Received: 22 October 2019 Revised: 12 December 2019 Accepted: 14 December 2019

DOI: 10.1002/er.5139

REVIEW PAPER

A review on the performance of photovoltaic/

thermoelectric hybrid generators

Ahmet Z. Sahin1,2,3 | Kehinde G. Ismaila1 | Bekir S. Yilbas1,2,3 |

1,2
Abdullah Al-Sharafi

1
Mechanical Engineering Department,
KFUPM, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia
Summary
2
K.A.CARE Energy Research & Utilization of a broad range of solar spectrum has the potential for high power
Innovation Center, Dhahran, Saudi output from solar cells. However, solar photovoltaics (PVs) can convert only
Arabia
part of the solar electromagnetic spectrum into electricity efficiently. The
3
Center of Research Excellence in
remaining of the solar radiation is often dissipated in the form of heat, which
Renewable Energy (CoRE-RE), KFUPM,
Dhahran, Saudi Arabia causes performance reduction and reduces the life expectancy of the solar PV
cell. Thermoelectric generators (TEGs) are devices that operate like a heat
Correspondence
Ahmet Z. Sahin, Mechanical Engineering
engine by converting thermal energy into electricity through thermoelectric
Department, KFUPM, Dhahran, Saudi effect. Integrating a TEG into a PV converter will enhance its efficiency and
Arabia. reduce the amount of heat dissipated. Different studies have been carried out
Email: azsahin@kfupm.edu.sa
and are still taking place to increase the total efficiency of a coupled photovol-
Funding information taic thermoelectric generator (PV-TEG) system. This review discusses the con-
Ministry of Education, Riyadh, Saudi
cept of PV converters and thermoelectric devices and presents the various
Arabia
models and numerical and experimental investigations on performance
enhancement of integrated PV-TEGs. The influence of key parameters on the
performance of PV-TEG were also discussed. The review is expected to serve
as a reference to recent work on research and development of integrated PV-
TEG systems.

KEYWORDS
performance, photovoltaic thermoelectric generators, solar energy, thermal energy

1 | INTRODUCTION and geothermal, are easily replenished and are clean

Fossil fuels such as natural gas, coal, and oil have been a
key source of energy generation since the advent of the
industrial revolution. This is mainly due to their high
power density when compared with the renewable
sources of energy. However, fossil fuel resources suffer
from major drawbacks, that is, their potential for envi-
ronmental pollution, fluctuating prices, and limited
quantity.
Currently, renewable energy sources (RES) contribute
more than 26% of the power utilized globally as shown in
Figure 1. The RES, which include wind, biopower, solar,
sources of energy.1 Therefore, recent research activities
focus on developing and improving systems that use
renewable sources including solar energy systems.
Two major ways of solar energy conversion are the
thermal energy and electrical energy. Aside from conver-
ting solar radiation into electricity using photovoltaic
(PV) converters, thermoelectric generators (TEGs) as well
offer an assuring approach to converting the solar ther-
mal energy into electrical energy. Thermoelectric devices
have low operating maintenance cost with no harmful
gas emissions. They have broad scalability and are reli-
able in operation with no environmental damage.

Int J Energy Res. 2020;1–30. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/er © 2020 John Wiley & Sons Ltd 1
2 SAHIN ET AL.
Consequently, the addition of a TEG to a solar PV system
enhances its conversion efficiency and at the same time
reduces the amount of waste heat released by the PV
system.
Due to the growing concern and awareness on the
environmental sustainability, a great amount of research
is directed towards the efficient use and conversion of
solar energy into electricity. One of the major issues with
solar cells is the reduction in their conversion efficiency
because of the cell temperature rise and the associated
waste heat, especially for the concentrated PV (CPV) sys-
tems.2 Utilization of the waste heat from the solar PV
cells through the use of thermoelectric modules has been
a driving motivation for studying the integrated PV-TEG
systems. On the other hand, integration of PV cells and
TEG modules introduces a complex system that involves
additional energy transfer considerations. In addition,
rise of temperature in the integrated PV-TEG system
results in conflicting effects on PV cells and TEG mod-
ules. While the efficiency of the TEG modules improves
with higher temperature gradient resulting from higher
concentration, high temperature causes a reduction in
efficiency of the PV cells and subsequently on their
lifespan. Using phase change materials (PCMs) and nano-
technology are further dimensions of recent research
directions to improve the heat transfer and efficiency of
the integrated PV-TEG system.3 The integration of PV
cells and TEG modules introduces complex relationship
and trade-offs that make the optimization of such sys-
tems very essential.
Integrating TEG devices and the PV solar cells in a
hybrid PV-TEG system improves the overall efficiency of
the system. However, this integration results in addi-
tional costs that must be considered to prove the eco-
nomic feasibility of such integration.4 The additional
equipments, such as the TEG devices and reflectors,
increase the cost of the integrated system. Therefore, the
economic feasibility of PV-TEG systems is one of the
important challenges to investigate. Various studies
showed that a considerable boost of efficiency has been
achieved in integrating the TEG modules in the PV-TEG
systems.
Integrated PV-TEG systems provide a solution to
broad-spectrum utilization of solar radiation by exploring
the potential of both PV converters and TEGs for power
generation.5 For this reason, it has received more atten-
tion recently, and considerable research effort is being
directed towards making PV-TEG systems more reliable
and efficient.6,7
In the present work, experimental and computational
modeling of performance enhancement for the integrated
PV-TEG systems has been reviewed. The characteristics
and modeling of solar PV converters as well as the princi-
ples of operation of the TEG devices have been presented.
Various modeling approaches for the integrated PV-TEG
system and the parameters involved in the evaluation of
the performance were presented in detail. The economic
aspects of the integrated PV-TEG system were discussed.
The use of nanotechnology for improving the solar
absorption has been explained. Finally, the challenges
and opportunities in integrating the PV cells with TEG
devices and the future directions were outlined.
2 | P V GE NE R A T O R S
PV converters also known as solar cells are semiconduc-
tor devices that convert a fraction of solar radiation into
electrical energy. The process of this conversion is based
on a phenomenon known as the photoelectric effect.
Applications of the silicon-based solar cell first started in
Americus, Georgia, in which a setup of experimental sili-
con cells is used to charge a battery and power telephone
equipment. Since then, a large number of research have
been undertaken to investigate a more efficient and eco-
nomical way of solar to electricity conversion.8 Presently,
solar cell technology has been developed to an advanced
stage; however, commercialization of solar cells is limited
F I G U R E 1 Contribution of
renewable sources in global electricity
production by the end of 20181 [Colour
figure can be viewed at
wileyonlinelibrary.com]
SAHIN ET AL.
FIGURE 2 Structure of (A) p-n junction solar cell and (B) dye-sensitive solar cell9 [Colour figure can be viewed at
wileyonlinelibrary.com]
by durability, efficiency, and cost. At the same time, the
availability of material and its environmental impact are
also of major consideration.
The principle of operation of conventional silicon-
based solar cells is different from organic solar cells.
The traditional silicon-based solar cells are made of single-
crystal silicon. When a high-energy photon of the incident
solar radiation is absorbed by the silicon crystal lattice, an
electron from the outer bond is released, thus creating
an electron-hole pair. For an intrinsic semiconductor, this
electron-hole pair normally disappears through recombi-
nation. This recombination is reduced by doping the semi-
conductor. Doping involves building a potential barrier to
the cells. This is achieved by introducing a minute quan-
tity (usually one part in 106) of boron on one side to form
a p-Si and phosphorus on the other side to form n-Si. This
barrier restricts the migration of electrons causing an accu-
mulation of electrons in the n-silicon layer and a scarcity
of electron in the p-Si layer. There is a flow of electrons
from n-Si to the p-Si when a circuit connects the two
layers. The schematic of the principle of a silicon-based
solar cell and a dye-sensitive solar cell (DSSC) is illustrated
in Figure 2A,B.
2.1 | Characteristics and modeling of PV
converters
A PV converter usually consists of solar cell connections
and protective casing. As discussed earlier, the common
silicon-based solar cells are specially made with a negative
on one side facing the sun and a positive on the rear so
that electrons are set loose from the atom in the silicon.
These electrons can be captured in the form of photocur-
rent Iph by connecting an electrical conductor. However, if
3
FIGURE 3 Equivalent circuit of a PV converter
a large external voltage supply is connected to the solar
cell during darkness (ie, absence of photons), a dark satu-
ration current or diode ID is produced. A solar cell can be
modeled as an equivalent circuit shown in Figure 3.
As seen in the equivalent circuit above, there is a source
current Iph, a diode with an internal shunt, and a series
resistance that is the internal resistance of the cell. As will
be seen in the relations to come, these circuit parameters
are functions of cell temperature and incident solar radia-
tion and are usually obtained from the measurement of cur-
rent and voltage characteristics of the cell at standard
reference condition: spectral distribution corresponding to
air mass (AM) of 1.5, cell temperature of 25
C, and solar
radiation of 1000 W/m2. Following the Kirchhoff law, the
net current I is the difference between Iph and ID.
I = I ph − I D : ð1Þ
The diode current can be determined using the
Shockley equation.10-12

 
eðV + IRs Þ
I D = I 0 exp −1 , ð2Þ
λσT c
4 SAHIN ET AL.

where σ, Tc, e, and V are the Boltzmann constant, cell performance of PV cell corresponds to cost reduction in
temperature, electronic charge, and the imposed voltage PV systems, and effort in research and development at
across the cell, respectively. I0 is the reverse saturation every stage of the process is still ongoing.
current given as The maximum efficiency of the PV converter is deter-
mined using the relation


eEg
I 0 = DT 3bc exp , ð3Þ
AkT bc V oc × I sc × FF
ηpv = , ð9Þ
Pi
where D, Tbc, and Eg are the diffusion factor of the diode,
absolute temperature, and the band gap energy of the where Pi is the incident solar radiation power.
material, respectively.
The higher value of current produced by the cell is
the short circuit current, Isc, and it is determined when 2.2 | Temperature sensitivity of PV cells
V = 0 and Isc = Iph, which is the short circuit condition.
The open circuit voltage Voc is the voltage drop when the A major issue with solar cells is the reduction in their con-
produced current is zero, I = 0 (ie, Iph = ID). It is the volt- version efficiency due to the rise of cell temperature, espe-
age of the cell during period of no solar radiation and can cially for CPV system. Undoubtedly, research and
be obtained thus; development effort at every step of the PV process have
been directed at enhancing the efficiency of PV through

 
eV oc various thermal management methods. As seen from Equa-
I sc = I 0 exp −1 , ð4Þ
kT c tion (5), the open circuit voltage is temperature dependent;
hence, it is the most affected parameter due to rise in cell
which can be solved for Voc as temperature. This impact can be seen in I-V characteristic
curve of PV converters indicated in Figure 4. Depending on
 
kT c I sc the type of PV cell material, an efficiency reduction of about
V oc = ln −1 : ð5Þ
e I0 0.2% to 0.5% is possible for an interval rise in cell tempera-
ture of 1
C as reported by previous works.15-17 This peculiar
The electrical output power P of the solar cell can be property of PV is mostly referred to as efficiency tempera-
obtained from ture coefficient, and it is used to quantify the sensitivity of
the solar cell to temperature rise. The value of temperature
P = IV , ð6Þ coefficient of a PV cell is often normalized at 25
C in other
to better compare different PV cells.
and the maximum power output is obtained by differenti-
ating Equation (6) with respect to V and setting it equal
to zero to give the load current Imp, which gives the maxi- 3 | T HE R M O E L E C T R I C DE V I CE S
mum power output of the cell.
A thermoelectric device is a solid-state semiconductor
eV mp component that can produce electrical power when there
I mp = ðI sc + I 0 Þ: ð7Þ
kT c + eV mp

Thus, the maximum power is expressed as

Pmax = ImpVmp. Given the maximum power output, an
additional parameter known as the fill factor (FF) can be
obtained using Equation (8)

I mp × V mp
FF = : ð8Þ
V oc × I sc

FF is an important parameter in the efficiency of PV

cells that is often reported at standard reference condi-
tion by manufacturer. The list of laboratory efficiency of
different solar cell measured at reference condition is F I G U R E 4 Effect of cell temperature on I-V characteristics of
well documented in Green et al.13 Improvement in the a PV cell14 [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
SAHIN ET AL.
is temperature gradient across its junctions and vice
versa. They are made of a large number of thermocouples
that are thermally connected in parallel and electrically
in series.9 Thermoelectric effect is manifested when a
temperature difference occurs over a thermoelectric
device causing electrons to migrate from the low- to
high-temperature side due to density difference, thereby
creating a potential difference that drives the current as
shown in Figure 5A. This device is referred to as TEG.
The device is used as a thermoelectric cooler (TEC) when
an electric source is applied across (Figure 5B).
3.1 | Principles of operation of
thermoelectric devices
Thermoelectric effects explain the presence of a link
between electrical and thermal process. Direct conversion
of energy by thermoelectric devices depends on features of
the thermoelectric material (such as electrical conductiv-
ity, thermal conductance, and the Seebeck coefficient) and
conversion efficiency in terms of the figure of merit ( zT),
which makes them suitable for thermal-electrical conver-
sion or the reverse. The operation of a thermoelectric
device is governed by the Seebeck effect and Peltier heat.
The third effect that is not of primary importance but nec-
essary for detailed analysis is known as the Thomson heat.
The direct conversion of temperature gradient across
the ends of two dissimilar metals to electricity in the
range of μV/K to mV/K is known as the Seebeck effect.
The effect is dependent on structure and type of the ther-
moelectric material as well as the absolute temperature.
The ratio of the amount of change in the voltage to the
temperature difference gives the Seebeck coefficient as
given in the equation below.
ΔV
SAB = : ð10Þ
ΔT
The change in voltage can be determined using
Equation (11)
Tðh
ΔV = ðSB −SA ÞdT, ð11Þ
Tc
where SB and SA are the Seebeck coefficients in V/K for
the thermoelectric conductor A and B, respectively.
Depending on the type of electric current carrier, the sign
of the Seebeck coefficient could be negative (electron car-
rier) or positive (holes carriers), and the sign is
influenced by the type of thermoelectric material.18
5
The Peltier effect occurs due to the flow of electric
current through a bimetallic circuit strip, which results
in absorption of heat on one junction and heat dissipa-
tion on the other. At constant temperature, the heat
flow per unit current is referred to as Peltier heat
expressed as
qðheat added or removedÞ
Qp = : ð12Þ
I ðcurrentÞ
Rapid cooling/heating could be achieved through the
Peltier effect with the use of semiconductors such that
temperature gradient as high as 70
C could be
maintained at the junctions. Therefore, thermoelectric
modules are regarded as better temperature controller; as
such, they find usage in cooling and heating.19-21 They
are referred to as TECs when used in this regard.
The Thomson heat is the heat absorbed or rejected
when an electric current flows through a conductor with
temperature gradient across its junctions. This heat is
dependent on the nature of the conductor and thus could
be measured for certain materials. The only measurable
effect of the three is the Thomson effect. This is because
the other effects depend on pairs of material.
The Thomson heat could be expressed as
QT = ξ × J 2 −J × rT × ϖ AB , ð13Þ
where ξ, J, rT, and ϖ AB are the electrical resistivity in
ohms-meter, current density in amps per meter, the tem-
perature gradient, and the Thomson coefficient in volts
per Kelvin, respectively.
The Thomson/Kelvin expressions below relate the
Peltier coefficient and Seebeck coefficient and then
Thomson coefficient and Seebeck coefficient.
βAB
SAB = , ð14Þ
T
ϖ AB dSAB
= , ð15Þ
T dT
where βAB is the Peltier coefficient.
3.2 | Features and modeling of TEG
The simplest TEG structure comprises a pair of N-type
and P-type semiconductor thermoelements thermally
connected in parallel and electrically in series as shown
in Figure 6. The P-type and N-type indicate an excess of
holes and electrons, respectively, in the legs of the ther-
moelements. A conductor to form an interconnection
6 SAHIN ET AL.

F I G U R E 5 Simplified illustration of
(A) thermoelectric generator and
(B) thermoelectric cooler9 temperatures of
the TEG [Colour figure can be viewed at
wileyonlinelibrary.com]

F I G U R E 6 Schematic of a thermoelectric
generator device with n number of
thermoelements22 [Colour figure can be viewed
at wileyonlinelibrary.com]

(mostly copper strip) connects the legs on either For constant material properties (ξ = ξp = ξN, and
ends. When a load with resistance Rl is connected at the k = kN = kP) and geometry (L = Lp = LN, and A = Ap = AN)
TEG terminal, an electric current flows through it. The and considering thermal contact resistance Ra, the total
flow of electric current is maintained by the temperature equivalent thermal resistance reduces to
gradient (ΔT) due to the hot side (Th) and cold side (Tc).
To increase the electrical power output of a TEG n × 2ξ × L
R= + Ra : ð18Þ
device, n number of thermoelement couples are connected A
electrically in series and placed between two ceramic
plates. The total equivalent internal series resistance of the The terminal voltage of the TEG is
thermoelements can be determined using Equation (16): VTEG = V2 − V1 = n × (I × R − SPN × ΔT), and the elec-
trical current (I) can be expressed as
 
ξp Lp ξN LN
R=n× + : ð16Þ
Ap AN n × SPN × ΔT
I= , ð19Þ
n × R + Rl
On the other hand, the total equivalent thermal con-
ductance of the thermoelement couples is expressed as where Rl is the load resistance connected to the terminal
of the TEG. Thus, the electrical power (P) produced by
 
k p Ap k N AN the TEG can be determined using the expression:
K =n× + : ð17Þ
Lp LN
 
P = n × SPN × I × ΔT − I 2 × R : ð20Þ
The parameters k, L, and A represent thermal conduc-
tivity of each leg of the thermoelement in (W/mK), leg
length of each thermoelement in (m), and the cross- The electrical power taken by the load resistance is
sectional area of each leg, respectively. given by
SAHIN ET AL. 7

P R = I 2 × Rl : ð21Þ thermoelement leg, thereby allowing large tempera-

Maximum electrical output could be determined by
setting the internal resistance of the TEG to be equal to
the load resistance (R = Rl).
ture gradient across the TEG as well as reducing heat
losses;
• A high Seebeck coefficient to enable higher conversion
efficiency.

nðSPN × ΔT Þ2 3.4 | Evaluation of TEG conversion

Pmax = , ð22Þ efficiency
4R

and the maximum current is given as The conversion efficiency of a TEG represents the
ratio of the electrical output produced by the TEG to
SPN × ΔT the rate of heat transfer into the hot side of the TEG.
I max = : ð23Þ
2R It can be said that the TEG directly converts the
input heat flow rate of Q_ h to an electrical output power
The input rate of heat flow at the heat source of the of P.
TEG depends on the thermoelectric leg geometry, ther-
moelectric material properties, Peltier heat, and joule P
ηTEG = : ð26Þ
heat, and it is given as _Qh

 
_Qh = n × SPN × I × T h − I × R + K × ΔT :
2
Equation (26) can be written as
ð24Þ
2
n × R; × ΔT × S2PN
ηTEG = 2 :
K × ðn × R × Rl Þ + n × ðT h × Rl + n × R × T Þ × S2PN
ð27Þ

3.3 | The figure of merit of

thermoelectric materials T is the absolute average temperature of the hot and
cold junctions.
The figure of merit (zT) indicates the effectiveness of a TEG operates like a heat engine; hence, its efficiency
thermoelectric material in terms of thermal energy conver- is less than that of the Carnot efficiency. The maximum
sion, and it serves as a means of comparing the efficiencies efficiency of a TEG in terms of the zT and temperature
and performance of different TEG systems operating at the gradient is written as
same temperature. It is a dimensionless quantity that
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi !
depends on transport features (eg, thermal conductance, 1 + ZT − 1 ΔT
electrical conductance, and the Seebeck coefficient) of the ηTEGmax = pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi T C , ð28Þ
1 + ZT + T H T h
thermoelectric material and can be expressed as

S2 × T where the electrical output power at maximum efficiency

zT = : ð25Þ
ξ×k is given as
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi

Thus, a higher zT implies an enhanced thermoelectric n × 1 + ZT SPN × ΔT
PðηTEGmax Þ = pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi : ð29Þ
material performance that results in an efficient TEG sys- R 1 + ZT
tem. The maximum zT achieved so far for practical appli-
cation that corresponds to an efficiency of 20% is 2.23 The
criteria of a good material for thermoelectric device The performance of a TEG module is highly
should include the following: influenced by operating temperatures, figure of merit zT,
and the geometrical properties of the TEG (such as shape,
• A high electrical conductivity (γ = 1ξ ), which helps length of TE, and area).24 The fraction of waste heat pass-
reduce joule heating due to internal electrical losses; ing through a TEG can be used to represent the ratio of
• A low thermal conductance (k), which helps to the thermal efficiency to the conversion efficiency of
maintain heat transfer rate at the junction of the the TEG.
8 SAHIN ET AL.
4 | HYBRID PV-TEG
Most PV cells have a higher efficient spectrum response
when the energy of the photons is in the range of the
band gap of the solar cells. Photons having lower energy
than the band gap are not absorbed. They pass through
the active area of the solar cell and dissipate as heat.
Those photons that have higher energy than the band
gap are partially utilized, and the energy of the non-
utilized ones dissipate in the form of heat. In fact, ther-
mal losses in solar cells are distributed over the whole
range of solar spectrum, including the visible part.25 As
shown in Figure 7,26 the appropriate regions of the solar
radiation spectrum can be separated by a spectrum split-
ting technique such as wavelength segregator to effi-
ciently utilize the whole solar spectrum.
The thermal losses due to heat dissipation cause a rise
in cell temperature of the PV panel and subsequently a
reduction in the conversion efficiency and lifespan of the
PV panels. The influence of temperature on the PV perfor-
mance comes mainly from its impact on electron-hole
recombination. As temperature increases, the radiative
and nonradiative type electron-hole recombination current
losses tend to increase, and consequently, voltage drops
occur due to nonradiative recombination. The effect of the
temperature on the carrier thermalization losses27,28 lead-
ing to the voltage drops to the conduction band edge and
the losses due to electrical shunts is rather small.
To utilize solar energy in the wavelength range of the
broad spectrum, various designs of hybrid PV-TEG sys-
tems are proposed. In a PV-TEG hybrid system, radiations
with energy in the band gap range are converted into elec-
tricity by the PV, and the radiations that are dissipated as
heat are converted to electrical energy by the TEG. Since
TEG can serve as a heat engine, it tends to enhance the
F I G U R E 7 Spectrum splitting for PV and thermal energy
conversion26 [Colour figure can be viewed at
wileyonlinelibrary.com]
overall output electrical power of a PV-TEG system when
both are integrated. Depending on the type of material,
connection, and geometry of the TEG, this energy boost in
the integrated system could reach up to 10% or more com-
pared with that of the single PV solar cell.29
In theory, hybridization of PV-TEG could be accom-
plished by two means. One of these is the spectral splitting
system for directing part of the wavelength radiation to
the PV and the other wavelength to the TEG. The other
method involves thermally or electrically coupling the
PV directly to the TEG whereby the TEG uses the
residual heat produced by the PV for additional power
production.
For the sake of this review work, attention is directed
to the performance estimation of thermally coupled PV-
TEG systems also referred to as integrated hybrid PV-TEG.
4.1 | Integrated PV-TEG system
An integrated PV-TEG system uses a parallel arrange-
ment of a PV converter and a TEG. The PV converters
are usually set up as the top component since it mainly
absorbs shorter wavelength while the TEG as the lower
component. The system works as a unit to deliver output
power30 and to improve the performance of solar PV sys-
tem by integrating a TEG with the PV system.
A schematic of an integrated PV-TEG system
(as illustrated in Figure 8) usually consists mainly of a PV
panel and a TEG. For some designs, a CPV is used along
with a collector to increase the heat flux from the sun.
Different research has been carried out on integrated sys-
tems.31-36 This research involves experimental and
numerical studies of the performance evaluation of a
TEG attached to the rear of a PV module.
F I G U R E 8 Schematic of an integrated PV-TEG system
[Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
SAHIN ET AL.
4.2 | Models of integrated PV-TEG
systems
The models of PV-TEG systems are usually developed
i
based on the motives of the study and the number of
components considered for the system. The key compo-
nents are PV and TEG; however, for a realistic study
approach, components like optical concentrator for
enhancing the intensity of light ray and other materials
like PV glass cover (PV protection), copper strip, and
ceramics are mostly used in the physical model.
4.2.1 | One-dimensional (1-D) and
steady-state thermal model
A 1-D steady-state coupled thermal model was developed
in Rezania and Rosendahl37 as shown in Figure 9 to
study the heat resistance effect of integrating a TEG into
a PV to compare the efficiency of the hybrid PV-TEG
with a standalone PV. The following simplifying assump-
tions could be used to study the influence of different
parameters on the effectiveness of the coupled PV-TEG
system.
• The edges of the system are thermally insulated;
hence, heat loss to the surrounding is negligible except
the surface of the PV and the cold junction of the TEG.
• The dimensions and properties of material of the N-
and P-type thermoelements are identical.
• The thermal contact resistance is negligible; therefore,
module layer contact is assumed to be ideal.
• The influence of temperature changes on the physical
transport features of the TEG material is taken constant.
FIGURE 9 Schematic of the PV-TEG layers37 [Colour figure
can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
9
The electrical power of the PV cell is obtained by fol-
lowing the energy conservation law for the top surface of
the cell as expressed below.
h
CGAPV = CGηPV + εσ T 4PV − T 4sky + hðT PV −T a Þ + qPV APV :
ð30Þ
The first term represents the incident concentrated
solar radiation, where C, G, and APV denote the concen-
tration factor, irradiance, and surface area of the cell,
respectively.
Part of the incident radiation is converted into elec-
trical energy given by the first term in the bracket
where ηPV is the efficiency of the cell. Most part of the
incoming radiation is converted into heat (qout), which
is conducted across the layers of the system. The second
and third terms are the radiative and convective losses,
respectively, where ε, σ, h, TPV, and Tsky are the emis-
sivity coefficient of the PV cell, Stefan Boltzmann con-
stant, temperature of the PV cell, heat transfer
coefficient, and the sky temperature, respectively. The
sky temperature is determined from the Swanbank
formula.38
T sky = 0:0553T 1:5
a , ð31Þ
where the surrounding temperature Ta and the sky tem-
perature are measured in Kelvin.
The conversion efficiency of the cell in terms of refer-
ence efficiency is given by
ηCPV = ηTref ½1 −ϕref ðT PV − T ref Þ, ð32Þ
where ηTref and ϕref are the conversion efficiency and
the temperature coefficient of the PV at standard test
condition (STC),39-44 respectively. To determine the
performance and losses of PV system in Equation (28),
the temperature distribution across the layer is
expressed as energy balance in the form of conductive
heat transfer. The heat transfer through each layer of
the system as shown in Figure 9 is equal to the heat
leaving the system in the heat sink:
K i Ai
Qi = ðT i,t − T i,b Þ, ð33Þ
Li
where Qi, Ki, Ai, Li, Ti, t, and Ti, b stand for the conductive
heat transfer, thermal conductivity, cross-sectional area,
thickness, and top and bottom temperature, respectively.
The subscript t and b stand for top and bottom while sub-
script (i) denotes layers.
10
Conservation equation
Integrating a TEG module with the PV module introduces
additional thermal resistance in the system, and thus, addi-
tional energy balance needs to be solved to determine the
performance and losses in the overall system. The TEG
module converts fraction of the heat leaving the PV system
into additional electric power. Equation (34) shows the
energy balance of the hot junction of the thermoelements.
SAHIN ET AL.
for heat transfer coefficient could account for different
cooling effects of various heat sink types (such as natural
convection using water cooling, forced convection air/-
water cooled, or heat pipes). Moreover, the heat transfer
coefficient could be determined for a water cooled forced
convection expressed in Equation (40) as given by
Palyvos,45 which accounts for the influence of wind:
 
  
294:26 ν
n
hhs,w = 5:678 a + b : ð40Þ
qic Aic = qTEG ATEG + PTEG , ð34Þ 273:16 + T a 0:30408

where qic and qTEG are the conductive heat flux leaving The constant a, b, and n are values for smooth surface
the interconnection strips and the TEG module, respec- as given in Palyvos.45
tively. Aic and ATEG are the area of the cross-sectional of For air-cooled natural convection heat sink, the heat
interconnect and the effective area of the thermoelectric transfer coefficient can be determined in terms of Prandtl
legs, respectively. number Pr as given in Equation (41).46
The cross-sectional area of the strips is expressed in
0:037L − 5 ρcp ν5
1 4
terms of the FF f of the TEG in the following equation:
hhs,a = , ð41Þ
8 − 5 Pr 3
1 2
pffiffiffi
W f pffiffiffi

Aic = b f +w , ð35Þ
2
where w is the width of the TEG and f is the ratio of the
effective cross-sectional area of the TEG legs to the total
area of TEG. The effective area of TEG legs is given as
ATEG = fAPV : ð36Þ
PTEG is the power produced by the TEG module, which
depends on the efficiency of the thermoelectric material
used and the temperature gradient across the hot and cold
junction of the TEG module. It is expressed as
where L, ρ, cp,8, and ν are the length of heat sink fin,
density of fluid, specific heat capacity, dynamic viscosity,
and velocity of air, respectively.
The coupled temperature distribution across each
layer of the PV-TEG system is calculated through energy
balance, and then the total efficiency of coupled PV-TEG
is obtained from Equation (42).
PPV + PTEG
ηPV −TEG = : ð42Þ
C × G × APV

PTEG = ηTEG,max ðCGAPV − ðQrad + PPV ÞÞ: ð37Þ Exergy analysis

ηTEG, max is the maximum efficiency of the TEG mod-
ule relating to the Seebeck and the Joule heating effects
for constant property model of the thermoelectric mate-
rial under consideration, and it is expressed as
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ΔT TEG 1 + ZT − 1
ηTEG,max = pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi T TEG:c :
T TEG,h 1 + ZT + T
TEG,h
The exergy balance of the system is based on the
second law of thermodynamics, and it relates the
input exergy with the output exergy and exergy
destroyed.
X in = X out + X loss : ð43Þ
ð38Þ
The input exergy is the exergy of the incoming solar
radiation expressed as Xin = XGAPVφs, where φs is the

exergy efficiency of the incoming irradiance, and it is cal-

Depending on the method of cooling (natural or culated using the Patella47 relation given in
forced) applied in the heat sink, the amount of heat leav- Equation (44).
ing the heat sink is given as
T amb
φs = 1 − , ð44Þ
Qi = hhs Acr ðT cr −T hs Þ: ð39Þ T sun

hhs, Tcr, and Ths are the heat transfer coefficient, the where Tamb and Tsun are the ambient temperature and
bottom temperature of the ceramic layer, and the heat the approximate solar surface temperature of the sun,
sink temperature, respectively. The values to be considered respectively.
SAHIN ET AL. 11

The output exergy Xout of the hybrid system is taken is rejected to the heat sink. The exergy loss associated
as the sum of the electrical power generated by the PV with the heat conversion is given as
and the TEG module as shown in Equation (45).



T amb T amb
E TEG = Qic 1− −PTEG − QTEG 1 − : ð50Þ
X out = PPV + PTEG : ð45Þ Th Tc

The total exergy loss Xloss resulting from the irrevers- The rejected heat is the exergy loss in the heat sink
ibilities in the conversion of the input (incident) solar that is not utilized by the system. It is given as
radiation to the output (electrical) power is equal to the


summation of (a) exergy losses due to radiation at sur- T amb
E hs = Qcr 1 − : ð51Þ
face of PV, (b) exergy losses due to conversion of high T cr
grade solar radiation energy by PV to low-grade thermal
energy, (c) exergy losses due to conductive heat transfer The second law efficiency indicates how well the
from behind the PV cell through the layers to the hot hybrid system converts the available energy (incident solar
junction of the TEG, (d) exergy losses due to conversion radiation) into work (electrical power). It is expressed as
of low grade thermal energy to electrical power by the
TEG module, and lastly, (e) the exergy losses due to heat ηPV− TEG
φ= : ð52Þ
dissipation from the cold side of the TEG module to the φs
heat sink.

X loss = E rad + E solar + E PV−TEG + E TEG + E hs : ð46Þ

4.2.2 | One-dimensional (1-D) transient
Since the surface temperature of the PV is higher than thermal model
the ambient there is usually radiative heat loss accompa-
nied by exergy which constitute the exergy loss due to The performance estimation of a PV-TEG system was
radiation given by studied in Mahmoudinezhad et al48 under variable inci-
dent solar radiation. A 1-D transient thermal model was


T amb

developed. In this model, the effect of temperature
E rad = εσAPV T PV − T sky 1 −
4 4
: ð47Þ
T PV change varies for each layer of the PV-TEG system.
Therefore, physical transport properties of the TEG such
The irreversibility that results due to converting the as electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity, the
incoming irradiance into thermal energy and electrical Seebeck coefficient, and the figure of merit are dependent
output is expressed as on temperature changes. The result will be that the
model of the TEG module will be a nonlinear system of


T amb differential equations that can be evaluated and
Esolar = X in −E rad −PPV −QPV 1 − : ð48Þ
T PV expressed in algebraic equations using finite volume
method.49 The 1-D transient model of the PV-TEG can be
The third term in the right-hand side is the exergy established by energy balance equation, and the follow-
loss due to conductive heat transfer leaving the back of ing simplifying assumptions were applied to investigate
the PV. The additional thermal resistance introduced by the system's performance:
integrating a TEG module to the PV causes reduction in
the quality of energy and consequently loss in exergy of • The PV-TEG system is properly insulated, hence no
the system. This loss is expressed in Equation (49): heat loss to the surrounding except from the top of the
PV and the cold side of the TEG.



T amb T amb • Convective and radiative losses are neglected from the
E PV− TEG = QPV 1− −Qic 1 − : ð49Þ
T PV Th thermoelement in the TEG.
• The TEG has identical N- and P-type semiconductors.
The fourth term in the right-hand side of Equa- • Thermal and electrical resistances are negligible.
tion (47) constitutes the exergy loss due to conductive
heat transfer leaving the interconnector strips to the hot The mathematical model is thus developed base on
side of the TEG. The fraction of heat recovered by the the layers of the physical model shown in Figure 10, and
TEG module is thus converted into power while the rest it is given as
12 SAHIN ET AL.

Bottom face of conductive layer:




∂T cr ∂T ∂T
ρcr ccr ϑcr = kcl Acl −k cr Acr : ð58Þ
∂t ∂x CSt4 ∂x CSb4

Assuming the TEG module has n pairs of P-N ther-

moelement legs divided into m control volume, the
boundary conditions for the layers of the TEG are given
as follows in terms of the thermoelectric effects (Peltier,
Thomson, and the Joule heat):
FIGURE 10 The physical model of hybrid PV-TEG50 [Colour
Contact face of copper and ceramic layer:
figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]




∂Tcs, h ∂T ∂T

 ρcs ccs ϑcs = ncr kcr Acr − ncs kcs Acs
∂ ∂T ∂T ∂t ∂x CS5t ∂x CS5b
k +q= : ð53Þ
∂x ∂x ∂t ncs I 2 rcs
− :
2
Using conservation of energy law, the value of tem- ð59Þ
perature for each layer of the system is determined
through a set of nonlinear equations in order to evaluate Contact face of copper and solder layer:
the power generated and the efficiency of the PV-TEG



system. The following are the list of boundary conditions ∂T spl,h ∂T ncs I 2 r cs
ρsl csl ϑsl = ncs k cs Acs −
of the various elements: ∂t ∂x CSt6 2
Top face of PV cell:
 ð60Þ
∂T nsl I 2 rsl
−nsl k sl Asl − :


 ∂x CSb 2
∂T ∂T PV 6
C × G × APV − Qrad + KA − PPV = ρPV cPV ϑPV :
∂x CSb1 ∂t
ð54Þ Contact face between solder layer and thermoelements:



∂T sc,h ∂T nspl I 2 r spl
ρsc csc ϑsc = nsl k sl Asl −
The radiation heat transfer is obtained using ∂t ∂x CSt7 2



∂T
Qrad = εσAPV T 4PV − T 4sky : ð55Þ − nsc ksc Asc
∂x CSb7 ð61Þ
nsc I 2 r sc
− + nsc Ssc,h T sc,h I
The power produced by the PV is given as 2
PPV = CGηPVAPV and the PV efficiency (ηCPV) is. nsc μl I ðT sc,h − T sc,2 Þ
− :
ηCPV = ηTref[1 − ϕref(TPV − Tref)]. 2
The heat transfer by conduction through the PV cell
and that of solder paste and conductive layer are as follows: Contact face between thermoelements and solder
Top face of solder paste: paste layer:






∂T sp ∂T ∂T ∂Tsc, c ∂T nsl I 2 rsl
ρsp csp ϑsp = k PV APV − ksp Asp : ρsc csc ϑsc = nsc ksc Asc −
∂t ∂x CSt2 ∂x CSb2 ∂t ∂x CSb 2

8
ð56Þ ∂T nsc I 2 rsc
−nsl ksl Asl +
∂x CSt 2
8

nsc μm I ðTsc, m − Tsc, c Þ

Bottom face of solder paste: −nsc Ssc, h Tsc, h I − :
2



 ð62Þ
∂T cl ∂T ∂T
ρcl ccl ϑcl = k sp Asp − kcl Acl : ð57Þ
∂t ∂x CSt3 ∂x CSb3
Contact face of solder paste layer and
SAHIN ET AL. 13


 and the instantaneous efficiency is given as

∂Tspl, c ∂T
ρsl csl ϑsl = nsl ksl Asl
∂t ∂x CS9t

 PTEG
nspl I 2 rspl ∂T
− − ncs kcs Acs ð63Þ ηTEG = : ð70Þ
2 ∂x CSb C × G × APV −Qrad − PPV
9

ncs I 2 rcs
− :
2
The total efficiency of the PV-TEG is then evalu-
ated from
Contact face between conductive layer and ceramic:
PPV + PTEG


 ηPV −TEG = : ð71Þ
∂Tcs, c ∂T C × G × APV
ρcs ccs ϑcs = ncs kcs Acs
∂t ∂x CS10t

 ð64Þ
∂T ncs I 2 rcs
− ncr kcr Acr − :
∂x CSb 2
10
4.2.3 | Fully hybridized model

Contact face of ceramic and heat sink: So far, the models developed are on account that the PV
and TEG generate the electrical power independently. A




∂T cr,c ∂T ∂T fully hybridized model implies connecting the PV and the
ρcr ccr ϑcr = ncr k cr Acr − k hx Ahx :
∂t ∂x CSt11 ∂x CSb TEG thermally and electrically, in which case the TEG is
11

ð65Þ placed either in parallel or in series to the PV.51,52 There-

fore, the TEG act as a resistance connected in series with a
voltage generator, and the PV is placed in parallel with a
Contact face of heat sink and cooling fluid: shunt and in series with a resistance while acting as a cur-
rent generator as shown in Figure 11. The overall effi-



∂T hs ∂T ciency for a fully hybridized model therefore is given as
ρhs chs ϑhs = k hs Ahs + hf Af ðT hs,2 −T f Þ: ð66Þ
∂t ∂x CSt12
PPV + PTEG − Pel −loss
ηPV−TEG = , ð72Þ
X × G × APV
Since the temperature is assumed to vary with the
incident solar radiation, then the power produced and where Pel − loss is the power loss resulting from electrical
the efficiency are time dependent. The power produced circuit integration of the PV and TEG module.
and efficiency of the TEG are evaluated by first calculat- An experimental study was conducted in Al-Nimr
ing the temperature of the layers of the TEG and taking et al53 to examine the electrical performance of PV-TEG.
the influence of the Thomson heat and the electromotive The result of the experimental data indicated an
force of the TEG into consideration. enhanced electrical characteristic. However, the contri-
" # bution of the TEG was very low due to its load resis-
X
m −1 tance and impedance mismatch. The thermoelement
E = nsc Ssc,h T sc,h −Ssc,c T sc,c − μi ðT i −T i + 1 Þ : ð67Þ was very thin, making it attain thermal equilibrium
l=1
quickly, which results in low temperature gradient.
Another study in Zhang and Xuan54 compared the two
The internal resistance of TEG consisting of layers of cop- types of electrical connections of PV-TEG shown above
per strip, solder layer paste, and semiconductor is given as in order to examine the energy loss due to PV current
and TEG current mismatch under varying PV tempera-
X
m
ture. Their objective was to develop a method for proper
Ri = nsc r cs + nsl r sl + nsc r sc,i : ð68Þ
electrical integration of PV and TEG by examining the
i=1
connection of TEG electrode to the PV electrode.
The authors recommended a series connection method
The power produced is thus determined by for the PV-TEG system operating under a varying
PV temperature with no phase change material as the

2
E cooling method. They concluded that the output
PTEG = RL , ð69Þ from the parallel connection was higher when the PV
Ri + RL
14 SAHIN ET AL.

ηCPV = ηTref ½1 −ϕref ðT PV − T ref Þ: ð76Þ

The convective heat transfer coefficient from the PV

surface can be expressed as

h = 5:82 + 4:07v: ð77Þ

Thermoelectric generator
F I G U R E 1 1 Equivalent circuit of a PV-TEG [Colour figure The governing equation to determine the temperature
can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com] distribution across the TEG is given in term of
the specific heat capacity C p, the heat Flux * q in
temperature fluctuation was low, as such a parallel PV- vector form, and the rate of heat generation per unit vol-
TEG connection using phase change material should be ume q:_
considered. Lekbir et al55 conducted temperature and
power generation measurement on PV-TEG in order to ∂T
ρcp − r * _
q = q: ð78Þ
confirm the energy conversion capability of the device ∂t
and to compare the experimental result with theoretical
data developed from the equivalent circuit of a PV-TEG The continuity equation for electric charge is
system using the model of power output. The experi- expressed as
mental result indicates that the output electrical power
!!
of the PV-TEG could reach 0.12 W, which is in good ! ∂D
agreement with the theoretical prediction. r J+ = 0, ð79Þ
∂t

!
4.2.4 | Three-dimensional model where the electric current density J and the electric Flux
!
density D are expressed in vector form, and the constitu-
A 3-D model of a hybrid PV-TEG system was developed tive equations for the TEG is given as follows:
in Shittu et al,56 where each of the subsystem was
! !
modeled separately before fully integrating the model. q = T ½S  J − ½k  rT, ð80Þ

PV converter ! !
The temperature distribution across the PV converter is J = ½γ   ðE − ½S  rTÞ: ð81Þ
modeled using the expression as given in Equation (73).
The electrical field intensity vector is given in terms
∂T of electrical scalar potential as
ρcp − r  ðkrT Þ = q_ sol − P_ gen : ð73Þ
∂t
!
E = − rφ: ð82Þ
The volumetric solar absorption q_ sol is expressed as a
function of solar radiation intensity, absorptivity, reflec-
tivity, and volume of each layer. The electrical power of the TEG can thus be deter-
mined as follows:
Grec,i × αi × Ai × C The open circuit voltage Voc = SΔT and the output
q_ sol,i = : ð74Þ
ϑi voltage can be determined from

Grec, i is the solar radiation intensity collected at each V L = V oc −Rin I, ð83Þ

layer and the i subscript refers to each layer of the PV-
TEG system. Solar radiation intensity is given by where the current I is given as

Grec,i = Grec,i − 1 × ½ð1 −αi−1 Þ − ρi−1 : ð75Þ V oc

I= , ð84Þ
Rin + RL
The power generated P_ gen by the PV is defined as
P_ gen = q_ sol,i × ηPV , and PV efficiency is given as and the electrical output is thus calculated from
SAHIN ET AL.
PTEG = I 2 RL , ð85Þ
and the TEG efficiency is given as
ηTEG = PTEG × Qh : ð86Þ
The total efficiency of the system is the contribution
of the PV and TEG given as
ηPV−TEG = ηTEG + ηpv : ð87Þ
4.3 | Parameters of integrated PV-TEG
systems
Hybridization of PV cell and TEG module introduces a
complex system that involves additional energy transfer
and conversion process. Furthermore, a conflict exists
between the effect temperature has on both PV cell and
TEG module. While the efficiency of the TEG module
improves with higher temperature gradient resulting
from higher concentration, the effect on the PV causes
a reduction in efficiency and subsequently on the PV
lifespan.57-59 This makes the study of critical design
parameters of hybrid PV-TEG system important. Lamba
et al60 developed a mathematical model of a PV-TEG
using the first law and second law of thermodynamics.
An iterative solution method was implemented using
MATLAB to solve for the temperature distribution
across the PV and the hot and cold junction of the TEG.
The influence of various parameters such as thermal
resistances of hot and cold sides, thermoelectric proper-
ties of the TEG materials, FF, geometry of TEG, electric
current and load resistance on the performance of the
F I G U R E 1 2 Variation of efficiency with
heat transfer coefficient37 [Colour figure can be
viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
15
system was studied. The authors optimize important
parameters (such as concentration ratio and the ther-
moelement leg length) and found out that the total effi-
ciency of PV-TEG improves.
4.3.1 | Efficiency temperature coefficient
of PV cell
Temperature coefficient also referred to as sensitivity of
the PV cell to temperature rise is a key parameter to con-
sider when integrating a TEG into a PV converter. To
establish the operation of the TEG in the integrated PV-
TEG system, the intensity of the incident solar radiation
on the PV at the top is increased using a concentrator
subsequently causing a rise in the temperature of the
PV. This increment in temperature impacts the electron–
hole recombination and consequently decreases the per-
formance of the PV solar cells. Selection of a PV solar cell
for integrating with TEG module is important since the
additional thermal resistance affects the performance
of the PV. As discussed in Rezania and Rosendahl,37
selecting a sensitive PV may reduce the performance of a
PV-TEG as shown in Figure 12. However, this negative
effect can be offset with an efficient heat sink.
Gu et al61 developed a thermal resistance model for a
standalone PV and PV-TEG system for various PV types
(c-Si, a-Si, CIGS, and CdTe) in order to study the relation-
ship between their efficiency and temperature coefficient.
Their result indicated a drop in conversion efficiency as
the concentration ratio increases in all cases of solar cells
type considered as indicated in the result in Figure 13;
however, for PV cells (such as a-Si and CdTe), which are
not very sensitive to temperature rise, the losses can be
compensated by energy generated from the TEG. The
case is different for PV cells (such as c-Si and CIGS) with
16
FIGURE 13 Efficiency for different PV type61 [Colour figure
can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
higher temperature coefficient because the output from
the TEG is too small to compensate for the losses.
4.3.2 | Thermoelectric figure of merit
Figure of merit (zT) is a key parameter of the TEG that
strongly influences the performance of the TEG, which
in turn affects the total performance of the PV-TEG.
From the expression zT = Sξ ××kT , the zT strongly relates the
2
performance of the thermoelectric material in terms of
electrical power production since the zT depends on the
operating temperature of the thermoelectric material as
well as properties such as thermal conductivity, electrical
resistivity, and the Seebeck coefficient. Selecting an
appropriate thermoelectric material is crucial for design-
ing an efficient PV-TEG system. The values of zT for dif-
ferent semiconductors varies at various temperatures.
Therefore, selecting a material for a TEG depends on the
operating temperature of the PV-TEG system. For exam-
ple, bismuth telluride (Bi2Te3), which is the mostly used
material, operates below 500 K while materials such as
lead telluride (Pb–Te) and silicon germanium (Si–Ge)
operate between 500 to 900 K and above 900 K, respec-
tively. Increasing the efficiency of the hybrid PV-TEG
demands that a material with higher zT is used for the
TEG and most importantly good thermal management. It
was highlighted in Zhu et al50 that hybrid efficiency will
remain low if there is a thermal loss even if the TEG
material has high zT. An improvement in thermoelectric
material zT by a minimum factor of 2 is needed to
broaden the usage of thermoelectric device technology on
SAHIN ET AL.
a market scale.62,63 This report was also confirmed by
Zhang et al64 in their work. Moreover, research effort to
improve TE material zT is still ongoing. An improvement
of 50% in the efficiency of PV-TE system with a higher
TE material zT of 2.4 was reported in Beeri et al.65 On the
contrary, Wu et al66 found out that a higher zT material
may still result in a decrease of the overall efficiency of
the hybrid system on account of some specific parameter
values. This is to say that an optimal value of material zT
should be considered for improvement of overall system
performance.
4.3.3 | Leg geometry of TEG in PV-TEG
The task of improving the performance of a TEG is often
related to the optimizing its leg geometry. By leg geome-
try, it implies the thermoelement area ratio AAnp of the
n- and p-type legs or the area ratio of the hot and cold
junction AAhc :67,68 Geometric optimization of TEG
involves finding the number of thermocouple and height
of leg that result in maximum electrical output. Various
research works have been conducted to improve the per-
formance of TEG by changing the TE leg geometry. For
example, Hodes69 developed a method of calculating the
number and height of thermoelement that result in maxi-
mum electrical output with minimum contact resistance.
Sahin and Yilbas70 discovered that the efficiency of TEG
improves notably when they theoretically analyzed the
TEG with different legs using shape parameter. The
interdependence of slenderness ratio of TEG leg and
external load parameter in achieving maximum efficiency
was examined by Yilbas and Sahin.23 The work was pres-
ented using a single n and p cell type, and a high effi-
ciency was recorded for a slenderness ratio less than 1 for
various load parameter considered. Several other
research have been conducted in this vain in order to
optimize the leg geometry of the TEG only for maximum
electrical output71-73; however, research on geometric
optimization of TEG in PV-TEG is limited due to the
complex system present in integration of a thermoelectric
device with a PV generator. This implies that the
performance enhancement achieved from geometry opti-
mization of TEG only may not be enough to contribute to
the total efficiency of the system involving PV-TEG.
Therefore, Hashim et al74 presented a model for optimal
geometry of a TEG in a PV-TEG system. The authors
demonstrated a trade-off between achieving minimizing
the TEG size and obtaining higher electrical output. They
found out that the electrical output is higher for the TEG
module with cross-sectional area lesser than the PV
SAHIN ET AL.
panel. In addition, the structural parameters of the TEG
such as cross-sectional area and leg length can influence
the output of the system. Higher power output can be
achieved using a TEG module with a shorter length
under adequate solar concentration. There is an optimal
leg length that yields a maximum power output because
the resistance to heat transfer is related to the leg length.
Li et al75 conducted an analysis on the primary constraint
conditions for an enhanced PV-TEG. They concluded
that a higher total efficiency could be achieved by
employing a large cross-sectional area and lower TEG
height under constant concentration ratio and cold side
temperature. Recently, Shittu et al68 carried out a detailed
comparison and geometric optimization of thermoele-
ment in PV-TEG system while considering the tempera-
ture coefficient for two different solar cells. Their results
indicated a better performance for a symmetrical leg
geometry for a PV with efficiency temperature coefficient
of 4 × 10−3K−1. Furthermore, they concluded that a maxi-
mum overall efficiency could be achieved if a thermoele-
ment with small leg and larger area is used.
4.3.4 | Concentration ratio
The concentration ratio is a function of the configuration
of the solar concentrator used for the hybrid system. The
kind of configuration determines the intensity of energy
reaching the PV converter and consequently on the per-
formance and the cost of the system.76 Beeri et al65 illus-
trated experimentally and numerically using an
integrated hybrid system with a multijunction solar cell
and a TEG that maximum efficiency of 32% could be
reached with a concentrated factor X ≤ 200. At this
concentrating factor, the major contributor to the overall
efficiency comes from the PV. The TEG efficiency contri-
bution reached 40% at X ≈ 200. Rezania and Rosendahl37
investigated the feasibility of using an integrated PV-TEG
over a broad range of solar concentration. The result
shows an increase in the efficiency of the system at
higher solar concentration. However, there is a trade-off
between efficiency contribution of the PV and the TEG.
At higher solar concentration, the efficiency of the PV
decreases and the TEG efficiency increases thereby com-
pensating the system's overall efficiency.
The effect of solar concentration factor on the PV-TEG
efficiency depends on the type of solar cells employed and
subsequently on the temperature coefficient. Zhang et al77
conducted a performance estimation study on a hybrid PV-
TEG system using different types of solar cells: such as crys-
talline silicon c-Si, thin film polymer TFPV, and CIGS cell.
The result obtained indicated an increase in the system's
efficiency for higher concentration ratio when c-Si and
17
CIGS PV cells were used. For the polymer PV, there was a
reduction in the system's overall performance when the
solar concentration was increased. The influence of concen-
tration factor and irradiance on performance of PV-TEG
system was analyzed in Shittu et al,68 and the result of the
study indicated a high hybrid efficiency for a low concentra-
tion ratio for a PV cell with 0.004/K temperature sensitivity.
Higher concentration ratio allows greater contribution by
the TEG in terms of power generated due to increased heat
influx reaching the hot junction of the TEG. However, this
increased concentration ratio has an effect on the perfor-
mance of the PV cell; hence, the use of PV cell with much
lower temperature coefficient is encouraged as well as an
efficient thermal dissipation system.60 An increase in con-
centration factor enhances the performance of the TEG in
the PV-TEG system but not enough to negate the effect on
the total system efficiency as shown in Figure 14.
4.3.5 | Convective heat transfer
coefficient of the cooling system
The performance of the PV-TEG system is greatly
influenced by the value of heat transfer coefficient. This
is because the temperature distribution through the
layers of the coupled PV-TEG depends on heat transfer
coefficient especially at higher concentration ratios. This
effect is critical at a very low heat transfer coefficient
since the PV will operate at a lower efficiency because of
higher cell temperature and the difference in temperature
of the TEG will be smaller resulting in smaller power out-
put. Therefore, operating the PV-TEG system at a higher
F I G U R E 1 4 Variation of efficiency of PV, PV-TEG, and TEG
with concentration ratio for G = 1000 W/m260 [Colour figure can
be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
18
heat transfer coefficient will enhance the temperature
distribution across the PV system and thereby enabling a
higher temperature difference between the junctions of
the TEG. Falah et al78 developed a 3D model of PV-TEG
in order to examine the effect of heat transfer coefficient
and concentration ratio on the efficiency of the PV-TEG.
They concluded that the contribution of TEG in the over-
all performance of the PV-TEG increases only marginally
at a convective coefficient of h = 35W/m2k, and this
increase gradually reduces at higher convective coeffi-
cient. This gradual reduction is due to the additional
thermal resistance caused by attaching TEG to the PV
module. They also conclude that using an efficient
cooling system with the hybrid PV-TEG system is better
compared with PV + TEG system only at the same oper-
ating condition. Furthermore, the performance of the
PV-TEG can also be influenced by the area of the heat
sink and subsequently by the convective heat transfer
coefficient. Like the TEG, using a cooling system (such as
heat sink) can constitute an additional thermal resistance
on the system. As indicated in Figure 15, the effect of
increasing the heat exchanger area is closely related to
increasing the heat transfer coefficient. The results of Gu
et al61 show an increase in PV-TEG efficiency when there
is an increase in the area of the heat sink and subse-
quently the convective heat transfer coefficient.
The impact of convective heat transfer coefficient
along with parameters such as thermal contact resistance
and solar concentration were studied in Mahmoudinezhad
et al79 as crucial parameters for practical application of
hybrid PV-TEG. Using a 1-D steady-state conservation law
energy balance for layers of the system, the performance
in terms of efficiency and power output were determined
for various values of convective heat transfer and solar
F I G U R E 1 5 Efficiency of PV-TEG against heat transfer
coefficient61 [Colour figure can be viewed at
wileyonlinelibrary.com]
SAHIN ET AL.
concentration ratio of 500 to 5000 W/m2K and 100 to
900 suns, respectively. The results indicated an improved
performance for an increasing heat transfer coefficient.
4.4 | Economic aspects of integrated PV-
TEG systems
Incorporating TEG devices together with the PV solar
cells in an integrated PV-TEG system improves the over-
all efficiency of the system. However, additional cost
associated with the integration of the PV solar cells and
TEG modules must be considered to prove the economic
feasibility. This is especially more critical when using
spectrum slitting techniques that result in associated cost
of wavelength separator reflectors and radiation losses.
Figure 16 shows the cost analysis for an integrated
PV-TEG system. The price of the PV solar cells in this
system was nearly 4 US$/W for the peak power genera-
tion case.29 If a suitable heat collector is used, the
absorbed solar thermal energy and the unused portion of
the solar radiation that is dissipated as heat can be col-
lected and directed to the TEG device in the integrated
PV-TEG system. Figure 16 shows that the unit cost of
electricity could be reduced by increasing the surface
area or the size of the integrated PV-TEG system.
The efficiency of the TEG has a more dominant effect on
the unit cost of electricity of the integrated system. As
can be seen from this figure, TEG efficiency of 3% or
more is needed for the range of area sizes to improve the
performance by incorporating TEG modules in the inte-
grated system. With a TEG efficiency of 5%, the unit cost
of electricity goes below the PV alone system for the total
area greater than 0.35 m2.
F I G U R E 1 6 Calculated power generation cost of TEG with
different efficiencies and absorber areas29
SAHIN ET AL.
F I G U R E 1 7 Pay-back-period of an integrated PV-TEG
system80 [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
The payback period that is defined as the duration in
which the net present value (NPV) to reach zero is one of
the important performance indices when considering the
feasibility of a system. Figure 17 shows the pay-back
period of a PV-TEG system in which only the extra
investment in incorporating the TEG in the integrated
system is considered.80 The integrated system is found to
be profitable after a period of 5.5 years when the net pre-
sent value turns to be positive.
5 | C O M P A R A T I V E AS S E S S M E N T
OF INTEGRATED PV-TEG D EVI C E S
Optimization of PV-TEG device is very crucial due to the
complexity and trade-off between the effect PV has on
TEG and vice versa. Theoretical and experimental investi-
gations have been conducted on PV-TEG optimization and
still ongoing. Willars-Rodríguez et al81 proposed an opti-
mal design approach for PV-TEG system that could serve
as a principle for selection of PV-TEG coupling device.
They calculated the minimum zT for higher efficiency of
PV-TEG, which serve as the reference value for evaluating
the feasibility of PV-TEG devices. To properly understand
the performance of the novel optimal design, they exam-
ined the influence of parameters such as the zT of the
thermoelectric material, the temperature coefficient of the
PV, and the heat transfer coefficient. They concluded that
their novel system could be used as a basis for design of
practical coupling system. Therefore, efforts will be made
to review recent studies relating to performance enhance-
ment of PV-TEG devices through various methods of
optimization.
19
5.1 | Using different cooling method
The primary motive of integrating TEG into PV device is
to use the low-grade heat from the PV by converting it
into additional power while serving as a means of cooling
the PV. However, the use of TEG for PV-TEG integration
is limited by low efficiency and high material cost. Subse-
quently, if proper design considerations are not met, the
TEG can constitute additional thermal resistance for the
PV resulting in low conversion efficiency.37,78 Therefore,
most research in TEG has been directed at reducing
material cost and improving the conversion efficiency.
Theoretically, TEG performance enhancement is achiev-
able through higher solar concentration and the use of
efficient cooling system. Thermal dissipating system
(cooling system) is an essential requirement for PV-TEG
system because it is needed to establish the thermoelec-
tric effect in the TEG as well as preventing efficiency loss
and long-term deterioration of the PV module due to
high operating cell temperatures.29 Therefore, the total
efficiency of a coupled PV-TEG is improved when a
cooling system is used. The cooling system is usually used
in two forms: passive and active. In both cases, the per-
formance of the thermal dissipating systems is mostly
characterized by the heat transfer coefficient that is the
ratio of heat flux through the thermal dissipater and tem-
perature difference. Different researchers reported active
cooling techniques that use air or water, apparently
because of their high heat transfer coefficient. However,
a circulation device is needed for an active cooling sys-
tem, which requires an external power source.82-89 This
additional power and cost must be considered for perfor-
mance and economic analysis of the system. Kil et al90
discovered in their work that active cooling below the
surrounding temperature uses more energy and thus is
not desirable for PV-TEG system. Zhang et al91 suggested
a thermal management system that uses an adjustable
cooling block that mitigates fluctuation in temperature
difference in the TEG caused by the intermittent solar
radiation. The PV-TEG was tested with a new cooling
system, and the results showed that improved power out-
put could be achieved.
Passive cooling techniques are beginning to gain
attention due to their contribution in improving the per-
formance of PV-TEG system. An example of PV-TEG
study where passive cooling methods (such as heat pipe
and PCM) are used can be seen in a few literatures dis-
cussed as follows. Shittu et al56 compared the perfor-
mance of a PV-TEG system with flat plate heat pipe and
without heat pipe. They developed a 3-D model of the
system using finite element method and employed COM-
SOL software in solving the governing equations. They
20
F I G U R E 1 8 Variation of efficiency with (A) irradiation and
(B) ambient temperature80 [Colour figure can be viewed at
wileyonlinelibrary.com]
studied the influence of various parameters (such as con-
centration factor, ambient temperature, and wind speed)
on the performance of the system. Their results indicated
an improved efficiency of about 61% for PV-TEG with
heat pipe at an operating condition of 313.15 K ambient
temperature and solar concentration factor of 6. The
effect of wind speed was insignificant in the study. Due
to the improved coupled PV-TEG performance, the
author recommended the use of coupled PV-TEG-heat
pipe for system with high concentrated factor. Further-
more, the performance of a coupled PV-TEG-heat pipe
system was examined in Makki et al.92 They developed a
mathematical model using the basic mechanism of heat
transfer (namely, conduction, convection, and radiation).
They studied and presented the influence of operating
parameters such as irradiance, wind speed, and ambient
temperature on the efficiency of the system and com-
pared the results with those of a stand-alone PV. The
results of the study for the parameters considered when
compared with conventional PV panel operating under
the same condition indicated an increase in efficiency.
Although slightly affected by increase in wind speed, the
hybrid PV-TEG performs even better at higher irradiance
and ambient temperature as shown in Figure 18A,B.
Therefore, the authors suggested using hybrid PV-TEG
SAHIN ET AL.
FIGURE 19 Schematic of the novel PV-TEG design80 [Colour
figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
with heat pipe in regions such as Middle East and Africa
where there is high ambient temperature and low wind
speed. Lastly, Li et al80 presented a mathematical model
for a conceptual design of coupled system consisting of a
PV, micro-channel heat pipe (MCHP), TEG, and a heat
exchanger as illustrated in Figure 19.
The dissipated heat from the PV and thermal energy
from the incoming solar radiation is carried by working
fluid in the evaporator in MCHP to the condenser thus
the heat release during condensations used by the TEG
for additional power production. The performance of the
PV-TEG design was compared with a standalone PV sys-
tem under various operating conditions. The result of the
study indicated that the conceptual design studied was
more efficient and advantageous than the conventional
PV-TEG system.
The use of PCM as a means of thermal storage (in form
of latent heat) has been found to improve the efficiency of
the PV system.93,94 Darkwa et al95 developed a mathemati-
cal model to study the theory of integrating thermoelectric
PCM device into PV module for performance enhancement.
A numerical analysis of the PV-TEG-PCM was conducted
using ANSYS FLUENT and a transient solver was used for
various irradiance conditions. The influence of various
parameters of the PCM such as thickness, conductivity, and
temperature of phase change were examined. The perfor-
mance of the PV-TEG-PCM in terms of power output sur-
pass that of the PV and PV-TEG system by 9.5% at a phase
change temperature of 40% to 45%, PCM layer thickness of
50 mm, and thermal conductivity of 5 W/mK. In Cui
et al,84 a phase change material was introduced between a
PV converter and a TEG as illustrated in Figure 20 in order
to control the fluctuation in temperature of the system due
to intermittent solar radiation.
The authors presented a mathematical model to eval-
uate the efficiency of the system, and the feasibility of
using different solar cells (such as c-Si, CIGS, single-
junction GaAs, and GaInP/In GaAs/Ge) was also studied.
SAHIN ET AL.
FIGURE 20 Schematic of PV-PCM-TEG system84 [Colour
figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
The operating temperature of the PV-PCM-TEG was opti-
mized based on the melting point of the PCM. The result
indicated the value of operating temperature for the PV-
PCM-TEG to be around 330 K when there is incident
solar radiation. The daily overall efficiency of the PV-
PCM-TEG was improved by approximately 1% as com-
pared with single PV and PV-TEG when GaAs solar cell
was used.
5.2 | Using the geometric parameters of
the TEG module
The optimization of the geometric parameters in a TEG
only module can significantly improve the output
power.96,97 However, the overall performance of a PV-
TEG system does not depend on the geometric parame-
ters of the TEG alone but on the effect of interaction
between the PV and TEG.
The geometric parameters of a TEG include the foot-
print area and the leg size of the thermoelement. The
cross-section and size of thermoelement in a PV-TEG are
important parameters that influence its performance.
This is because the operating temperature of the PV cell
and the temperature difference across the TEG are deter-
mined by the geometric modification of the thermoele-
ment in the coupling PV-TEG device. The optimum leg
length of thermoelement in a coupled PV-TEG for maxi-
mum total power output was studied in Hashim et al.74
To understand the influence of TEG geometry modifica-
tion on the power output and overall efficiency of
the PV-TEG, they developed a model for optimizing the
geometry of the TEG in a coupled PV-TEG system.
The model presented a realistic determination of power
21
FIGURE 21 Schematic of PV-TEG uni-couple98 [Colour
figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
output and overall efficiency by considering the determi-
nation of the temperature difference across TEG under
closed circuit condition. The model simulation was con-
ducted using different TEG modules under different
atmosphere (ambient and vacuum). The result of the
study indicates that using a TEG module with smaller
cross section area than the PV can produce higher power
output and a further increase in output power could be
achieved if the system is operated in a vacuum.
Studies on a TEG system only performance optimiza-
tion revealed that maximum electrical output is possible
by employing a thermoelement with dissymmetrical n-
and p-type footprint area.73,97 To investigate if this condi-
tion is applicable to a PV-TEG system, Li et al98 conducted
a research work on optimization of thermoelement using
a N- and P-type footprint area ratio of a unicoupled PV-
TEG for maximum electrical output as shown in
Figure 21.
The authors developed a 3-D model that was solved
using finite element method while considering
temperature-dependent properties for the TEG module.
Different ratios of the cross-section of N- and P-type leg
length was considered to examine their influence on the
efficiency of the PV-TEG. Unlike the TEG only, their
result indicated that the maximum electrical power out-
put of the PV-TEG is achieved at a symmetric area ratio
of the N- and P-type footprint. Although the efficiency
obtained from the study is limited to the type of PV
(approximately 10%-13%) irrespective of the TEG leg
length or area ratio of N- and P-type TEG. However,
there was a significant influence on the PV-TEG effi-
ciency at a symmetric area ratio for different TEG leg
length and TEG module area as seen in Figure 22.
Shittu et al68 extended the study further by con-
ducting detailed geometric optimization and comparison
of a TEG for different PV cell and using the area ratio of
the hot and cold junction of the thermoelement as shown
in Figure 23.
22
F I G U R E 2 2 Variation of PV-TEG efficiency for (A) various
leg lengths at constant area, (B) various area at constant leg
length98 [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
Their results indicated that the temperature coeffi-
cient of the PV cell used has a major effect on the PV-
TEG system's performance in terms of output power
and total efficiency no matter the modification of the
TEG. Better still, it was found that the PV-TEG perfor-
mance improved when a TEG symmetrical geometry is
used with PV cell having a sensitivity of 4 × 10−3K−1.
They were able to obtain an optimum geometry of TEG
when a PV cell with a sensitivity of 10−3K−1 and a
dissymmetrical TEG geometry is used. In a similar
study by the same authors,99 the optimum geometry of
thermoelements in PV-TEG for maximum performance
is investigated, and the result was compared with a
solar-powered TEG. The simulation was conducted
using PV with different cell characteristics, and the
result indicated that a symmetrical thermoelement leg
enables better performance of PV-TEG device for a par-
ticular PV type 1 (0.001/K); however, the use of a
dissymmetrical thermoelement leg (trapezoidal) in the
PV-TEG with PV cell 2 shows higher performance.
The result also indicates similar pattern for the perfor-
mance of STEG. The authors therefore concluded that
the basis of STEG optimization could not be used as a
SAHIN ET AL.
F I G U R E 2 3 Simplified figure of a PV-TEG with different leg
modification68 [Colour figure can be viewed at
wileyonlinelibrary.com]
reference for coupling PV-TEG devices due to the char-
acteristics of PV.
In order to provide better information regarding PV-
TEG performance validation and correlation of experi-
mental and theoretical data, Kossyvakis et al100 con-
ducted experimental and theoretical investigations of a
PV-TEG system with the use of organic solar cell while
considering different TEG geometry to study the effect on
the performance of the system. The authors concluded
after correlating experimental and theoretical data that
the use of shorter thermoelement leg length will signifi-
cantly reduce the amount of heat dissipated by the PV
cell thereby enhancing the total efficiency of the PV-TEG
system when operated outdoor.
5.3 | Use of different solar cells
Different solar cells have been used for different studies
on PV-TEG system with each usage being peculiar to
the intended design. The performance of PV-TEG using
crystalline silicon cell was recently investigated.101 The
effect of environmental factors such as wind speed,
ambient temperature and radiation on the power pro-
duced, and overall efficiency was considered in the
mathematical model developed. The result of the study
indicated a lower efficiency of PV-TEG when compared
with a standalone PV. The contribution of the TEG is
low to compensate the losses in the PV due to high sen-
sitivity to temperature. To have a better understanding
of the effect of various solar cells, Zhang et al77 studied
a PV-TEG with different solar cells such as crystalline
silicon, silicon thin film, polymer, and copper indium
SAHIN ET AL.
gallium selenide PV cells. The authors demonstrated
that thin film PV cells are suitable to be used with CPV-
TEG system under an optimum concentration ratio and
heat transfer coefficient of 12 and 1000 W/Km2, respec-
tively. They recommend the use of polymer PV cells for
a PV-TEG without optical concentrator under an opti-
mum heat transfer coefficient of 400 W/Km2. Zhang
et al76 reported a higher efficiency with a perovskite
solar cell compared with a silicon cell or a DSSC. Their
findings indicate efficiency of 17.8% and 18.6% for a sin-
gle perovskite PV cell and hybrid perovskite PV-TEG
system, respectively. An experimental investigation of a
tandem PV-TEG was conducted in Kossyvakis et al100
using a poly-Si solar cell and a DSSC. The authors per-
formed a theoretical analysis of the hybrid performance
against the sole PV performance at standard test condi-
tion STC. The analysis indicated a performance
enhancement due to hybridization at elevated PV cell
temperature. The enhancement reaches 22.5% and
30.2% for the poly-Si and DSSC based setup, respec-
tively. The performance of PV-TEG using four different
solar cells (c-Si, a-Si. CdTe, and CIGS) was theoretically
examined in Bjørk and Nielsen102 and bismuth tellu-
ride. When compared with a stand-alone PV operating
at the same condition, the result indicates a lower effi-
ciency for the cells except for a-Si cell. The performance
of the PV degrades at a faster rate than the power out-
put from the TEG. In addition, the authors conclude
that operating a PV-TEG with a sensitive PV is not a
viable option.
A recent development is the use of
thermophotovoltaic (TPV) cells with TEGs for electricity
generation. Unlike the traditional PV cells, TPV cells con-
vert infrared radiation from the thermal emitter into elec-
tricity. Therefore, their operations are not limited to
daylight hours. Also, TPV employs the use of materials
such as GaSb and InGaAsSb with lower band gap.103
However, the thermal input to TPV is very high
(1400-1600
C), which limit the number of materials
selected for their uses. Research on TPV-TEG proves to
be an interesting new area that draws attention as a sub-
stitute to coupling PV-TEG systems. Chubb et al104 theo-
retically modeled the performance of a hybrid TPV-TEG
system. Their results show a higher electrical output and
efficiency for the TPV-TEG systems as compared with a
single TPV or TEG at a close temperature range of
1200 K for both modules. In addition, studies on TPV
have been carried out on different applications such as
combustion driven sources, electric cars, and residential
heating systems.103,105-108 For instance, Gillott et al107
developed and tested a cascading TPV-TEG power gener-
ating system. The setup was made up of GaSb TPV cells,
and an integrated semiconductor generator was tested at
23
different operating conditions. The authors demonstrated
that the system could produce a total output of 429.7 W,
which indicates the system's potential for the certain
applications and feasibility of power generation by
cascading.
A new class of PV that has recently received atten-
tion is the CPV cell. This is because unlike the tradi-
tional PV systems, CPV systems uses advanced optical
concentrator to direct large amount of solar radiation on
a small area of highly efficient multijunction solar PV. A
major advantage of CPV cell is their potential for cost
reduction owing to higher efficiency and smaller array
that reduces cost of balance of system. The use of multi-
junction semiconductors takes care of the drawback of
an efficient use of broader solar spectrum by a single
semiconductor material. The operation of traditional PV
in PV-TEG at high concentration is not appropriate as
indicated in a study.109 As deduced by the authors, this
is because at higher solar concentration the perfor-
mance of the PV significantly drops. Furthermore, they
concluded that with the available material for thermo-
electric device, the contribution of the TEG in the PV-
TEG in terms of power generation is still very small.
However, the result of a study of hybrid CPV-TEG37
indicated that the operation of CPV-TEG at higher solar
concentration with the use of optimum geometry of the
TEG could be economically and practically feasible.
Research and development of hybrid PV-TEG using
CPV have shown promising result in terms of perfor-
mance.37,110-117 Mahmoudinezhad et al117 carried out an
experimental and numerical investigation of a CPV-
TEG under low solar concentrations, and they found
out that the total efficiency of the system is 35.33% and
23.02% for concentration of 8 suns and 37 suns, respec-
tively. Kil et al90 fabricated a CPV-TEG using a single
junction GaAs based CPV solar cell, and they showed
that the efficiency of the coupling PV-TEG device could
be improved by approximately 3% more than the
standalone CPV cell at concentration of 50 suns. They
also concluded that the key to manifesting a highly effi-
cient hybrid CPV-TEG lies in proper control of heat flow
through the system and effective exploitation of the
Peltier effect of the TEG.
5.4 | Use of nanotechnology
One way of increasing absorbed solar irradiance on a
PV-TEG is with the use of the nanostructured surface
on the PV cell. Da et al118 employed improved transmis-
sion film and bio-mimicry moth-eye nanostructured sur-
face to enhance the transmission of photons with energy
below the band gap of the solar cell and reduce full solar
24
spectrum photon reflection, respectively. Zhou et al119
presented a model for evaluating the effect of broad
spectrum characteristics of nanostructured on hybrid
PV-TE system. They were able to increase the overall
conversion efficiency of the system using a cone
nanostructure.
An analytical model was developed in Machrafi120 to
examine the performance of a coupled PV-TEG system
that uses a nanocomposite thermoelectric material for
the TEG. The model was used to calculate the optimum
thickness of the PV module while considering the effect
of size-dependent thermoelectric properties and cooling
system on the total efficiency. Furthermore, the model
of the TEG model was applied to a nanocomposite ther-
moelement leg made of n-leg Sb2Te3 nanoparticles in
Bi2Te3 matrix and p-leg Bi2Se3 nanoparticles in a Bi2Te3.
An extended irreversible thermodynamic analysis was
used to study the problem of heat transfer in the
nanocomposite thermoelectric material. The results
indicated an optimum thickness of PV of 1.25 and
127 μm for polycrystalline and monocrystalline silicone
cell and the contribution of the TEG in terms of effi-
ciency considerably increases for higher volume fraction
corresponding to nanoparticle size of the order 4 nm.
They concluded that the total theoretical efficiency
reaches 25% for a cooling velocity of 10 m/s and recom-
mend that if a lower nanoparticle size and PV surface
recombination velocity could be considered the total
efficiency of about 30% is possible.
The use of nanofluid at the cold junction of the TEG in
the PV-TEG system plays a major role in the performance
of the system based on total efficiency and electrical power
output. Nanofluid constitute a liquid substance as the base
fluid and nanosized particles. The observed enhancement
the thermal conductivity of nanofluid has made possible
for it to be used as cooling methods for PV-TEG system to
provide a corresponding increase in heat transfer coeffi-
cient.121 To show that nanofluid is effective as a method of
cooling coupled PV-TEG system, Soltani et al87 conducted
an experimental study of an integrated PV-TEG system
using nanofluid cooling method and compared the perfor-
mance with conventional two cooling methods, namely,
natural cooling and forced air-cooling with different cool-
ant such as water, water-based SiO2 nanofluid, and water-
based Fe3O4 nanofluid. Commercial crystalline silicon cell
and bismuth telluride was used for the PV and TEG
respectively. The test results indicated that the PV-TEG
using water-based SiO2 nanofluid yielded the highest
improvement of about 54.29% and 3.35% in terms of power
generated and overall efficiency. The influence of
nanofluid flow rate on the performance of a glazed and
unglazed PV-TEG system was studied in another work,66
SAHIN ET AL.
and they found out that nanofluid yielded an improved
performance when compared with water.
6 | CHALLENGES AND
OPPORTUNITIES
Proper heat transfer mechanisms are essential for opti-
mal operation of the PV-TEG systems. The heat transfer
in PV-TEG mainly occurs through the TEG generators
and the front surface of the PV panels. Thermal matching
of both TEG and the PV panels becomes an important
consideration when designing the hybrid system. The
thermal resistances need to be properly adjusted to main-
tain high enough temperature for the TEG devise to effi-
ciently operate. At the same time, the interface
temperature between the TEG generator and the PV
panel should not be very high to prevent significant loss
in the PV efficiency. Introducing high thermal resistance
in the backside of the PV panels leads to enhanced heat
dissipation from the front side of the panels, and this is
also undesirable.
The optical properties of the PV material affect the
thermal and electrical characteristics of the system. In
this regard, dye-sensitized solar cells and systems utiliz-
ing solar spectrum splitting have been subject of recent
investigations.64,122,123 To improve heat dissipation and
thermal matching, a heat exchanger may be placed at the
cold junction of the TEG device.124 This arrangement has
shown to improve the electrical efficiency; however, in
this case, a pumping power is required to circulate the
heat transfer fluid through the heat exchanger.
Using additional absorbing layer between the PV cells
and the TEG device increases the heat absorption, and
thus, the TEG efficiency improves. However, the addi-
tional heat absorption increases the PV cell temperature.
On the other hand, using a solar selective absorber and
proper thermal matching conditions performance of a
hybrid PV-TEG can be improved considerably.125 In cases
where the temperature distribution in the PV cell shows
variations, the application of TEG devise can be made
only in the area of heat concentration.
Incorporating additional equipment such as TEG
devices, reflectors, and spectrum splitting wavelength
separators increases the cost of the integrated system.
Thus, the economic feasibility becomes an important
challenge to study. In this regard, more investigations are
needed to improve the performance of various compo-
nents and decrease the unit cost of the electricity from
the integrated PV-TEG systems. Considerable boost of
efficiency has been reported in integrating the TEG mod-
ules in the PV-TEG systems.
SAHIN ET AL.
7 | FUTURE DIRECTIONS
Going by the results of recent papers reviewed in this
work, the following is a list of suggestions for future
studies:
• Models could be developed that consider degradation
of PV cells by environmental causes such as humidity
and soiling.
• Most experimental works are carried out under simu-
lated indoor conditions and thus do not manifest the
actual performance of the device. Outdoor testing
could be considered for future experimental work.
• The effects of thermal stresses on the performance of
PV-TEG systems at higher concentration will be an
interesting area to consider for future studies.
• The use of nanofluid as spectrum splitter for PV-TEG
system is a potential area for future investigations.
• The use of magnetic field for the nanofluid that is used
as coolant in the heat sinks may be studied from the
perspective of performance enhancement.
• Optimization of various integrated PV-TEG systems
from the economical point of view is an attractive area
in which different performance indices such as the
unit cost of electricity and/or the payback period could
be considered.
• An overall performance index may be defined using
various performance indices for the optimization of
the integrated PV-TEG systems containing a number
of components and equipment.
8 | C ON C L U S I ON S
PV-TEG systems offer a solution to broad-spectrum uti-
lization of solar radiation by exploring the potential
of both PV converters and TEGs for power generation.
It has received more attention recently, and more
research effort is being channeled towards making PV-
TEG systems more reliable and practicable. In this
paper, experimental and numerical investigations of
performance enhancement in integrated PV-TEG sys-
tems has been reviewed. The integration of PV and
TEG introduces complex relationship and trade-off that
makes optimization of the system very crucial. Key
parameters such as temperature coefficient, figure of
merit, heat transfer coefficient, and concentration ratio
have been shown to influence the performance of
coupled PV-TEG system, and different models were
introduced that can be used to study these parameters.
Furthermore, various methods of improving the perfor-
mance of coupled PV-TEG system from recent studies
have been reviewed.
25
The common pattern in all the studies reviewed can
be seen in the significance of boosting the PV power out-
put while removing the waste heat generated and the
optimal value of key parameters that allow for higher
overall efficiency and output per area. In all, the follow-
ing conclusion could be deduced from the current
review:
• Careful management of temperature distribution from
the PV to the TEG could result in significant increase
in overall efficiency.
• A higher zT thermoelectric material, higher efficiency
of the PV, and an efficient thermal dissipation system
are the key parameters for improving PV-TEG system.
• An optimal design parameter for an independent com-
ponent of the system (eg, TEG) might not be the same
for optimizing the performance of PV-TEG system.
• An increase in the concentration ratio improves the
performances of the TEG, thus increasing its contribu-
tion in the hybrid system. However, this improvement
could only be possible with an efficient heat sink.
• A hybrid system using multijunction PV and Bi2TE3
TEG has been shown to have a high conversion effi-
ciency of about 32% under high concentration ratio.
• The use of nanotechnology as a heat sink and as a
means of absorbing solar radiation in the PV as well as
composite material for thermoelectric has gained
research interest in improving hybrid PV-TEG system.
A C KN O WL ED G EME N T S
The authors acknowledge funding from the Research and
Development (R&D) Program (Research Pooling Initia-
tive), Ministry of Education, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
ACRO NYM S
a-Si amorphous silicone
CdTe cadmium telluride
CIGS copper indium gallium selenide
CPV concentrated photovoltaic
c-Si crystalline silicone
PV photovoltaic
RES renewable energy sources
TEG thermoelectric generator
SYM BOL S
c specific heat capacity (J/kgK)
C concentration factor
D electrical flux density
f fill factor of TEG
G solar radiation (W/m2)
I current (A)
J current density (A/m)
26 SAHIN ET AL.

K thermal conductivity (W/mK) 4. Yin E, Li Q, Xuan Y. Feasibility analysis of a concentrating

L length of TEG leg (m) photovoltaic-thermoelectric-thermal cogeneration. Appl
S Seebeck coefficient Energy. 2019;236:560-573. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.
2018.12.019.
X exergy (W)
5. Yang Z, Chen X, Shen W, Lin G, Chen J. Maximum efficien-
zT figure of merit of TEG material cies and parametric optimum designs of concentrating photo-
α reflectivity voltaic cell/heat engine systems with three-band spectrum
β Peltier coefficient split. Int J Energy Res. 2019;43(10):5526-5534. https://doi.org/
γ electrical resistivity (Ω m−1) 10.1002/er.4626.
σ Boltzmann constant 5.67 × 10−8 W/m2K4 6. Jena S, Kar SK. Demonstrating the benefits of thermoelectric-
λ shape factor (measure of PV imperfection) coupled solar PV system in microgrid challenging conven-
μ micro (10−6) tional integration issues of renewable resources. Int J Energy
Res. https://doi.org/10.1002/er.4953.
ϖ Thomson coefficient (V/K)
7. Jena S, Kar SK. Employment of solar photovoltaic-
ξ electrical resistivity (Ω m) thermoelectric generator-based hybrid system for efficient
φ exergy efficiency operation of hybrid nonconventional distribution generator.
η conversion efficiency Int J Energy Res. 2020;44(1):109-127. https://doi.org/10.1002/
ε emissivity coefficient er.4823.
ϑ volume of PV (m3) 8. Chapin DM, Fuller CS, Pearson GL. A new silicon p-n junc-
ρ density (kg/m3) tion photocell for converting solar radiation into electrical
power. J Appl Phys. 1954;25(5):676-677. https://doi.org/10.
1063/1.1721711.
9. Huen P, Daoud WA. Advances in hybrid solar photovoltaic
S U B S C R IP TS and thermoelectric generators. Renew Sustain Energy Rev.
c cold side 2017;72:1295-1302. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.10.042.
cl conductive layer 10. Li G, Shittu S, Diallo TMO, Yu M, Zhao X, Ji J. A review of
cr ceramic solar photovoltaic-thermoelectric hybrid system for electricity
D diode generation. Energy. 2018;158:41-58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
energy.2018.06.021.
h hot side
11. Li G, Shittu S, Zhou K, Zhao X, Ma X. Preliminary experiment
hs heat sink
on a novel photovoltaic-thermoelectric system in summer. Energy.
i layers 2019;188:116041. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2019.116041.
ic interconnect 12. El Chaar L, El Zein N. Review of photovoltaic technologies.
N n-type semiconductor Renew Sustain Energy Rev. 2011;15(5):2165-2175. https://doi.
P p-type semiconductor org/10.1016/j.rser.2011.01.004.
ph. photo 13. Green MA, Emery K, Hishikawa Y, Warta W, Dunlop ED.
rec receives Solar cell efficiency tables (version 39). Prog Photovoltaics.
2012;20(1):12-20. https://doi.org/10.1002/pip.2163.
sl solder layer
14. https://www.seaward.com/gb/support/solar/faqs/29495-
curve-tracing-faq-s, Accessed November 25, 2019.
15. King DL, Eckert PE. Characterizing (rating) the performance
ORCID of large photovoltaic arrays for all operating conditions. In:
Ahmet Z. Sahin https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1060-6746 Conference Record of the Twenty Fifth IEEE Photovoltaic
Bekir S. Yilbas https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0670-6306 Specialists Conference - 1996; 1996:1385–1388. https://doi.
Abdullah Al-Sharafi https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5275- org/10.1109/PVSC.1996.564391
16. Radziemska E. The effect of temperature on the power drop in
1960
crystalline silicon solar cells. Renew Energy. 2003;28(1):1-12.
17. Skoplaki E, Palyvos JA. On the temperature dependence of
R EF E RE N C E S photovoltaic module electrical performance: a review of
1. REN21. RENEWABLES 2019 Global status report. https:// efficiency/power correlations; 2009. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
www.ren21.net/gsr-2019. solener.2008.10.008
2. Rodrigo PM, Valera A, Fernández EF, Almonacid FM. Perfor- 18. Neeli G, Behara DK, Kumar MK. State of the art review on
mance and economic limits of passively cooled hybrid thermo- thermoelectric materials. Int. J. Sci. Res. 2016;5(10):1833-1844.
electric generator-concentrator photovoltaic modules. Appl 19. Simons RE, Ellsworth MJ, Chu RC. An assessment of module
Energy. 2019;238:1150-1162. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy. cooling enhancement with thermoelectric coolers. J Heat
2019.01.132. Transfer. 2005;127(1):76-84. https://doi.org/10.1115/1.1852496.
3. Ahmadi MH, Ghazvini M, Nazari MA, et al. Renewable 20. Lekbir A, Hassani S, Ab Ghani MR, Gan CK, Mekhilef S,
energy harvesting with the application of nanotechnology: a Saidur R. Improved energy conversion performance of a novel
review. Int J Energy Res. 2019;43(4):1387-1410. https://doi.org/ design of concentrated photovoltaic system combined with
10.1002/er.4282. thermoelectric generator with advance cooling system. Energ
SAHIN ET AL.
Conver Manage. 2018;177:19-29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
enconman.2018.09.053.
21. Garg HP, Adhikari RS. Transient simulation of conventional
hybrid photovoltaic/thermal (PV/T) air heating collectors. Int
J Energy Res. 1998;22(6):547-562. https://doi.org/10.1002/(
SICI)1099-114X(199805)22:6<547::AID-ER375>3.0.CO;2-B.
22. Babu C, Ponnambalam P. The role of thermoelectric genera-
tors in the hybrid PV/T systems: a review. Energ Conver Man-
age. 2017;151:368-385. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.
2017.08.060.
23. Yilbas BS, Sahin AZ. Thermoelectric device and optimum
external load parameter and slenderness ratio. Energy. 2010;
35(12):5380-5384.
24. Ali H, Sahin AZ, Yilbas BS. Thermodynamic analysis of a
thermoelectric power generator in relation to geometric con-
figuration device pins. Energ Conver Manage. 2014;78:634-640.
25. Imenes AG, Mills DR. Spectral beam splitting technology for
increased conversion efficiency in solar concentrating systems:
a review; 2004. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2004.01.038
26. Tritt TM, Böttner H, Chen L. Thermoelectrics: Direct solar
thermal energy conversion. MRS Bulletin. 2008;33(4):366-368.
https://doi.org/10.1557/mrs2008.73.
27. Lorenzi B, Acciarri M, Narducci D. Experimental determina-
tion of power losses and heat generation in solar cells for
photovoltaic-thermal applications. Appl Phys. 2018;27(12):
6291-6298. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11665-018-3604-3.
28. Lorenzi B, Chen G. Theoretical efficiency of hybrid solar
thermoelectric-photovoltaic generators. J Appl Phys. 2018;124
(2):024501. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5022569.
29. Deng Y, Zhu W, Wang Y, Shi Y. Enhanced performance of
solar-driven photovoltaic–thermoelectric hybrid system in an
integrated design. Sol Energy. 2013;88:182-191. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.solener.2012.12.002.
30. Fisac M, Villasevil FX, López AM. High-efficiency photovol-
taic technology including thermoelectric generation. J Power
Sources. 2014;252:264-269. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.
2013.11.121.
31. Wang N, Han L, He H, Park N-H, Koumoto K. A novel high-
performance photovoltaic–thermoelectric hybrid device.
Energ Environ Sci. 2011;4(9):3676-3679. https://doi.org/10.
1039/C1EE01646F.
32. Farnarier G, Jaquenoud P, Baille Y. Ad'Enomectomie
Prostatique Et Pace-Maker. Mars Chir. 1964;16(2):165-166.
33. Leonov V, Torfs T, Vullers RJM, Van Hoof C. Hybrid
thermoelectric–photovoltaic generators in wireless electroen-
cephalography diadem and electrocardiography shirt. J Elect
Mater. 2010;39(9):1674-1680. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11664-
010-1230-4.
34. van Sark WGJHM. Feasibility of photovoltaic–thermoelectric
hybrid modules. Appl Energy. 2011;88(8):2785-2790. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2011.02.008.
35. Zhang J, Xuan Y. An integrated design of the photovoltaic-
thermoelectric hybrid system. Sol Energy. 2019;177:293-298.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2018.11.012.
36. de Boer PCT. Optimal regenerator performance in Stirling
engines. Int J Energy Res. 2009;33(9):813-832. https://doi.org/
10.1002/er.1516.
37. Rezania A, Rosendahl LA. Feasibility and parametric evalua-
tion of hybrid concentrated photovoltaic-thermoelectric
27
system. Appl Energy. 2017;187:380-389. https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.apenergy.2016.11.064.
38. Nowak H. The sky temperature in net radiant heat loss calcu-
lations from low-sloped roofs. Infrared Phys. 1989;29(2):231-
232. https://doi.org/10.1016/0020-0891(89)90055-9.
39. Algareu AO, Mahmoud S, Al-Dadah RK. Electrical characteri-
zation of photovoltaic cell with low-concentration ratio square
aperture concentrator. Int J Energy Res. 2017;41(14):2332-
2344. https://doi.org/10.1002/er.3802.
40. Pang W, Yu H, Zhang Y, Yan H. Electrical characteristics of a
hybrid photovoltaic/thermoelectric generator system. Energ
Technol. 2018;6(7):1248-1254. https://doi.org/10.1002/ente.
201700801.
41. Abdo A, Ookawara S, Ahmed M. Performance evaluation
of a new design of concentrator photovoltaic and solar
thermoelectric generator hybrid system. Energ Conver
Manage. 2019;195:1382-1401. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
enconman.2019.04.093.
42. Bamroongkhan P, Lertsatitthanakorn C, Soponronnarit S.
Experimental performance study of a solar parabolic dish
photovoltaic-thermoelectric generator. Energy Procedia. 2019;
158:528-533. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2019.01.147.
43. Soltani S, Kasaeian A, Sokhansefat T, Shafii MB. Performance
investigation of a hybrid photovoltaic/thermoelectric system
integrated with parabolic trough collector. Energ Conver Man-
age. 2018;159:371-380. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.
2017.12.091.
44. Cai Y, Wang W-W, Liu C-W, Ding W-T, Liu D, Zhao F-Y. Per-
formance evaluation of a thermoelectric ventilation system
driven by the concentrated photovoltaic thermoelectric gener-
ators for green building operations. Renew Energy. 2020;147:
1565-1583. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2019.09.090.
45. Palyvos JA. A survey of wind convection coefficient correla-
tions for building envelope energy systems' modeling. Appl
Therm Eng. 2008;28(8):801-808. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
applthermaleng.2007.12.005.
46. Incropera FP, Dewitt DP, Bergman TL, Lavine AS. Funda-
mentals of Heat and Mass Transfer. 6th ed. New York: John
Wiley & Sons; 2004.
47. Petela R. Exergy of undiluted thermal radiation. Sol Energy.
2003;74(6):469-488. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0038-092X(03)
00226-3.
48. Mahmoudinezhad S, Rezania A, Rosendahl LA. Behavior of
hybrid concentrated photovoltaic-thermoelectric generator
under variable solar radiation. Energ Conver Manage. 2018;
164:443-452. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2018.03.025.
49. Patankar SV. Numerical Heat Transfer and Fluid.
Washington, DC: Hemisphere Publishing Corp; 1980:210.
50. Zhu W, Deng Y, Wang Y, Shen S, Gulfam R. High-
performance photovoltaic-thermoelectric hybrid power gener-
ation system with optimized thermal management. Energy.
2016;100:91-101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2016.01.055.
51. Liang D, Luo Q, Li P, Fu Y, Cai L, Zhai P. Optimization and
experimentation of concentrating photovoltaic/cascaded ther-
moelectric generators hybrid system using spectral beam split-
ting technology. IOP Conf Ser: Earth Environ Sci. 2018;199:
052044. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/199/5/052044.
52. Notton G, Cristofari C, Mattei M, Poggi P. Modelling of a
double-glass photovoltaic module using finite differences.
28
Appl Therm Eng. 2005;25(17):2854-2877. https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.applthermaleng.2005.02.008.
53. Al-Nimr MA, Al-Ammari WA, Alkhalidi A. A novel hybrid
photovoltaics/thermoelectric cooler distillation system. Int J
Energy Res. 2019;43(2):791-805. https://doi.org/10.1002/er.4309.
54. Zhang J, Xuan Y. The electric feature synergy in the
photovoltaic-thermoelectric hybrid system. Energy. 2019;181:
387-394. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2019.05.155.
55. Lekbir A, Meddad M, Eddiai A, Benhadouga S, Khenfer R.
Higher-efficiency for combined photovoltaic-thermoelectric
solar power generation. International Journal of Green Energy.
2019;16(5):371-377. https://doi.org/10.1080/15435075.2019.
1567515.
56. Shittu S, Li G, Zhao X, Akhlaghi YG, Ma X, Yu M. Compara-
tive study of a concentrated photovoltaic-thermoelectric sys-
tem with and without flat plate heat pipe. Energ Conver
Manage. 2019;193:1-14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.
2019.04.055.
57. Miljkovic N, Wang EN. Modeling and optimization of hybrid
solar thermoelectric systems with thermosyphons. Sol Energy.
2011;85(11):2843-2855. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2011.
08.021.
58. Mahmoudinezhad S, Ahmadi Atouei S, Cotfas PA, Cotfas DT,
Rosendahl LA, Rezania A. Experimental and numerical study
on the transient behavior of multi-junction solar cell-
thermoelectric generator hybrid system. Energ Conver Man-
age. 2019;184:448-455. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.
2019.01.081.
59. Gou X, Xiao H, Yang S. Modeling, experimental study and
optimization on low-temperature waste heat thermoelectric
generator system. Appl Energy. 2010;87(10):3131-3136.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2010.02.013.
60. Lamba R, Kaushik SC. Solar driven concentrated
photovoltaic-thermoelectric hybrid system: numerical analysis
and optimization. Energ Conver Manage. 2018;170:34-49.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2018.05.048.
61. Gu W, Ma T, Song A, Li M, Shen L. Mathematical modelling
and performance evaluation of a hybrid photovoltaic-
thermoelectric system. Energ Conver Manage. 2019;198:
111800. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2019.111800.
62. Yin E, Li Q, Xuan Y. One-day performance evaluation of
photovoltaic-thermoelectric hybrid system. Energy. 2018;143:
337-346. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2017.11.011.
63. Fleurial J-P. Thermoelectric power generation materials: tech-
nology and application opportunities. JOM. 2009;61(4):79-85.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11837-009-0057-z.
64. Zhang Y, Fang J, He C, Yan H, Wei Z, Li Y. Integrated
energy-harvesting system by combining the advantages of
polymer solar cells and thermoelectric devices. J Phys
Chem C. 2013;117(47):24685-24691. https://doi.org/10.
1021/jp4044573.
65. Beeri O, Rotem O, Hazan E, Katz EA, Braun A, Gelbstein Y.
Hybrid photovoltaic-thermoelectric system for concentrated
solar energy conversion: experimental realization and model-
ing. J Appl Phys. 2015;118(11):115104. https://doi.org/10.1063/
1.4931428.
66. Wu Y-Y, Wu S-Y, Xiao L. Performance analysis of
photovoltaic–thermoelectric hybrid system with and without
glass cover. Energ Conver Manage. 2015;93:151-159. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2015.01.013.
SAHIN ET AL.
67. Shittu S, Li G, Akhlaghi YG, Ma X, Zhao X, Ayodele E.
Advancements in thermoelectric generators for enhanced
hybrid photovoltaic system performance. Renew Sustain
Energy Rev. 2019;109:24-54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.
2019.04.023.
68. Shittu S, Li G, Zhao X, Ma X. Series of detail comparison and
optimization of thermoelectric element geometry considering
the PV effect. Renew Energy. 2019;130:930-942. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.renene.2018.07.002.
69. Hodes M. Optimal pellet geometries for thermoelectric
power generation. IEEE Trans Compon Pack Technol.
2010;33(2):307-318. https://doi.org/10.1109/TCAPT.2009.
2039934.
70. Sahin AZ, Yilbas BS. The thermoelement as thermoelectric
power generator: effect of leg geometry on the efficiency and
power generation. Energ Conver Manage. 2013;65:26-32.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2012.07.020.
71. Freunek M, Müller M, Ungan T, Walker W, Reindl LM. New
physical model for thermoelectric generators. Journal of Elec
Materi. 2009;38(7):1214-1220. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11664-
009-0665-y.
72. Al-Merbati AS, Yilbas BS, Sahin AZ. Thermodynamics and
thermal stress analysis of thermoelectric power generator:
influence of pin geometry on device performance. Appl Therm
Eng. 2013;50(1):683-692. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
applthermaleng.2012.07.021.
73. Rezania A, Rosendahl LA, Yin H. Parametric optimization of
thermoelectric elements footprint for maximum power gener-
ation. J Power Sources. 2014;255:151-156. https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.jpowsour.2014.01.002.
74. Hashim H, Bomphrey JJ, Min G. Model for geometry optimi-
sation of thermoelectric devices in a hybrid PV/TE system.
Renew Energy. 2016;87:458-463. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
renene.2015.10.029.
75. Li G, Chen X, Jin Y. Analysis of the primary constraint
conditions of an efficient photovoltaic-thermoelectric
hybrid system. Energies. 2017;10(1):20. https://doi.org/10.
3390/en10010020.
76. Zhang J, Xuan Y, Yang L. A novel choice for the
photovoltaic–thermoelectric hybrid system: the perovskite
solar cell. Int J Energy Res. 2016;40(10):1400-1409. https://doi.
org/10.1002/er.3532.
77. Zhang J, Xuan Y, Yang L. Performance estimation of
photovoltaic–thermoelectric hybrid systems. Energy. 2014;78
(C):895-903.
78. Fallah Kohan HR, Lotfipour F, Eslami M. Numerical simula-
tion of a photovoltaic thermoelectric hybrid power generation
system. Sol Energy. 2018;174:537-548. https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.solener.2018.09.046.
79. Mahmoudinezhad S, Rezaniakolaei A, Rosendahl LA. Numer-
ical parametric study on the performance of CPV-TEG hybrid
system. Energy Procedia. 2019;158:453-458. https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.egypro.2019.01.131.
80. Li G, Zhao X, Ji J. Conceptual development of a novel
photovoltaic-thermoelectric system and preliminary economic
analysis. Energ Conver Manage. 2016;126:935-943. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.enconman.2016.08.074.
81. Willars-Rodríguez FJ, Chávez-Urbiola EA, Vorobiev P,
Vorobiev YV. Investigation of solar hybrid system with con-
centrating Fresnel lens, photovoltaic and thermoelectric
SAHIN ET AL.
generators. Int J Energy Res. 2017;41(3):377-388. https://doi.
org/10.1002/er.3614.
82. Marandi OF, Ameri MA, Adelshahian B. Modeling and analy-
sis of a hybrid photovoltaic-thermoelectric solar cavity-
receiver power generator; 2018. https://doi.org/10.22060/
ajme.2018.14018.5698
83. Farhangian Marandi O, Ameri M, Adelshahian B. The experi-
mental investigation of a hybrid photovoltaic-thermoelectric
power generator solar cavity-receiver. Sol Energy. 2018;161:38-
46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2017.12.039.
84. Cui T, Xuan Y, Li Q. Design of a novel concentrating
photovoltaic–thermoelectric system incorporated with phase
change materials. Energ Conver Manage. 2016;112:49-60.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2016.01.008.
85. Yin E, Li Q, Li D, Xuan Y. Experimental investigation on
effects of thermal resistances on a photovoltaic-thermoelectric
system integrated with phase change materials. Energy. 2019;
169:172-185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2018.12.035.
86. Motiei P, Yaghoubi M, GoshtasbiRad E. Transient simulation
of a hybrid photovoltaic-thermoelectric system using a phase
change material. Sustain Energy Technol Assess. 2019;34:200-
213. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seta.2019.05.004.
87. Soltani S, Kasaeian A, Sarrafha H, Wen D. An experimental
investigation of a hybrid photovoltaic/thermoelectric system
with nanofluid application. Sol Energy. 2017;155:1033-1043.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2017.06.069.
88. Fathabadi H. Novel solar-powered photovoltaic/thermoelectric
hybrid power source. Renew Energy. 2020;146:426-434. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2019.06.141.
89. Yin E, Li Q, Xuan Y. Thermal resistance analysis and optimi-
zation of photovoltaic-thermoelectric hybrid system. Energ
Conver Manage. 2017;143:188-202. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
enconman.2017.04.004.
90. Kil T-H, Kim S, Jeong D-H, et al. A highly-efficient,
concentrating-photovoltaic/thermoelectric hybrid generator.
Nano Energy. 2017;37:242-247. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
nanoen.2017.05.023.
91. Zhang J, Xuan Y. Performance improvement of a
photovoltaic-thermoelectric hybrid system subjecting to fluc-
tuant solar radiation. Renew Energy. 2017;113:1551-1558.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2017.07.003.
92. Makki A, Omer S, Su Y, Sabir H. Numerical investigation of
heat pipe-based photovoltaic–thermoelectric generator (HP-
PV/TEG) hybrid system. Energ Conver Manage. 2016;112:274-
287. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2015.12.069.
93. Nazri NS, Fudholi A, Bakhtyar B, et al. Energy economic
analysis of photovoltaic–thermal-thermoelectric (PVT-TE) air
collectors. Renew Sustain Energy Rev. 2018;92:187-197. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2018.04.061.
94. Ismail KAR, Gonçalves MM. Thermal performance of a PCM
storage unit. Energ Conver Manage. 1999;40(2):115-138.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0196-8904(98)00042-9.
95. Darkwa J, Calautit J, Du D, Kokogianakis G. A numerical and
experimental analysis of an integrated TEG-PCM power
enhancement system for photovoltaic cells. Appl Energy. 2019;
248:688-701. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2019.04.147.
96. Rowe DM, Min G. Evaluation of thermoelectric modules
for power generation. J Power Sources. 1998;73(2):193-198.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-7753(97)02801-2.
29
97. Jang B, Han S, Kim J-Y. Optimal design for micro-
thermoelectric generators using finite element analysis. Micro-
electron Eng. 2011;88(5):775-778. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
mee.2010.06.025.
98. Li G, Zhao X, Jin Y, Chen X, Ji J, Shittu S. Performance analy-
sis and discussion on the thermoelectric element footprint for
PV–TE maximum power generation. J Electron Mater. 2018;47
(9):5344-5351. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11664-018-6421-4.
99. Li G, Shittu S, Ma X, Zhao X. Comparative analysis of thermo-
electric elements optimum geometry between photovoltaic-
thermoelectric and solar thermoelectric. Energy. 2019;171:599-
610. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2019.01.057.
100. Kossyvakis DN, Voutsinas GD, Hristoforou EV. Experimental
analysis and performance evaluation of a tandem
photovoltaic–thermoelectric hybrid system. Energ Conver
Manage. 2016;117:490-500. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
enconman.2016.03.023.
101. Mohamed M, Mounir SH, Choukairy K, Khallaki K. Perfor-
mance estimation of the hybridization of crystalline silicon
cell with thermoelectric generator. AIP Conference Proceed-
ings. 2018;2056(1):020018. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5084991.
102. Bjørk R, Nielsen KK. The performance of a combined solar
photovoltaic (PV) and thermoelectric generator (TEG) system.
Sol Energy. 2015;120:187-194. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
solener.2015.07.035.
103. Qiu K, Hayden ACS, Mauk MG, Sulima OV. Generation of
electricity using InGaAsSb and GaSb TPV cells in
combustion-driven radiant sources. Sol Energy Mater Sol Cells.
2006;90(1):68-81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2005.02.002.
104. Chubb DL, Good BS. A combined thermophotovoltaic-
thermoelectric energy converter. Sol Energy. 2018;159:760-
767. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2017.11.030.
105. Colangelo G, de Risi A, Laforgia D. Experimental study of a
burner with high temperature heat recovery system for TPV
applications. Energ Conver Manage. 2006;47(9):1192-1206.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2005.07.001.
106. Pierrès NL, Cosnier M, Luo L, Fraisse G. Coupling of thermo-
electric modules with a photovoltaic panel for air pre-heating
and pre-cooling application; an annual simulation. Int J
Energy Res. 2008;32(14):1316-1328. https://doi.org/10.1002/er.
1439.
107. Gillott M, Jiang L, Riffat S. An investigation of thermoelectric
cooling devices for small-scale space conditioning applications
in buildings. Int J Energy Res. 2010;34(9):776-786. https://doi.
org/10.1002/er.1591.
108. Jradi M, Ghaddar N, Ghali K. Experimental and theoretical
study of an integrated thermoelectric–photovoltaic system for
air dehumidification and fresh water production. Int J Energy
Res. 2012;36(9):963-974. https://doi.org/10.1002/er.1848.
109. Rezania A, Sera D, Rosendahl LA. Coupled thermal model of
photovoltaic-thermoelectric hybrid panel for sample cities in
Europe. Renew Energy. 2016;99:127-135. https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.renene.2016.06.045.
110. Sundarraj P, Maity D, Roy SS, Taylor RA. Recent advances
in thermoelectric materials and solar thermoelectric
generators—a critical review. RSC Adv. 2014;4(87):46860-
46874. https://doi.org/10.1039/C4RA05322B.
111. Liao T, Lin B, Yang Z. Performance characteristics of a low
concentrated photovoltaic–thermoelectric hybrid power
30
generation device. Int J Therm Sci. 2014;77:158-164. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.ijthermalsci.2013.10.013.
112. Singh S, Ibeagwu OI, Lamba R. Thermodynamic evaluation of
irreversibility and optimum performance of a concentrated
PV-TEG cogenerated hybrid system. Sol Energy. 2018;170:896-
905. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2018.06.034.
113. Mahmoudinezhad S, Qing S, Rezaniakolaei A, Aistrup RL.
Transient model of hybrid concentrated photovoltaic with
thermoelectric generator. Energy Procedia. 2017;142:564-569.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2017.12.088.
114. Mohsenzadeh M, Shafii MB, Jafari Mosleh H. A novel concen-
trating photovoltaic/thermal solar system combined with ther-
moelectric module in an integrated design. Renew Energy.
2017;113:822-834. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2017.06.047.
115. Haiping C, Jiguang H, Heng Z, Kai L, Haowen L,
Shuangyin L. Experimental investigation of a novel low con-
centrating photovoltaic/thermal–thermoelectric generator
hybrid system. Energy. 2019;166:83-95. https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.energy.2018.10.046.
116. Tamaki R, Toyoda T, Tamura Y, et al. Hybrid photovoltaic
and thermoelectric module for high concentration solar sys-
tem. AIP Conf Proc. 2017;1881(1):100002. https://doi.org/10.
1063/1.5001453.
117. Mahmoudinezhad S, Rezania A, Cotfas DT, Cotfas PA,
Rosendahl LA. Experimental and numerical investigation of
hybrid concentrated photovoltaic–thermoelectric module
under low solar concentration. Energy. 2018;159:1123-1131.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2018.06.181.
118. Da Y, Xuan Y, Li Q. From light trapping to solar energy utili-
zation: a novel photovoltaic–thermoelectric hybrid system to
fully utilize solar spectrum. Energy. 2016;95:200-210. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2015.12.024.
119. Zhou Y-P, Li M-J, Yang W-W, He Y-L. The effect of the full-
spectrum characteristics of nanostructure on the PV-TE
SAHIN ET AL.
hybrid system performances within multi-physics coupling
process. Appl Energy. 2018;213(C):169-178.
120. Machrafi H. Enhancement of a photovoltaic cell performance
by a coupled cooled nanocomposite thermoelectric hybrid sys-
tem, using extended thermodynamics. Curr Appl Phys. 2017;
17(6):890-911. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cap.2017.03.001.
121. Huminic G, Huminic A. Application of nanofluids in heat
exchangers: a review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev. 2012;16(8):
5625-5638. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2012.05.023.
122. Park K-T, Shin S-M, Tazebay AS, et al. Lossless hybridization
between photovoltaic and thermoelectric devices. Sci Rep.
2013;3:2123.
123. Mizoshiri M, Mikami M, Ozaki K. Thermal–photovoltaic
hybrid solar generator using thin-film thermoelectric mod-
ules. Jpn J Appl Phys. 2012;51(6S):06FL07. https://doi.org/10.
1143/JJAP.51.06FL07.
124. Yang D, Yin H. Energy conversion efficiency of a novel hybrid
solar system for photovoltaic, thermoelectric, and heat utiliza-
tion. IEEE Trans Energy Conver. 2011;26(2):662-670. https://
doi.org/10.1109/TEC.2011.2112363.
125. Narducci D, Lorenzi B. Challenges and perspectives in tan-
dem thermoelectric–photovoltaic solar energy conversion.
IEEE Trans Nanotechnol. 2016;15(3):348-355. https://doi.org/
10.1109/TNANO.2016.2524680.
How to cite this article: Sahin AZ, Ismaila KG,
Yilbas BS, Al-Sharafi A. A review on the
performance of photovoltaic/thermoelectric hybrid
generators. Int J Energy Res. 2020;1–30. https://doi.
org/10.1002/er.5139