Lesson 1: Overview of the subject and university VMGO Duration: 3 hours

Introduction

For the first week, we shall have the orientation, discussion of the rules and

policies of the course, ant Vision, Mission, Goals, and Objectives (VMGO) of the

university.

Objectives

At the end of the lesson, you shall:

1. Identify the rules and policies of the course in the modular class;

2. Explain how the college objectives jibe with the university VMGO; and

3. Create a specific study strategy to develop effective study habits in the

subject.

Taking to Task

This time, our activity is called goal-setting.

Goal Setting Activity

Planning Your Study Strategy

When life during this pandemic keeps you busy, or your energy is focused

on a special life project, it is all too easy to find yourself off balance and not paying

enough attention to important areas of your life. For example, while it is good to be

passionate about your study, not having the necessary math or computing skills for

your project can lead to frustration and stress. We want to quickly and graphically

identify the areas in your study to which you want to devote more energy, and help

you understand where you are doing. We challenge you to transform this

knowledge into a positive program of action.

1. Goal

Before the first semester starts, let us take a "helicopter view" of your life,

so that you can work on bringing things into balance. This is where the goal setting

activity can help; it aids you to consider each area of your life which, allows you to

assess what is off balance. As such, it reveals areas that need more attention on

your study strategy. 2. Assess each area

The goal setting activity assumes that you will be happy and successful in

your career if you can find the right balance of attention to give each of these
dimensions. Different areas of your study plan will need different levels of attention

at different times. So, the next step is to assess how well you are handling each

subject area.

3. Identify where you need to take action

Next, it is time to consider your ideal level in each area of your study. A

balanced study plan does not mean getting a 1.0 in all courses: some subject areas

need more attention and focus than others, at any given time. Inevitably, you will

need to make choices and compromises, as your time and focus are not unlimited,

especially during this pandemic. So the question is: What would be the ideal level

of attention for you in each subject area?

4. Take Action!

Now, you have a visual representation of your current study strategy in

different subject areas. Where are the gaps? These are the areas of your study

strategy that need attention. And remember that gaps can go both ways. There are

almost certainly areas that are not getting as much attention as you would like.

However, there may also be subject areas where you are putting in more effort

than you would ideally like. These areas are sapping your energy and enthusiasm

that could otherwise be directed elsewhere. Once you have identified the areas

that need attention, it's time to plan the actions to work on regaining balance.

Starting with the neglected areas, what things do you need to start doing to regain

balance? In areas that currently sap your energy and time, what can you stop doing

or reprioritize?

Create a specific study strategy in order to develop effective study habits in

the subject.

Subject areas Specific study strategy

Since we would like to develop a harmonious relationship, it is proper to

discuss some of the rules and policies with regard to the class subject.

Defining Concept

The following are the policies for the course:

Class Policies:
1. No special examinations will be administered unless an excuse letter from

parent/guardian or medical certificate noted by the guidance counselor and

class adviser is presented.

2. Cheating during examination will yield a score of 5.0 after a warning.

3. Attendance will be checked every scheduled meeting. The allowable number

of absences is only three (3).

4. Assignments/projects submitted late will not be accepted. Failure to submit

assignments on time or after the deadline is equivalent to a grade of 5.0.

5. Attendance on a scheduled meeting to track your progress is an important

part of collegial interaction. If you are required to miss part of a class meeting,

it is important that you contact me prior to class. When possible, alternate

assignments may be negotiated (for example, if you are required to miss

class for a family-related event, credit may be awarded for a brief report out

from the event). This modular class is structured to help you engage with

your colleagues in refining your beliefs and knowledge base regarding the

topics we will cover. Without your active verbal and written participation, your

opportunities for development will be limited. Attendance and class

participation will account for 10% each of the course grade.

6. There will be a significant amount of reading in this modular approach to

learning, and you are expected to complete the readings. Completion of the

paper will make up 50% of the course grade.

Disability Services: Students with disabilities are provided accommodations upon

presenting the proper verification. Just inform your teacher.

Guidelines for Paper Forms:

1. Handwritten papers are accepted. However, you can still submit computerized

paper and assignment. I encourage you to learn to use a computerized word-

processing program. It can save time, aid proofreading, and improve the

appearance of an essay.

2. For computerized and handwritten paper, use one side of the paper only.
3. For computerized paper, use standard 8 1⁄2” by 11” white paper. Use loose leaf

or typewriter paper; no frazzled edges ripped from notebooks. Use 12-point,

Arial font.

4. Use margins of at least an inch of the paper. Leave a 1.5" margin on the left-

hand side.

5. Papers (except for the long report) should be folded vertically with the following

information on the outside cover: name, section, theme assignment,

instructor's name, and date. Place them in a short brown envelope with your

name (surname first) and section.

Keep a paper copy of the final draft in your own files. It is the cheapest

insurance you can buy.

Notes:

1. The length of the final project report should be in the range of 8,000-12,000

words. Please make all your writing relevant and readable.

2. The final project is intended to be a professional manuscript that reflects

scholarly work and effort.

3. It should be typed, double-spaced on standard long bond paper.

4. Use 12-point Arial font.

5. Use 1.5-inch margin at the left; 1.0-inch margin at the top, right and bottom

page.

6. Remember, you are required to submit your own ORIGINAL work. Where other

material is used, you must state the sources from which the information is

derived. Any act of plagiarism or intellectual dishonesty will result in a grade of

5.0. If some of you are unclear about plagiarism or some other breach of

academic integrity, you are advised to ask your teacher for more clarification

on the matter.

Now that you are a member of the Bulacan State University family, it is also

important to discuss the Vision, Mission, Goals and Objectives of the university.

Generally, BSU has the following VMGO.

Vision

Bulacan State University is a progressive knowledge-generating institution,

globally recognized for excellent instruction, pioneering research, and responsive

community engagements.

Mission

Bulacan State University exists to produce highly competent, ethical, and

service- oriented professionals that contribute to the sustainable socio-economic

growth and development of the nation.

Goals

In the pursuit of its mission, the initiatives and efforts of the University are

geared towards the attainment of the following goals:

Quality and excellence. Promoting quality and relevant educational

programs that meet international standards.

Relevance and responsiveness. Generation and dissemination of

knowledge in the broad range of disciplines relevant and responsive to the

dynamically changing domestic and international environments.

Access and equity. Broadening the access of deserving and qualified

students to educational opportunities.

Efficiency and effectiveness. Optimizing of social, institutional, and

individual returns and benefits derived from the utilization of higher education

resources. Objectives

• Provision of graduates competitive with international standards of quality

and excellence;

• Generation and transmission of knowledge in the discipline, relevant and

responsive to dynamically changing domestic and international

environment;

• Provision of equitable access of education opportunities to deserving and

qualified clienteles; and

• Optimization of social and individual returns and benefits derived from

utilization of resources.

However, for each college, there are distinct objectives to accomplish.

Specifically, the College of Education provides its own objectives for each program

offering.

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION PROGRAM OBJECTIVES Bachelor of Elementary

Education

1. To provide general education for students to appreciate human ideas and

values, develop in them critical thinking, research capability, creativity and good

work habits.

2. To provide professional education to develop students’ skills in applying

methods and techniques in teaching, vital for effective and efficient delivery of

instruction.

3. To promote co-curricular activities for the development of personal discipline,

leadership, and responsible membership in society.

Bachelor of Secondary Education

1. To provide high quality academic instruction for personal development.

2. To provide career and professional readiness to the advancing information

technology.

3. To equip the learner with relevant knowledge and skills for a life of service to

humanity.

4. To culminate the spirit of inquiry so that prospective secondary teachers may

become effective agents of change, both in the school and in the community.

5. To become familiar with the different principles, philosophical outlooks,

theories, methods, and techniques that will equip the learner in his area of

specialization.

Bachelor of Technical Teacher Education

1. To provide relevant specialized education and training to develop competencies

in the chosen field of concentration in the academic, work-oriented or industrial-

vocational course.

2. To provide broad general education that would enable students to develop

critical thinking, research capability, creativity, and desirable work habits.

3. To equip students with knowledge and skills necessary for successful

entrepreneurial activities.

4. To promote co-curricular activities that will enhance the development of

personal and family life and responsible citizenship.

5. To develop a new breed of educators sensitive to the technological changes

and effect global competitiveness.

Mapping Out

In this lesson, we shall use this graphic organizer to help us understand key

points.

In any organization, it is incumbent upon us to follow the existing rules,

policies, and regulations. Without them, there will be no structure and order by

which all of us are guided. In the same manner, we should be governed by our

vision, mission, goals and objectives; without them, our academic existence would

be aimless, with no purpose or reason at all for being. This should never be the

case because in life, it is not enough to live or to simply exist; we need to thrive.
Lesson 2: Multilingual Education: Structure of Languages and

Developmental Learning Theories Duration: 6 hours Introduction

Mother Tongue Based-Multilingual Education (MTB-MLE) is a policy in the

Philippine curriculum. It involves the implementation of local mother tongues as the

language of instruction in Kindergarten to grade three (K -3), with the official

languages (Filipino and English) being introduced as the language of instruction

after grade three. Previously, the early years of schooling used Filipino and English

as the language of instruction, with local languages being used to assist teachers

and students in the classroom. Nowadays, MTB-MLE is being implemented across

the country from the 2012-2013 school year. While a very small number of schools

previously implemented MTB-MLE, many schools as well as teachers are now

learning how to use local mother tongues as the language of instruction. In the

coming years, this will be taken up by more schools, teaching a wider variety of

languages.

In the study of the subject, you shall also be provided with knowledge on the

structure of languages and developmental learning theories such as that of Piaget’s

theory, schema theory of learning, social learning theory, cognitive theories of

bilingualism: balance theory, iceberg analogy and threshold theory.

Objectives

At the end of the lesson, you shall:

1. Explain multilingual education including the structure of languages and

developmental learning theories (Piaget’s theory, Schema theory of

learning, Social learning theory, Cognitive theories of Bilingualism—

Balance theory, Iceberg Analogy and Threshold theory;

2. Identify the role of such theories in language learning; and

3. Evaluate the role of each theory in multilingual education.

Taking to Task

Our activity this time is called PAPER AROUND THE WALL.

1. Put 1⁄4 colored pieces of poster paper around the wall with a one or two

word heading.

2. Use 30 seconds at each piece of paper to write down the kinds of words,
images, thoughts or feelings you associate with such a word.

3. Discuss afterwards and explain how these are examples of schemas –

you have grouped all of these things together in your minds when you

think of that particular item.

4. The items could be things like love, homework, module, school, study,

holidays, pets, and so on.

Imagine your environment without a mental model of your world. It would

mean that you would not be able to make so much use of information from your

past experience in order to plan future actions. Schemas are the basic building

blocks of such cognitive models, and they enable us to form a mental

representation of the world.

Now, before we go deeper into schemas, let us define multilingual

education. As a policy in the Philippines, Multilingual Education (MLE) basically

refers to "first- language-first" education; that is, schooling which begins in the

mother tongue and transitions to additional languages. Typically, MLE programs

are situated in developing countries like the Philippines. They are most often a part

of a formal educational system. It involves implementation of local mother tongues

as the language of instruction in Kindergarten to grade three (K -3), with the official

languages (Filipino and English) being introduced as the languages of instruction

after grade three.

Components of Multilingual Education (MLE)

MLE has at least two important components. They are:

1. Strong Foundation - Research shows that children whose early education

is in the language of their home tend to do better in the later years of their

education.

2. Strong Bridge – means that mother tongue is used in learning another

tongue.

Multilingualism is the ability to speak more than two different languages

fluently. For us to fully understand MLE, it is also important to discuss the structure

of language. Every language is unique. For example, in English, an adjective

comes before a noun (beautiful lady, red rose), whereas in Spanish, the adjective
comes after (casa [house] roja [red]). In German, you can put a noun after noun

together to form compound words (der Geburtstag [birthday] + das Geschenk

[present] = das Geburtstagsgeschenk [birthday present]); in Chinese, the pitch of

your voice determines the meaning of your words. But all languages have structural

underpinnings that make them logical for the people who speak and understand

them. Basically, there are five main components of language. These are

phonemes, morphemes, lexemes, syntax, and context.

A phoneme is the smallest unit of sound that may cause a change of

meaning within a language but does not have meaning by itself.

A morpheme is the smallest unit of a word that provides a specific meaning

to a string of letters. There are two main types of morpheme: free morphemes and

bound morphemes. Free morphemes are those that move around without being

connected to other form of morphemes. Example is OR in the word SUPERVISOR.

OR can stand alone. Bound morphemes are those that need to be connected to

other forms of morphemes in order to provide meaning. Example is MENT for the

word GOVERNMENT. MENT cannot stand alone.

A lexeme is a set of all the inflected forms of a single word. In linguistics, a

lexeme is the fundamental unit of the lexicon (or word stock) of a language. It

underlies a set of words that are related through inflection. A lexeme is often--but

not always--an individual word. A single dictionary word (for example, walk) may

have a number of inflectional forms or grammatical variants. Example is the word

walk. It has inflectional forms such as walks, walked, or walking.

Syntax is a set of rules by which you construct full sentences.

Context is how everything within language works together to convey a

particular meaning.

Developmental Learning Theories

Psychologists and other theorists have proposed a number of different

theories centered on how children develop. But you may ask: “Why is it that in the

study of multiculturalism and multilingual education, developmental learning

theories come into the picture”? The answer is plain and simple. Some of these

theories are known as basic theories that attempt to explain almost every aspect
of how people change and grow over the course of childhood. Additionally, these

theories describe and explain the processes and stages that children go through

as they develop. Some tend to focus on the developmental milestones or specific

achievements that children reach by a certain age, while others focus on specific

aspects of child development such as personality, cognition, and moral growth.

This time, we are going to focus on the theories that attempt to explain the

development of language among children. These theories include Piaget’s theory

such as Schema theory of learning, social Learning theory as popularized by Albert

Bandura, as well as other theories such as cognitive theories of bilingualism—

balance theory, iceberg analogy and threshold theory.

It is construed that students progress from novices to experts and,

eventually, they become masters of their field or specialty who, in turn, will mentor

the next generation.

Piaget’s Theory

Jean Piaget was a psychologist who was born in Switzerland in the mid-

1890s. His research on human development significantly contributed to the

understanding of human cognition. He is well known for his theories on cognitive

and moral development. Piaget believed that development occurred in stages that

are based on the child’s age and maturity level. According to his theory of cognitive

development, children go through a series of stages of intellectual growth. He

likewise introduced the term schema. In Piaget's theory, a schema is both a

category of knowledge as well as the process of acquiring that knowledge.

Schema Theory

Now, what is a schema? Piaget popularized the idea that people are

constantly adapting to the environment as they take in new information and learn

new things. As experiences happen and new information is presented, new

schemas are developed and old schemas are changed or modified. Therefore, a

schema is a category of knowledge as well as the process of acquiring that

knowledge. It refers to the mental representation, pattern, structure, or conceptual

framework.
A schema (plural is schemas or schemata) provides the basis by which we

relate to the events we have experienced. This is what we develop while interacting

with the world. We may develop many schemas while we grow and develop. Each

of these schemas will change with time. The changes happen while we receive

new information about how the world works. In order to be able to process and

understand the new information, we must be able to change our schema to fit the

new information.

Actually, schema theory falls under the concept of Piaget’s adaptation, along

with equilibration, assimilation, and accommodation. For example, we understand

that triangles (according to size and angles) are classified as right, acute, and

obtuse triangles. Then, our mother (who is a Math teacher) teaches us that not all

triangles are classified as such. Some triangles may also be classified according

to the length of the sides of triangles. Some examples are equilateral triangles,

isosceles triangles, and scalene triangles. We must change our schema about

triangles to include the new information given to us.

Social Learning Theory

The basis of social learning theory is simple: We learn by watching other

people. We can learn from anyone—teachers, parents, siblings, peers, friends,

classmates, YouTube influencers, athletes, and even celebrities. We observe their

behavior, and we imitate that behavior. In short, we do what they do. This theory is

also known as social cognitive theory developed by the renowned Stanford

psychology professor Albert Bandura. The theory provides a framework for

understanding how people actively change and are influenced by their

environment. In particular, the theory details the processes of observational

learning and modeling, and the influence of self-efficacy on the production of

behavior. In other words, in this theory, the environment plays a large part in

learning. We model the behavior of the people around us, especially if we find these

models similar to ourselves or if we want to emulate them. An example is a celebrity

endorsing a product. If we like a particular celebrity and if we see that she enjoys

a certain brand of shampoo, then we may well imitate her by purchasing that brand.
Aptly put, social learning theory is the idea that we learn from observing

others. This learning can either be acted on, as when we see a classmate who is

given a recitation chip for an answer; or not acted on, as in a teenager who hears

a friend talking about picking a lock. They learn something new, but do not try it

themselves. Especially when it comes to the acquisition of language, social

learning theory plays a big role in how all people and especially children learn.

There are at least four essential elements of social learning. These

include attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation.

Attention. Students cannot learn if they are not focused on the activity.

Thus, it is important to get their interest and attention so that they will more likely

focus on it.

Retention. Students learn by internalizing information. They can then recall

that information later when they want to respond to a situation in the same way. In

order to learn from what they see, they have to retain that information.

Reproduction. We reproduce our previously learned behavior or

knowledge when it is required. Practicing our response in our head or in actions

can improve the way we respond to situations.

Motivation. Motivation is required in order to do something. Usually, our

motivation comes from seeing others rewarded or punished for something they

have done. This can motivate us to do or not do that same thing.

Cognitive Theories of Bilingualism

Here, we shall discuss at least three theoretical frameworks on the

relationship between bilingualism and cognition. These are balance theory, iceberg

analogy, and threshold theory.

Bilingualism is the idea that speaking more than one language fluently

brings with it cognitive advantages. The bilingual advantage hypothesis states that

bilinguals excel at cognitive control also known as executive function. It means that

bilinguals find it easier to suppress "reflex" responses and focus on the task at

hand.

The theory is that whenever they are speaking or listening to one language, their

brains have to use cognitive control to actively suppress the other language to
avoid getting mixed up. Because they are constantly practicing cognitive control,

bilinguals are better at it.

Cognition is thinking. Aptly put, in cognition, we have what we call cognitive

control. Cognitive control works this way. For example, in front of you is a

mouthwatering cheeseburger. But you are on a diet. You are tempted to grab it

immediately because you have not had breakfast. This cheeseburger is your only

hope for breakfast in the office. You imagine how good it is going to taste. You can

almost feel the smooth, sweet goodness in your mouth. Almost of its own accord,

your hand reaches out and grabs the cheeseburger. It is just the right time for you

to eat. You promised yourself to eat this one last time. then you will get right back

to your diet tomorrow.

Just as you are about to give in, however, a small voice at the back of your

mind asks if you are really willing to give up your hard-earned progress in exchange

of 90 calories of sugar and fat. It paints images in your mind of your slim, happy

figure next to your overweight, dissatisfied self. You see yourself sweating and

laboring on the treadmill to burn off the calories. So you put down the

cheeseburger.

Cognitive control is the ability of your mind to actively create an information

picture that will guide your behavior. It is what allows you to select a certain

behavior that you have accepted as appropriate and reject a behavior that you have

decided to be inappropriate. It also clarifies your long-term goals and purposes,

helping you change what you are doing in order to reach these goals. Therefore,

cognitive control is at the center of your self-awareness, your highest level of

consciousness, and your willpower.

So, what happens when cognitive control takes over in the use of language?

When you have an experience of any kind, neurons communicate with your brain

by altering chemicals in the synapses, or gaps, between the connections that lead

from your body to your brain. Cognitive control assists you in the process of

deciding which strategies to implement in speaking that language.

In hindsight, cognitive theory of bilingualism argues that linguistic skills

revealed in bilingual learners are based on their ability to control different aspects
of language processing, and it can be easily applied and transmitted to other areas

of study.

Balance Theory

Balance theory refers to the idea that you tend to prefer elements held in

your thoughts to be congruent with your behaviors. Balanced systems are

construed to be more stable and psychologically pleasant than imbalanced

systems. Fritz Heider, a social psychologist developed the balanced theory. For

example, your internal experience (attitudes) must be congruent with your external

experience (behaviors). In other words, his idea is that if you want to maintain

psychological stability, and you form relationships, you must balance your likes and

dislikes. The more similarities that exist between each element, the more likely

psychological balance will occur. You may think of people as belonging together if

they belong to the same family, attend the same school, or have some other

common bond because they share common similarities.

Iceberg Analogy

Iceberg analogy is an analogy related to bilingualism. In Sigmund Freud’s

psychoanalysis, he used iceberg as an analogy for the human mind. He stated that

the mind, like an iceberg, has a small visible conscious part and a large, hidden

unconscious part that guided our actions and thoughts. The unconscious includes

sexual urges and impulsive behavior that we tend to repress. For Freud, our mind

is likened to an iceberg; only the tip of an iceberg is visible. The tip symbolizes the

observable behaviors and current thoughts. However, the biggest bulk of the

iceberg that is submerged in the water is hidden from view. This proverbial part

represents our non-observable behaviors in a culture as well as the things we can

hear and speak privately such as language.

Threshold Theory

Threshold theory is a hypothesis that is related to bilingualism. It is an idea

that attempts to explain the cognitive effects of bilingualism. The threshold

hypothesis is one of the most influential theoretical frameworks on the relation

between bilingualism and cognition.

But what do we mean when we say “threshold”? The word threshold refers
to the magnitude or intensity that must be exceeded for a certain reaction,

phenomenon, result, or condition to occur or be manifested. In language learning,

threshold is the point at which learning is of sufficient intensity to produce a

remarkable effect.

This hypothesis suggests a bilingual cognitive disadvantage at a low proficiency

level and a cognitive advantage at a high proficiency level in both languages. In a

study conducted by Daller and Ongun (2017), they have demonstrated how the

threshold theory can easily be used as an evaluation tool for the importance of

cognitive development through various stages of bilingualism and bilingual

education programs. Their study shows a bilingual advantage for those children

whose parents use more L1 at home and have higher dominance scores for L1.

These children outperform the monolingual control groups in the study in terms of

non-verbal intelligence scores (Daller & Ongun, 2017).

A theory is a set of ideas intended to explain something especially one that

is based on general principles. It helps us explain our actions and behaviors

towards learning and using the language. Despite criticisms, theories are still

applied by psychologists seeking to understand the roots of behavior and cognition

and language.

In the same manner, it is important to understand that opportunities are open

for us to learn academic content with high cognitive effects through additive

bilingual programs that support the linguistic and cultural awareness of our new

education programs.

Multilingual Education

Structure of Language

•Phonemes

• Morphemes

•Lexemes

•Syntax

• Context
Developmental Learning Theories

• Piaget’s Theories

 Schema theory

 Social learning theory

• Theories of Bilingualism

 Balance theory

 Iceberg analogy

 Threshold theory

Lesson 3 – Multilingual Education Research Review Duration: 3 hours

Introduction

Objectives

At the end of the lesson, you shall:

1. Discuss the factors affecting success of multilingualism;

2. Recommend measures to address the challenges of MTB-MLE; and

3. Produce a critique paper based on the studies on the implementation of

MTB-MLE in the Philippines.

Taking to Task

In what way does the MTB-MLE address the equity in education and culture?

Defining Concept Multilingual Education Research Review

Most of the studies conducted in multilingualism are done in Australia,

Canada, Europe (Sweden, UK, Germany) and the United States. The culture,

competency, policy, and other factors have to be considered. These external

influences may affect the conclusions from the research in relation to

multilingualism and school learning.

The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

(UNESCO) at the 30th Session General Conference in 1999 adopted a resolution

that established the notion of ‘multilingual education’. Accordingly, the choice of the

language is a recurrent challenge in the development of quality education.

Speakers of mother tongues, which are not the same as the national language, are
often at a considerable disadvantage in the educational system.

Studies on the use of mother tongue have received much attention after

World War 2, giving emphasis on the preservation of minority languages and

culture. The world has evolved since then. Industries have changed. After the post-

colonial era, globalization became the mainstream target in economics, politics,

and education. The migration of people has brought languages to continents. In

addition, the internet has changed the use of language for communication and

learning. Hundreds of languages all over the world have disappeared; many remain

endangered.

(UNESCO, 2003).

Foreign Studies on Bilingualism and Multilingualism

According to Malone (2007), the educational problem of the ethnolinguistic

communities are twofold: First is no access to education at all, and second is those

who have access are unable to speak the official language when they enter school.

He reiterated that learning and problem-solving experiences and their knowledge

of

“how things work” in their own culture and social setting do not serve students

because the culture of the classroom, the teachers, and the textbooks is that of

dominance.

The 1968 Bilingual Education Act of the United States stipulated that the

government recognizes “the special educational needs of the large number of

children of limited English-speaking ability in the United States,” and the main goal

is to provide access to bilingual programs for children of limited means. Training of

teachers, implementation, and program maintenance were funded by the

government. However, this did not materialize as English is still the preferred

language used in schools. The No Child Left Behind (NCLB) of the United States

made mandated students who have low proficiency in the English language to meet

the same standards of English-speaking students in all other subjects. Latinos,

Asians, and other migrants have to cope with the English fluency demanded by the
state in school and in national assessments. When a student is taught in his or her

MT but eventually takes the national test in English, theory and ideology could be

at war. Colin Baker in his book Foundations of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism

(2011) notes that bilingual students scored lower in IQ tests than monolinguals. He

further stated that the type of test contributes to the result and how intelligence is

defined.

Studies in India show that many children in English-medium private schools

know better English than children in mother tongue-based learning or regional

language government school up until grade 7. Studies further show that at the end

of grade 8, those English-medium privately schooled students scored lower in

various subjects and their English is no better. This is partly due to the competence

of English teachers and also because children did not develop the Cognitive-

Academic Language Proficiency (CALP).

Thailand is one country that has about 70 ethnic groups, each with its own

language. This diversity hampered the access of school age children in remote

areas to “normal” government education due to low ability in the Thai language.

The Thai government, academics, non-governmental organizations, and language

communities launched a Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual Education (MTB-MLE)

to address this need. Eight years of student testing showed that students on MTB-

MLE program outperformed academically the “normal” Thai-only learners in all

subjects, including the Thai language (Premsrirat & Person, 2018).

In Southeast Asia, the Philippines is the only country which institutionalized

into law the Mother Tongue-based Multilingual Education. Children enrolled in

kinder to grade 3 will use their mother tongue (MT) as a medium of instruction

(MOI). (Tupas & Martin, 2017). Using bilingual as MOI has undergone a number of

debates and discourse among academes and politicians. DepEd has cited studies

that provide evidence that using mother tongue in the early years of schooling has

positively contributed to the academic and life-long learning skills of a person. The
Iloilo experiments that first took place in 1948-1954 and in 1961-1964 showed that

pupils taught in their first language, Hiligaynon, were significantly superior in

proficiency in language and reading tests and in arithmetic and social studies

subjects.

The Rizal experiment in 1960-1966 highlighted that the Tagalog-based

teaching rated highest in arithmetic at the end of Grade 4. The experiment

included a Tagalog version of the tests and both groups of students with the English

and Tagalog medium of instruction have the same proficiency level in reading, but

the mother tongue-based group have the highest achievements in social studies,

health and science and arithmetic. (DepEd, 2016). The 1980s to 1990s have been

the decade in which politics and education merged at some point. The trend of

producing “workers of the world” mandated that English be the priority MOI to

prepare students to the reality of job competition.

These studies show different concepts and results of the MTB-MLE

program. This means that there is no systematic coherence to the subject.

Preserving minority languages can only be possible if there are well-trained

teachers and policies that would also support changes in the language used in

national assessments.

Factors Affecting the Success of Multilingualism

Michael Evans (2018) of the University of Cambridge published

Transforming Society Through Education in which he posited the following:

❏ Literacy in the home language has a positive effect on students’ learning of other

languages and other subjects.

❏ For communities with a variety of language, the use of the “lingua franca” at home

is an advantage when the child enters school.

❏ Socio-economic background of students affects the success of the medium of

instruction policy implementation, with students in rural and less affluent

communities responding less well to teaching of the curriculum in a language

other than their mother tongue, due to limited resources, home support, and early

literacy practices.
❏ Where students’ home language is other than their school’s medium of instruction,

as in the case of migrant-background or students from indigenous

minority language communities in developing countries, effective integration

of the use and learning of the home languages leads to improved academic

achievement.

Espinosa (2009) presented 10 key factors that influence successful

bilingualism and multilingualism:

Policy Implications

1. Aptitude- it is a person’s natural ability to do something. Linguistic aptitude is

to learn language without difficulty.

2. Timing- language acquisition has stages, and teaching strategies are

important.

There are three windows of opportunity for learning language (Nelson, 2000)

a. birth to 11 months is when the brain connections to language acquisition

peak.

b. between four to eight years old is due to lower inhibition levels. Playground

language is used.

c. Eight years onwards when the brain reach its full size (not the

neuroconnections)

3. Motivation- the individuals who are motivated to learn a new language, learn

easily. (Palumbo, 2019). Helping a child to learn a language is better than

forcing him or her to learn. Internal and external factors

4. Strategy- making a conscious decision to learn the language and to teach using

the language.

● Visualization

● Cooperative learning

● Inquiry-based instruction

● Differentiation

● Use of technology

● Behavior management

● Professional development
5. Consistency- Involve the child and the parents to stay true to the learning

strategy agreed upon. For primary pupils, the consistency of strategy extends

to the language used in assessment.

6. Opportunity and Support- Monitoring on the use of language in school, home,

or in community.

7. Linguistic and historic relationship between languages- the child learns easily

if the mother tongue is linguistically connected to the L2. The transition to

learning the second language is most likely smooth.

8. Siblings- preschoolers with more than two siblings seem to develop language

skills a bit slower than other kids. Positive influences of older siblings help in

language acquisition of kids (Horton, 2014).

Positive influence is when there is constant communication using the mother

tongue (consistent with the language used at school). However, language

development will be affected if one of the other siblings dominates the

conversation.

9. Gender- in most cases, female babies acquire language skill earlier than male

babies although they come close to proficiency during adulthood.

10. Wiring of the brain

Hemispheric dominance has to do with learning a new language:

● the dominant hemisphere of the brain is associated with language and

logical thinking

● the dominant hemisphere of the brain typically is the opposite of your

dominant hand. For right-handed individuals, their dominant brain is the left

hemisphere (Vega, 2020).

● At least 95% of right-handed people and 70% of left-handed have the left

hemisphere dominance. Criticisms Against MTB-MLE

R.A. No. 10533 states that, “To achieve an effective enhanced basic

education curriculum, the DepEd shall undertake consultations with other national

government agencies and other stakeholders including, but not limited to, the

Department of Labor and Employment (DOLE), the Professional Regulation

Commission (PRC), the private and public schools associations, the national
student organizations, the national teacher organizations, the parents-teachers

associations, and the chambers of commerce on matters affecting the concerned

stakeholders.” Based on the study of Tupaz and Martin (2017), the emphasis of the

Department of Education has shifted to learning and teaching the mother tongue,

neglecting the preservation of the identity of the language and cultural factors of

the program. They provided the following areas to look into the program:

1. The difficulty of teachers in the preparation of instructional materials;

2. The design of the program does not connect with local community and

culture;

3. Language marginalization- exclusion of other mother tongues did not live up

to DepEd’s objective: Socio-cultural awareness which enhances the pride

of the learner’s heritage, language and culture. The department identified

19 official mother tongue languages only; the country has more than a

hundred languages.

4. The resurgence of mother tongues as languages of instruction promises to

be a pedagogically sound and politically inclusive vision of education. It is

not anti- English and anti-Filipino in the sense that it continues to promote

the teaching of both languages in all levels of education; it ultimately

addresses different forms of inequities in Philippine society.”

5. Teachers were not thoroughly prepared by the DepEd before the program

was implemented (Burton, 2013). Language of instruction policy should also

be accompanied with teacher capacity and deployment, thoroughly

reviewed learning materials and curriculum (Trudell, 2016).

Other studies provided the following challenges on the implementation of the

program. Most studies are done outside the metro where Tagalog is not the L1 of

the student.

6. Results of the study by Dumatog and Dekker (2003) and Skoropinski in

2013 revealed that parents were wary of the use of MT, that it might affect

the English proficiency of their students. The same concern was raised by

the parents in Bicol in the study conducted by Burton (2013) as part of her

dissertation: Mother tongue-based multilingual education in the Philippines:

studying a top-down policy from the bottom up.

7. The absence of effective transition created a gap in learning (Lopez, Coady,

& Ekid, 2019). The top-down policy has not addressed the diverse situation

of education especially in remote areas of the country. Large-scale

implementation of MLE results in confusion, tension, and errors that are

difficult to undo if there is no sufficient piloting and preparation. (UNESCO

Language Planning, 2003).

The aim to preserve the language and culture of the minorities which has

been put in danger of death or extinction can still be done through education. The

introduction of Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual Education can bridge the gap

provided that the policy of the government is anchored on the needs of the less-

dominant groups in the community and proper training of teachers. In addition,

instructional materials and assessment should be coherent to that of the program-

using the first language.