32

WAVES IN STRINGS

32.1 INTRODUCTION
If a transverse wave is caused to travel along a stretched string, the wave is reflected
on reaching the ends of the string. The incident and reflected waves have the same
speed, frequency and amplitude, and therefore their superposition results in a
stationary wave.
If a stretched string is caused to vibrate by being plucked or struck, a number of
different stationary waves are produced simultaneously. Only specific modes of
vibration are possible, and these are considered in section 32.2.

32.2 THE MODES OF VIBRATION

The ends of a stretched string are fixed, and therefore the ends of the string must be
displacement nodes. The three simplest modes of vibration which satisfy this
condition in the case of a string of length L are shown in Fig. 32.1.

Fig. 32.1 L L L
Modes of vibration of a
stretched string
...
----- .,.,
A,
2
1st harmonic 2nd harmonic 3rd harmonic
(fundamental) (1st overtone) (2nd overtone)
(a) (b) (c)

The simplest mode of vibration (a) is called the fundamental, and the frequency
at which it vibrates is called the fundamental frequency. The higher frequencies
(e.g. (b) and (c)) are called overtones. (Note that the first overtone is the second
harmonic, etc.) Representing the wavelengths of the first, second and third
harmonics by 21, 22 and 23 respectively, and bearing in mind that the separation of
adjacent nodes is equal to half a wavelength (section 31.2), we see from Fig. 32.1
that:
L L
L
2 3

489
490 SECTION f.' WAVES AND THE WAVE PROPERTIES OF LIGHT

Therefore, if A., is the wavelength of the nth harmonic,

L [32.1]
2 n
The frequency,fn, of the nth harmonic is given by equation [23.1] as
v
fn = - [32.2]
A.,
where
v the velocity of either one of the progressive waves that have produced
the stationary wave. (Note that the velocity is the same for all
wavelengths.)
Therefore, from equations [32.1] and [32.2]
nv [32.3]
fn = 2L
The frequency,/1, of the fundamental (i.e. the first harmonic) is given, by putting
n = 1 in equation [32.3], as
v
fi = 2L
Therefore, equation [32.3] can be rewritten as

i.e. the frequencies of the various overtones are whole-number multiples

ofthe fundamental frequency.
It can be shown that

[32.4]

where
T = the tension in the string (N)
fJ- = the mass per unit length of the string (kg m - I).
Therefore, by equations [32.2] and [32.4]

(n 1, 2, 3 , 0 0 .) [32.5]

1. A wire of length · 400mm and mass 2. The fundamental frequency of vibration of a

1.20 x 10- 3 kg is under a tension of 120N. particular string is f What would the funda-
What is: (a) the fundamental frequency of mental frequency be if the length of the string
vibration, (b) the frequency of the third har- were to be halved and the tension in it were to be
m onic? increased by a factor of 4?
WAVES IN STRINGS 491

32.3 STRINGED INSTRUMENTS

When a guitar string is plucked or a piano string is struck, transverse waves travel
along the string and are reflected on reaching its ends. The energy of any wave
whose wavelength is such that it does not give rise to one of the allowed stationary
waves is very quickly dissipated. The waves which remain have frequencies that are
given by equation [32.5], and the string vibrates with all these frequencies
simultaneously.
The largest amplitude of vibration, and therefore the predominant frequency, is
that of the fundamental. The relative amplitudes of the various overtones depend
on the particular instrument being played, and it is this that gives an instrument its
characteristic sound (see section 34.2).

32.4 MELDE'S EXPERIMENT

If a string is caused to vibrate by being plucked or struck, it vibrates freely at all ofits
natural frequencies (i.e. the frequencies given by equation [32.5]). On the other
hand, if a string is forced to vibrate at some particular frequency, it will vibrate with
large amplitude only if the forcing frequency is one of the natural frequencies of the
string. This can be very effectively demonstrated by the apparatus shown in Fig.
32.2, and is known as Melde's experiment.

Fig. 32.2 String under Mechanica l Signal

Apparatus for Melde's Pulley tension oscillator gene(ator
experiment

The frequency of the signal generator is slowly increased and, at first, very little
happens. Eventually though, a frequency / 1 (say) is reached at which the string
vibrates with large amplitude in the form of a single loop (Fig. 32.3(a)). If the
frequency is increased beyond this value, the amplitude of the vibrations dies away.
When the forcing frequency reaches 2/1 , the string again vibrates with large
amplitude, but this time it vibrates as two loops (Fig. 32.3(b)). At 3/1 it vibrates as
three loops, etc. Substituting the relevant values of L, T and J1 in equation [32. 5]
confirms that the forcing frequencies, / 1 , 2/1 and 3/1 , are respectively equal to the
frequencies of the first, second and third harmonics of the string. This, then, is an
example of resonance - the string responds well only to those forcing frequencies
which are equal to its natural frequencies of vibration.

T.---J'""
Fig. 32.3
Modes of vibration in
Melde's experiment

---------- -
(a) (b)
492 SECTION E: WAVES AND THE WAVE PROPERTIES OF LIGHT

Notes (i) The amplitude of vibration of the oscillator is small in comparison with that
of the string, and therefore the string behaves (almost) as if it is fixed at its
point of attachment to the oscillator. --
(ii) The reflected waves are not quite as 'strong' as the incident waves, and this
prevents the displacements at the nodes being exactly zero.
(iii) The motion of the string can be 'frozen' if stroboscopic illumination is
available. This demonstrates very convincingly that each section of the
string is in anti-phase with that in an adjacent loop.

32.5 EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATION OF f, = 1

2L ~
The frequency, f 1 , of the fundamental mode of vibration of a stretched string is
given, by putting n = 1 in equation [32.5], as

f, = -1
2LyfT--;;
It follows that:
(i) j 1 ex 1I L if T and J1. are constant
(ii) f 1 ex ,jT if L and J1. are constant
(iii) .h. ex 1I JJi if L and Tare constant.
These relationships are sometimes referred to as the laws of vibration of
stretched strings. They may be verified experimentally by using a sonometer
(Fig. 32.4), as described below.

Fig. 32.4 Movable Wire under Fixed

bridg e tension bridge
Sonometer

Wire
f\.--LL-----=--~-------11"'-4-- anchored
here

Known Hollow
- - mass(M) sounding
box

To verify f 1 ex: 1/ L
Having selected suitable values of T and JL, the position of the movable bridge is
altered so that the vibrating length, L, of the wire is such that when the wire is
plucked it produces the same note as a tuning fork of known frequency. If the
experimenter is not sufficiently 'musical' to detect whether the two notes have the
same pitch, he can make use of a resonance technique. A small piece of paper in the
form of an inverted vee is placed on the centre of the wire, and the stern of a
vibrating tuning fork is held against one of the bridges. This forces the wire to
vibrate, and if its length is such that its fundamental frequency of vibration is equal
to the frequency of the ~ning fork, the wire vibrates with large amplitude and
throws the paper_ off the w1re. The procedure is repeated using tuning forks of other
~own frequencies, and without altering either Tor Jl.. A graph ofj1 against 11Lis
hnear and passes through the origin, thus verifying the relationship.
WAVES IN STRINGS 493

To Verify f1 ex VT
With L kept constant at some suitable value, the mass, M, and thererore the
tension T (= Mg), is altered so that when the wire is plucked it produces the same
note as a tuning fork of known frequency. The procedure is repeated using tuning
forks of other known frequencies, and without changing either Lor J.L. A graph of!I
against n is linear and passes through the origin, thus verifying the relationship.

To Verify f, ex 1/ ..Jii
This relationship cannot be verified directly if tuning forks are used, because
neither the frequencies of a set of tuning forks nor the masses per unit length of a set
of wires are continuously variable. However, once it has been verified that
f 1 ex 1I L , it is sufficient to show that L ex 1I JJi at constant Tand constantf1. First,
the mass per unit length, J.L, of a wire is determined by weighing. The length, L, of
the wire is then adjusted so that when the wire is plucked it produces the same note
as one of the tuning forks . The procedure is repeated using wires of different
masses per unit length. Each wire must be under the same tension as the first wire,
and in each case the length is adjusted until the wire vibrates at the same frequency
as the tuning fork that was used with the first wire. A graph of L against II fo is
linear and passes through the origin, thus verifyingj1 ex 1I Vfi.