Equilibrium clarified
William Craig Shellhart, DDS, MS"
Lexington, Ky.
Understanding the concept of equilibrium is crucial to understanding the mechanics of tooth
movement. The purpose of this article is to clarify the concept of equilibrium. This concept is most
clearly understood when the clinician focuses on the appliance. Understanding the forces acting
to deform the appliance readily translates to knowledge of the forces acting on the teeth. Knowing
the forces that act on the teeth allows the clinician to predict tooth movement more accurately. (AM
J ORTHOD DENTOFACORTHOP 1995;108:394-401 .)
O n e reason to study the mechanics of
tooth movement is to understand and be able to
predict how teeth will move in response to specific
force application. Another reason is to be able to
predict the forces that will result from the use of a
specific appliance. A lack of understanding of equi-
librium makes it very difficult to understand and
apply the rest of the subject of mechanics. The
purpose of this article is to clarify the concept of
equilibrium.
CURRENT EXPLANATIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM
Several articles have discussed equilibrium.
Burstone and Koenig 1 developed the concept that
it is possible to describe the entire force system,
which includes forces and moments, produced by
an orthodontic appliance. (A moment is a measure
of the tendency to produce rotation)) The authors
depend heavily on equilibrium for their thesis,
saying that " . . . unknowns (forces and moments)
can be found using the laws governing equilib-
rium." To describe equilibrium, they state, "The
wire must be in equilibrium, once it is placed
between two attachments. If it were not, the wire
would accelerate the patient out of the orthodon-
tist's office." Dr. Mulligan, in a separate article,
adds to the understanding of equilibrium by outlin-
ing three requirements, as follows: (1) "the sum of
all the vertical forces present must equal zero"; (2)
"the sum of all horizontal forces present must
equal zero"; and (3) "the sum of the moments
acting around any point must also equal zero. ''3
Two recent articles by Isaacson, Lindauer, and
Rubenstein4 further add to the explanation of equi-
librium. They say, "The force system that activates
a couple and its moment is always accompanied by
aAssistant Professor of Orthodontics, University of Kentucky.
Copyright © 1995 by the American Association of Orthodontists.
0889-5406/95/$5.00 + 0 8/1/57024
394
inherent equilibrium forces tending to rotate the
entire system in an opposite direction with an equal
moment"? (A couple is two equal and opposite
forces that act along parallel lines, but are not
colinear. 2) They continue, "The equilibrium of a
couple is analogous to the reciprocal of a force in
that it represents the equal and opposite response
required by Newton's First Law." In a separate
article they state, "The direction and amount of net
equilibrium forces result from the amount of net
moment created at adjacent brackets. ''~ The con-
cept of equilibrium can be difficult to understand,
even after reading excellent articles like these.
A NEW EXPLANATION-FOCUS ON
THE APPLIANCE
Equilibrium is defined as "a state of balance
between or among opposing f o r c e s . . , resulting in
the absence of acceleration . . . . ,6 The concept has
its basis in Newton's first and second laws of
motion. Newton's first law states, "a body at rest
remains at rest and a body in motion remains in
uniform motion in a straight line unless acted upon
by an external force. ''~ The second law states, "the
acceleration of a body is directly proportional to
the applied force and is in the direction of the
straight line in which the force acts." Therefore, if
an object has unbalanced forces acting on it, it will
accelerate (Fig. 1, A). If the forces acting on an
object are arranged so that every force is balanced
by an equal and opposite force, the object will not
accelerate (Fig. 1, B). Teeth that are being moved
orthodontically are not in equilibrium, they are
being accelerated. The only object that is in equi-
librium is the orthodontic appliance at the moment
it is placed against the teeth.
In addition to being in equilibrium, the ortho-
dontic appliance must apply a force against the
teeth. Every appliance that is meant to move teeth
American Journal of Orthodontics and Dentofacial Orthopedics Shellhart 395
Volume 108, No. 4

Fixed
/~ Reference
I f

A a b

B a b

Fig. 1. A, Single force acting on coil spring. If only one force acts on coil spring, it does not
compress. It accelerates to different position. Letter a = position before force application;
b = position after force application. Please note that coil has moved relativeto fixed reference point.
B, When two equal and opposite forces act on coil spring, it deforms elastically, changing its shape.
As long as forces are equal and opposite, coil does not accelerate once it is deformed. Letter
a = shape before force application; b = shape after force application. Note lack of motion relative to
fixed reference point. C, Forces exerted by elastically deformed coil spring. Two equal and opposite
forces act on teeth.

has an active component that deforms elastically as
the appliance is prepared for placement (Fig. 1, B).
When allowed to rest against the teeth, the elasti-
cally deformed portion will exert a force (or forces)
to return to the shape it had before deformation.
This is the force that moves the teeth. For simplic-
ity, this article will focus on orthodontic wires as the
instruments of force production. The force derived
from elastic deformation of a wire is the result of
the stretching of interatomic bonds without break-
ing those bonds. 7 Elastic deformation is different
from permanent deformation where the inter-
atomic bonds are broken, so that planes of atoms
move over one another and the wire does not
return to its previous shape.
Understanding that the appliance used for mov-
ing teeth is both elastically deformed and is in
equilibrium When it is placed allows the orthodon-
tist to evaluate all the forces used to prepare the
appliance for placement (Fig. 1, B). It is then
simple to understand the forces that the appliance
will exert on the teeth at the moment the appliance
is placed (Fig. 1, C). As soon as the teeth start to
move, the force system from the appliance probably
changes? Even so, being able to identify the forces
that act on the teeth initially is of significant value
in predicting tooth movement.
Forces from an orthodontic appliance
The forces from an elastically deformed wire
will be opposite in direction to the forces that
deformed the wire (Fig. 1, C). Because the wire is
in equilibrium when it is placed, every force pro-
duced is balanced by an equal and opposite force.
The example given in Fig. 1 involved horizontal
forces. Any vertical forces and/or forces that pro-
duce rotation must also be balanced. The balance
of the forces that produce rotation is more difficult
to conceptualize than the balance of horizontal or
vertical forces.
Forces that produce rotation
Rotational movement can be produced in two
ways, with a single force or with a couple. A single
force can produce rotation if it acts on an object,
but not through the center of resistance of that
object. The center of resistance is similar t o the
center of gravity of an object, but, is the more
pertinent point when the object to be moved is
restrained in some way (as teeth are by the peri-
odontal ligament). This center of resistance is de-
fined by the response of the object to a force. If the
line of action of the force passes through the point
that is the center of the object's resistance to force,
no rotation occurs. 2 If the force passes through any
other point, the tooth will rotate as it moves. Try
this with your pen when it is restrained by friction
against a table top (Fig. 2). For single rooted teeth,
the center of resistance is approximately two fifths
the distance from the alveolar crest to the apex. 8
For multirooted teeth, it is probably 1 to 2 mm
apical to the furcation. 2 It should be noted that
396 Shellhart
A a b B
V
Fig. 2. A, Force that passes through center of resistance of
object will cause object to translate (move without rotation).
Letter a = position before force application; b = position after
force application. B, A force that acts on object, but not through
center of resistance causes movement with rotation.
moments produced by the interaction between a
force and a restrained object are not necessarily
balanced by an opposite moment elsewhere in the
system. The wire that is in equilibrium will have
every force balanced by an equal and opposite
force, but those forces may not always be directed
toward teeth, or, if both forces are directed toward
teeth, they may not act at the same distance from
the center of resistance of those teeth.
Rotation can also be produced by a couple. This
type of rotation, is slightly different than that pre-
viously described. When a single force produces
rotation, it not only rotates, it also moves the center
of resistance (see Fig. 3, A). When a couple pro-
duces rotation, it produces pure rotation. The cen-
ter of resistance does not translate (Fig. 3, B). The
translational effects of the forces cancel each other
out. A couple acting alone will produce rotation
around the center of resistance. 2
To achieve equilibrium and elastic deformation
of a wire, each couple that acts on the wire must be
balanced by a couple acting to rotate the wire in
the opposite direction. If a single couple acts alone,
the wire would simply accelerate to another posi-
tion (Fig. 4, A). Balancing couples can either act on
the other end of the wire (Fig. 4, B) or across the
length of the wire (Fig. 4, C). More than two
couples can act on a wire and result in equilibrium
as long as the forces producing rotation in one
direction are balanced by forces producing the
opposite rotation (Fig. 4, D).
FORCES FROM TWO COUPLES THAT ACT ON
OPPOSITE ENDS OF A WIRE
This combination of couples is necessary to
place a wire that has not been Permanently de-
formed into two brackets that are rotated in oppo-
American Journal of Orthodontics and Dentofacial Orthopedics
October 1995
Fig. 3. A, Rotation produced by single force acting away from
center of resistance causes movement of center of resistance.
B, Rotation produced by a couple is pure rotation. The center
of resistance stays in the same position.
site directions but in equal amounts from the in-
terbracket axis (Fig. 5, A). This bracket configura-
tion has been termed a class VI geometry by
Burstone and Koenig. 1 These same couples are
needed to place a wire with a centered V bend into
well-aligned brackets 9 (Fig. 5, B). Since the force
system acting on the wire is the same in both
situations, the force system acting on the teeth is
the same (Fig. 5, C). The fact that the same force
system is produced by two wires that have signifi-
cantly different shapes has been noted by Isaacson
et ai., "it is the relative couples created and not the
bend in the wire that drives the system. ''4 In this
illustration, and in the ones to follow, we have
pictured the wire-bracket relationships in the oc-
clusal-gingival plane, principally so that reference
can be made to two significant articles in the
literature. 1'9 These illustrations depict forces in
only that plane (occlusal-gingival). The same prin-
ciples, however, apply in any plane. 4'9'1°
Forces from two couples, one placed at the end of
a wire, the other placed across the length of
the wire
These couples are needed to place a straight wire
(without permanent deformation) into two brackets
that are both rotated in opposite directions from
the interbracket axis, where one is rotated half
the amount that the other is (class IV geometry, 1
Fig. 6, A). The same couples are required to place
a wire with a V bend, the apex of which is positioned
a third of the distance between two aligned brackets,
into the brackets 9 (Fig. 6, B). Here again the forces
on the teeth are identical even though the wires have
different shapes (Fig. 6, C).
American Journal of Orthodontics and Dentofacial Orthopedics
Volume 108, No. 4 Shellhart 397

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Fig. 4. A, Couples acting on orthodontic wires. If only one couple acts on wire, it does not deform
elastically; it moves to new position. Letter a = position before force application; b = position after
force application. B, Two equal and opposite couples acting on opposite ends of wire produce elastic
deformation and equilibrium. Though wire changes shape, rotational forces are balanced so that wire
is not set in motion. C, Another combination of couples that can result in elastic deformation and
equilibrium. One couple acts over short span at one end of wire. Other acts over length of wire. These
arrows are smaller representing smaller force. Magnitude of moment produced by each couple is
same, but because distance between lines of force is greater for couple that acts over length of wire
is greater, force is smaller. D, Three couples can act to produce deformation and equilibrium. In this
example, two couples that act on ends of wire are both producing clockwise rotation. Balancing
counterclockwise rotation is produced by couple acting over length of wire.

].,kl
Fig. 5. A, Two couples acting on opposite ends of wire. When straight wire is placed into two
brackets that are rotated from interbracket axis in equal amounts but opposite directions (class VI
geometry1), wire must be deformed by two equal and opposite couples that act on opposite ends of
wire. Solidline indicates initial wire shape and dashedline
indicates shape after deformation. B,
Same combination of couples described in A is needed to place wire with permanent V bend, apex
of which is centered between brackets, into two brackets that are well-aligned. C, Forces acting on
teeth from wires that have been elastically deformed as in A and B.
398 Shellhart American Journal of Orthodontics and Dentofacial Orthopedics
October 1995

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Fig. 6. A, Two couples, one placed at end of wire and other placed over length of wire. These
couples are needed to place straight wire into malaligned brackets with class IV geometry ~ (bracket
on left is rotated off interbracket axis half amount that bracket on right is rotated and in opposite
direction). B, Same couples described in A are needed to place wire with permanent V bend that is
located third distance from one well-aligned bracket to other. C, Force system acting on teeth from
both of these elastically deformed wires (A and B) is same.

Forces from three couples
When two couples act on opposite ends of a
wire to produce moments in opposite directions but
of dissimilar magnitudes, a couple can be placed
across the length of the wire to achieve equilibrium
(Fig. 7, A). This combination of couples is needed
to place a straight wire into two brackets that are
both rotated in opposite directions from the inter-
bracket axis, one being rotated three-quarters the
amount that the other is (class V geometry 1 - F i g .
7, B). This same combination of couples is required
to place a wire with a V bend, the apex of which is
positioned between a half and a third of the dis-
tance between two brackets, into two well-aligned
brackets 9 (Fig. 7, C).
It is possible for two couples that act on oppo-
site ends of a wire and that both produce moments
in the same direction to be balanced by a moment
acting across the length of the wire (Fig. 7, D). This
occurs when a straight wire is placed into two
brackets, both rotated in the same direction and in
the same degree from the interbracket axis (class I
geometry, 1 Fig. 7, E). The same set of couples is
needed to place a wire with a permanent step into
two well-aligned brackets 9 (Fig. 7, F). In addition,
and somewhat more difficult to understand intu-
itively, placement of a wire without permanent
deformation into two brackets, only one of which is
rotated from the interbracket axis (class III geom-
etry 1) requires the same force system (Fig. 7, G).
The system is the same, but the levels of force are
different than those found with a step bend. Fi-
nally, placing a wire with a permanent V bend, the
apex of which is less than a third of the distance
between two brackets, into two well-aligned brack-
ets also requires the same force system 9 (Fig. 7, H).
APPLYING EQUILIBRIUM CLINICALLY
To determine the forces that will act on the
teeth with a given appliance, first evaluate the
forces that must act on the wire. Take the class III
geometry brackets as an example (Fig. 7, G). It is
obvious that a couple is needed so that the wire can
be placed into the most malaligned bracket (Fig.
8, A). If that is the only couple acting on the wire,
the wire will move to a different position and will
not be elastically deformed. To deform the wire, a
counteracting moment can be placed across the
length of the wire. When just these two couples act,
the wire will deform, but it will still not fit passively
American Journal of Orthodontics and Dentofacial Orthopedics Shellhart 399
Volume 108, No. 4

Fig. 7. A, Forces from three couples can result in equilibrium. If two couples acting on opposite ends
of wire produce moments of opposite direction and dissimilar magnitude, wire can be brought to
equilibrium by couple acting over length of wire. B, Combination of couples described in A is needed
if straight wire is to be placed into brackets that are in class V geometry (bracket on left is rotated from
interbracket axis three quarters amount that bracket on right is rotated and in opposite direction). C,
Same combination of couples (A and B) is required to place wire with V bend, apex of which is
positioned between half and third of distance between two brackets, into well-aligned brackets. D,
Another combination of three couples that can result in equilibrium. Two couples that act over short
spans on ends of wire are both producing rotation of wire in same direction. They are balanced by
couple acting over length of wire that produces rotation in opposite direction. E, Force system
described in D is required for straight wire to be placed into two brackets that are both rotated in
same direction and degree from interbracket axis. F, Placing wire with step bend into two well-aligned
brackets requires same force system described in E. G, Placing straight wire into two brackets, one
of which is aligned with interbracket axis while other is not, requires essentially same force system
(though magnitude of forces may be somewhat different). H, Same force system seen in G is required
to place V bend wire, apex of which is positioned less than third of distance from one bracket to
other.
400 Shellhart ArneHcanJournalofOnhodondcs and DentofacialOnhopedics
October 1995

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Fig. 8. A, To place straight wire into brackets with class III gemoetry, it is obvious that couple needs
to act on wire to engage bracket on right. However, it only that couple acts, wire is set in motion until
forces are dissipated and wire is not elastically deformed. B, To deform the wire, original couple can
be balanced by opposing couple placed over length of wire. However, with these two couples acting,
wire will still not fit passively into bracket on left. C, Third couple must act on wire to deform wire for
placement into this arrangement of brackets. This couple acts in same direction as couple at other
end of wire. D, Forces acting on teeth are just opposite of forces that were used to deform wire.

know the forces that must act on the wire. The

Fig. 9. Demonstration of equilibrium of forces producing ro-
tation. Values of forces and moments acting on wire to allow
placement into two brackets that are both rotated equal
amount and in same direction from interbracket axis (class I
geometry) are given by Burstone and Koenig. 1 Total counter-
clockwise moment is 3720 gm-mm. Clockwise moment result-
ing from vertical forces is nearly identical (3719.8 gm-mm).
Rotational equilibrium is demonstrated.
into the other bracket (Fig. 8, B). A third couple
must be placed on the wire to allow insertion into
that bracket, a couple oriented in the same direc-
tion as the one at the other bracket (Fig. 8, C). The
magnitude of these couples can be adjusted so that
clockwise and counterclockwise moments are bal-
anced. Thus the wire is elastically deformed, is in
equilibrium, and will fit into the brackets. We now
forces that act on the teeth will be just the opposite
of the forces used to deform the wire (Fig. 8, D).
The concept of equilibrium can also be used to
design and evaluate appliances for tooth move-
ment. First, identify the tooth movements desired
and the forces needed to accomplish those move-
ments. Next, design an appliance to produce those
forces. It is wise to evaluate each appliance de-
signed to be certain that forces will not act to
produce unwanted tooth movement. Knowing that
the appliance will be in equilibrium when it is
placed allows us to know that every force produced
by the appliance will be balanced by an equal and
opposite force. A systematic evaluation of the
forces acting to deform the wire and produce
equilibrium will lead to knowledge of all the forces
produced by the appliance. If unwanted movement
would be produced by one design, another appli-
ance can be designed and evaluated.
Determining the forces that act on the teeth can
become very complex when the appliance consists
of more than two bracketed teeth. However, sum-
ming the analyses of two-tooth segments can pro-
vide basic building blocks for understanding the
force system. I
American Journal of Orthodontics and Dentofacial Orthopedics
Volume 108,No. 4
DISCUSSION
T h e validity of this approach can be further
established by evaluating it in the light of other
research. In the article by Burstone and Koenig, 1
the values of the forces and m o m e n t s acting on a
wire are given. In each situation, the equilibrium of
rotational and vertical forces acting on the wire can
be established. The vertical forces in each situation
are equal and opposite, thus they are in equilib-
rium. The equilibrium of rotational forces is not as
obvious, but can be demonstrated. Because the
width of the brackets used is not given, it will be
difficult to calculate the forces in each couple. On
the other hand, it is possible to determine the
magnitude of the rotational force produced by the
vertical forces acting across the length of the wire
(either 7 or 21 ram) and then to sum this rotational
force with the rotation produced at both brackets.
W h e n this is accomplished, the rotational forces
acting on the wire in every situation sum to zero,
verifying equilibrium. For example, Fig. 9 gives the
forces and m o m e n t s that act on a straight wire to
allow placement into two malaligned brackets that
are 7 m m apart (both brackets are rotated in the
same direction and in equal amounts from the
interbracket axis). There is a counterclockwise mo-
m e n t acting on the wire at each bracket valued at
1860 gm-mm. Therefore the total counterclockwise
m o m e n t equals 3720 gm-mm. The m o m e n t on the
wire from the couple acting across the length of the
wire is found by multiplying one of the vertical
forces by the distance between the brackets. 2 In
this situation, the vertical force is 531.4 gm and the
interbracket distance is, as has been mentioned,
7 mm. The product of these values (3719.8 gm-mm)
is the m o m e n t acting in the clockwise direction.
The total m o m e n t acting in each direction is essen-
tially the same, but the directions are opposite,
demonstrating equilibrium. All the other classes
Shellhart 401
can be shown to demonstrate equilibrium in the
same way.
CONCLUSION
Understanding the concept of equilibrium is
critical for understanding the mechanics of tooth
movement. Equilibrium is most clearly understood
when the clinician focuses on the appliance. Un-
derstanding the forces acting to deform the appli-
ance readily translates to knowledge of the forces
acting on the teeth, allowing prediction of tooth
movement.
REFERENCES
1. Burstone CJ, Koenig HA. Force systemsfrom an ideal arch.
AM J ORTHOD1974;65:270-89.
2. Smith RJ, Burstone CJ. Mechanics of tooth movement. AM
J ORTHOD1984;85:294-307.
3. Mulligan TF. Common sense mechanics-static equilibrium.
J Clin Orthod 1979;13:762-6.
4. Isaacson RJ, Lindauer SJ, Rubenstein LK. Activating a
2 × 4 appliance. Angle Orthod 1993;63:17-24.
5. Isaacson RJ, Lindauer SJ, Rubenstein LK. Moments with
the edgewise appliance: incisor torque control. AM J
ORTHODDENTOFACORTHOP1993;103:428-38.
6. Websters Third New International Dictionary. Springfield,
Massachusetts: Merriam-Webster, Inc., 1981.
7. Hayden HW, Moffatt WG, Wulff J. The structure and
properties of materials, vol. III, mechanical behavior. New
York: John Wiley, 1965:23-37.
8. Constasi GI, Legan HL. Biomechanicalguidelines for head-
gear application. J Clin Orthod 1982;16:308-12.
9. Burstone CJ, Koenig HA. Creative wire bending-the force
system from step and V bends. AM J ORTHODDENTOFAC
ORTHOP 1988;93:59-67.
10. Burstone CJ. Precision lingual arches, active applications.
J Clin Orthod 1989;23:101-9.
Reprint requests to:
Dr. W. Craig Shellhart
College of Dentistry
University of Kentucky
Lexington, KY 40536-0084