PRAGATI PUBLIC SCHOOL, DWARKA

Revision Notes: Geography

Class 12
Chapter 5: PRIMARY ACTIVITIES (BOOK-1)

HUNTING AND GATHERING

Early human beings in primitive societies depended on their immediate environment.
They depended on animals they hunted and edible plants which they gathered.
Main characteristics:
● These are the oldest economic activities known.
● Gathering is practiced in regions with harsh climatic conditions
● It involves primitive societies who depended on animals and plants for food, shelter and
clothing.
● This type of activity requires small amount of capital and low level of technology.
● The yield per person is very low and little or no surplus is produced.
● In modern times some gathering is done market- oriented and has become commercial for
products such as leaves, bark nuts, fabric rubber, balata, gums and resins. Gathering has
little chance to become important at global level because
i. Its product cannot compete in the world market.
ii. Synthetic products often of better quality and at lower prices, have
replaced many items supplied by the gatherers in tropical forests.
● Areas: Gathering is practiced in

✔ High latitude areas such as Eurasia, Southern Chile and northern Canada.

✔ Low latitude such as Amazon, Congo, S.E. Asian countries and Northern Australia.
PASTORALISM
At some stage in history, human beings realized that hunting and gathering is an unsustainable
activity, then people living in different climatic conditions selected and started domestication of
animals found in those regions.
Depending on the geographical factors and technological development, animal-rearing is
practiced at subsistence or at commercial level. Therefore, it is of two types-nomadic herding
and commercial livestock rearing.

1. NOMADIC HERDING  
● Nomadic herding or pastoral nomadism is a primitive subsistence activity.
● In this activity herders depend on animals for food, clothing, shelter, tools and transport.
● In this activity, herders keep on moving from one place to another along with their
animals.
● Each nomadic community occupies a well identified territory as a matter of tradition.

● A wide variety of animals are kept in different regions of the world. For example, cattle
in tropical Africa, sheep, goat and camel in Sahara and Asiatic deserts are reared. Yak and
Llamas in the mountain areas of Tibet and Andes while reindeer are reared in Arctic and
sub-Arctic areas.
● In this activity, seasonal movement of people along with their herds to mountains in
summer and plains in winter is done and is called transhumance. For example, Gujjars,
Backcrawls, Gaddis& Bhotias in Himalayas.

● The number of pastoral nomads is decreasing and the areas operated by them is
shrinking. This is due to (a) Imposition of political boundaries (b) New settlement plans
by different countries.
● Pastoral nomadism is associated with three important regions:
(a) The Core Region extending from Atlantic coast of North Africa through Arabian
Peninsula to central china.
(b) The Second Region extends in tundra region of Eurasia.
(c)Third Region is found in S.W. Africa and Madagascar.
2. COMMERCIAL LIVE STOCK REARING

● It is more organized and capital-intensive activity.

● It is practiced on permanent ranches and is associated with western cultures.
● Here ranches cover larger areas and divided in to parcels. When the grass of one parcel is
grazed, animals are moved from one parcel to another.
● The number of animals in a pasture are kept based on capacity of the pasture.
● This is a specialized activity in which only one type of animal is reared. Important
animals are sheep, cattle, goats and horses.
● Products such as meat, wool, hides and skin are processed and packed and then exported
to different markets in the world.
● Animal rearing is done scientifically with special emphasis on breeding, genetic
improvement, disease control and health care of the animals.
● It is practiced in New Zealand, Australia Argentina Uruguay and USA.
AGRICULTURE
Based on methods of farming, different types of crops are grown and livestock raised. The main
agriculture systems are as follows:

SUBSISTENCE AGRICULTURE

In this type of farming, the produce is generally consumed by the farmers and his family. Nothing or little
is left for the market. It can be grouped in two categories- (a) Primitive subsistence agriculture and (b)
Intensive subsistence agriculture.

Primitive Subsistence Agriculture:

● The vegetation is cleared by fire and ashes add to the fertility of the soil.
● It is also called shifting cultivation/ slash and burn agriculture.
● It is mainly practiced by tribes in topical region.
 ● Land holdings are small.
● Do not use fertilizers.
● Primitive tools such as sticks and hoes are used to do cultivation.
● Change the land frequently is the problem of this farming as the land lost its fertility and
then farmers shift to another place for cultivation. But after 5 years they come back again.
● This type of agriculture is known by different names. For example, it is called JHUMING
in N.E. INDIA, MILPA in South America, LADANG in Malaysia.
Intensive Subsistence Agriculture:
● Mainly practiced in densely populated areas of monsoon Asia.
● There are two types-
(a) intensive subsistence agriculture dominated by wet paddy cultivation
▪ dominated by rice crop

▪ land holdings are very small

▪ family labor is used

▪ less use of machine

▪ manual labor is used

▪ Farm yard manure is used

▪ Yield per unit is high but per labor is low

(b) intensive subsistence agriculture dominated by crops other than paddy.

▪ Crops such as wheat, barley, sorghum and soya bean are cultivated due to
difference in relief, climate, soil and other geographical factors.
▪ These are cultivated mainly in northern China, North Korea, Manchuria
and North Japan.
▪ In India, wheat is grown in western parts of Ganga plain and millets in
western parts of south India.
▪ Irrigation is used

PLANTATION AGRICULTURE
● Plantation agriculture was introduced by Europeans in colonies situated in tropical areas.
● Important crops are tea, coffee, cocoa, rubber, cotton, oil palm, sugarcane, banana, &
pine apples.
● It is practiced on large estates and requires huge capital investment, managerial and
technical support.
 ● Scientific methods of cultivation are followed.
● Single crop specialization is the main feature of plantation agriculture.
● Cheap labour and good system of transport is required.
● Everything grown here is export oriented.
● Plantation crops introduced by colonial powers in different countries are as follows:
(a)The French established cocoa and coffee in west Africa.
(b)The British setup tea gardens in India and Sri Lanka Rubber plantation in Malaysia,
sugarcane and banana in west indies.
(c) Spanish and Americans introduced coconut and sugar cane in Philippines.
(d) Dutch started sugarcane in Indonesia.
(e) coffee Fazendas are managed by British in Brazil

EXTENSIVE COMMERCIAL GRAIN CULTIVATION

● It is practiced in the interior parts of semi-arid land of mid-latitudes

● Wheat is the main crop.
● Other crops like corn, barley oats and rye are also grown.
● The size of farm is very large.
● Machines are used to do all operations of cultivation from ploughing to harvesting.
● There is low yield per acre but high yield per person.
● This type of agriculture is practiced in prairies, pampas, veldts, down, Canterbury plains.
MIXED FARMING
● This type of agriculture is practiced in highly developed parts of the world. For example, NW
Europe, NE America, parts of Eurasia and the temperate latitudes of Southern continents.
● The size of farm is moderate.
● The crops grown are wheat, barley, oats, rye, maize, fodder and root crops.
● Fodder crops are an important component of mixed farming.
● Crop rotation and intercropping play an important role in maintaining soil fertility.
● Crop cultivation and animal husbandry are equally done.
● Animals like cattle, sheep, pigs and poultry provide the main income along with crops.
● It requires huge capital investment on farm machinery and building, extensive use of chemical
fertilizers, green manures and expertise of farmers.

DAIRY FARMING

● It is the most advanced and efficient type of animal rearing (milch animals).
● It is highly capital intensive
● Animal shed, storage facilities, mulching machines add to the cost of dairy farming.
● Special emphasis is laid on breeding, health care and veterinary services.
● It is highly labour intensive as there is no off season during the year.
● It is practiced nearby urban areas and industrial Centres which market for fresh milk and
dairy products.
 ● Development of transportation, refrigeration pasteurization has increased the marketing.
● It is practiced in NW Europe, Canada and SE Australia, New Zealand and Tasmania.
MEDITERRANEAN AGRICULTURE

● It is highly specialized commercial agriculture.

● It is practiced in the countries around Mediterranean Sea, central Chile, SW Africa, SW
Australia & California
● It is an important supplier of citrus fruits.
● VITICULTURE or grape cultivation is specialized in this region.
● Best quality wine is produced from grapes in this region.
● In this cultivation low quality grapes are dried into raisins and currants.
● Olives and figs are also grown here.
● Fruits and vegetable are grown in winter which are in great demand in Europe.

MARKET GARDENING AND HORTICULTURE

● This type of farming specializes in the cultivation of vegetables, fruits and flowers.
● The size of farm is small and are located near the urban areas where high income group
of consumers is located.
● It requires good transportation facility.
● It is labour and capital-intensive farming.
● Use of irrigation, HYV seeds, fertilizers & pesticides are used in it.
● In cold regions, it requires green houses and artificial heating.
● This agriculture is well developed in densely populated industrial areas of NW Europe,
NE USA & Mediterranean regions.
● Netherlands is famous in growing flowers and horticultural crops like tulip flower.
● The regions where vegetables are grown is called TRUCK FARMING
FACTORY FARMING

● Factory farming is practiced in Western Europe and North America.

● It consists of poultry farming and livestock rearing.
● They are fed on factory feedstuff and carefully supervised against diseases.
● It requires heavy capital investments for various operations, veterinary services, heating
and lightning.
● Breed selection and scientific breeding is an important feature of this farming.
CO-OPPERATIVE FARMING

● In co-operative farming, a group of farmers form a society and pool their resources to get
more profit.
● In this farming, individual farms remain intact and farming is a matter of cooperative
initiative.
 ● Co-operative societies help farmers in getting agriculture inputs, selling the products at
the most favorable terms and help in processing of products at cheaper rates.
● Co-operative farming is practiced in Denmark, Netherlands, Belgium, Sweden & Italy.
● In Denmark, it is so successful that every farmer is a member of a co-operative society.
COLLECTIVE FARMING

● This farming is based on social ownership for means of production and labour.
● It is also called as KOLKHOZ and was introduced in erstwhile USSR (Soviet Union) to
boost agricultural production for self-sufficiency.
● In this farming, Farmers pool their resources like land, livestock and labour.
● A small land is allowed to retain of their own to grow their own crops
● Yearly targets are fixed by the government.
● Products are sold to the state at fixed prices.
● Excess produce is distributed among the farmers or sold in the market.
● The farmers have to pay taxes on the farm produces, hired machines etc.
● Members are paid according to their nature of the work allotted to them by the farm
management.
● Exceptional work is rewarded in cash or kind by the government.
MINING

● There are many stages of discovery of minerals such as copper age, bronze age, iron age.
● The use of minerals in ancient times was confined to the making of tools, utensils and
weapons.
● But the actual development of mining started with the industrialization and is increasing
continuously.
FACTORS AFFECTION MINING ACTIVITY
Mining operations depend on two main factors:
1. Physical factors: These include the size, grade and mode of occurrence of mineral
deposits.
2. Economic factors: These factors include the demand for mineral, technology available
and used, capital to develop infrastructure, labour and transportation costs.

METHODS OF MINING
Depending on the mode of occurrence and the nature of ore, there are two types of mining:

A. SURFACE /OPENCAST MINING

1. The easiest and the cheapest way of mining minerals

2. This type of mining occurs close to the surface
3. Overhead costs (safety precautions and equipment) in this method is very low.
4. The output is large and quick.
B. UNDERGROUND/SHAFT MINING
● When the ore lies deep below the surface, underground mining method is used.
● In this method, vertical shafts have to be sunk to reach the minerals.
● Minerals are extracted and sent to surface through passages.
● It requires specially designed lifts, drills, haulage vehicles, ventilation systems for safety
and efficient movement of material and people.
● This method is risky. Poisonous gases, fires, floods and caving may lead to accidents.
● It requires large investment
Developed countries are showing less interest in it due to high labour costs. But the
developing countries are more interested in it due to large labor availability with them
and for higher standard of living. Several countries from Africa, South America and Asia
have over 50 percent of their earnings from minerals also.