell is a component that creates a sound when a current

passes through it.

Switch • A switch turns the circuit on or off

Bulb • A bulb is a component that emits light

Ammeter • Measures current intensity

Voltmeter • Measures potential difference and EMF

Resistor • It resists the elecric current in the circuit, Causing a

decrease in the charge transferred. It has a Fixed Value

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Magnetism & Electromagnetism

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 Magnetism
▪ Magnetic (Ferrous) substances: Iron, Steel, Cobalt, Nickel.
▪ Non-Ferrous Substances: Copper, Brass, Aluminum and lead

Magnetic field lines and attraction:

The field lines go out from the North pole of the magnet to the south pole of the magnet.

“Unlike poles Attract, like poles repel”

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How to create a magnet:
a) Magnetization

1) By stroking (or friction)

2) By induction
• When a magnet touches a ferrous material, it creates a temporary magnet.
• If the magnet touches at the material at the north pole it induces south, then North
and vice versa

3) By placing in a Direct current supplied solenoid (Electromagnet)

Use IRON as the core of the electromagnet

Hard magnet (Steel) Soft magnet (Iron)
Hard to be magnetized and Easily Magnetized and easily
hard to be demagnetized demagnetized
Use : Permanent Magnet Use: Core of an Electromagnet
To increase the strength of an electromagnet
a) Increase the number of turns around the coil.
b) Increase the EMF of the battery or the Output of the power
supply

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Experiment to determine the magnetic filed of a magnet

Iron fillings experiment:

1-Spread the iron fillings over the magnet
2-Tap the Paper/board
3-Observe the magnetic pattern

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 Electromagnetism
1- A wire carrying a current produces magnetic field
Right hand grip.

• Magnetic field lines getting further apart as the field gets weaker further from wire

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