A Guide to the Publishing Process

Points To Consider While Writing Your Book

House Style Guidelines

Delivery Date and Length

Permissions

Artwork and Images

Cover Design and Book Titles

Delivering Your Manuscript

A checklist for submission is available on our website or through your Commissioning

Editor. Please ensure that you include every element to be incorporated in the book, including
(but not limited to):

• Title page
• Table of contents
• List of contributors
• List of illustrations
• Glossary
• Foreword or preface
• Notes
• Bibliography

The Production Process

You will receive a letter of introduction from the Production Editor at Bloomsbury
Academic, confirming receipt of the manuscript and outlining the route your book will take
to make it ready for print and digital distribution.

The next stages are:

• Copy-editing
• Typesetting
• Proof-reading
• Revision
• Indexing
• Digital Bundle creation (including, among others, a press-ready file and an ePub file)

As a rough guide a standard schedule from handover to our production department to

publication, for a non-complex, project-managed book is as follows:

• Copy-editing (4 weeks, with author queries arising in the 3rd week)

• Typesetting (2 weeks)
• Proof-reading and collation (3 weeks)
• Revision (1 week)
• Revises check and indexing (1 week)
• Final correction (1 week)
• Digital bundle creation (1 week)
• Printing (5 weeks)
• Delivery of bound copies to warehouse and distribution (4 weeks)

Copy-Editing
An experienced, professional copy-editor will be assigned to your book. The level of editing
we request varies according to the needs of the project. It is usual for the copy editor to:
• Correct grammar, spelling and syntax
• Check references and bibliographies for omissions and inconsistencies of style
• Bring any suspected errors, omissions or duplications to your attention.

Proof-reading

Indexing

Printing

Publication

Marketing your book

Rights
A Guide to the Publishing Process
The publishing process can appear convoluted at times, especially if this is your first time
thinking about writing a book or working on turning it from manuscript to finished article. At
Bloomsbury Academic each and every stage is carefully planned and monitored by the
people charged with looking after your books – us. We’re very proud of our commitment to
detail and we’re always happy to answer questions on any aspect of the publishing process,
from initial conversations about ideas, through to peer review, through to seeing the book in
print.

Points To Consider While Writing Your Book

House Style Guidelines

A generic version is available for reference on this site, but please consult your
Commissioning Editor for guidelines specific to the list or imprint for which you are writing.
We recommend that our house style is implemented from the outset, since the task of re-
editing your manuscript to comply at the last stage can be very laborious.

Delivery Date and Length

The agreed delivery date of your manuscript is stated in the contract. We need to know of any
delays you encounter as soon as possible so that we can agree a new date. We schedule books
for publication up to fifteen months in advance and it is imperative that we work from correct
schedules to organize the production and promotion of your book. The contract also states a
maximum length for your manuscript. If, while writing your book it becomes clear that the
agreed length is unworkable, please let us know as soon as possible. We can generally
accommodate minor changes in length (i.e. within 10%) but more significant changes will
require serious consideration as they are likely to have an impact on the selling price and, in
turn, on the sales potential of the book.

Permissions
Permission from the copyright owner must be obtained for any third-party materials cited that
fall outside the remit of ‘fair dealing’ or (in the US) ‘fair use’ conventions. For information
on the interpretation of fair dealing in UK law, please consult the Society of Authors website.

You should note that there is no fair dealing exemption for epigraphs, which always require
permission, as do quotations of any length from poems, letters, lyrics and recipes. Artwork
and images, including photographs, maps and line drawings also require written permission.
Photocopies or scans of permissions granted must be submitted with your manuscript on
delivery.

Artwork and Images

The use of images and the number permitted will have been agreed with your Commissioning
Editor and stated in the contract. Any changes to these specifications must be approved by
your Commissioning Editor in advance of submission of the final manuscript.

Cover Design and Book Titles

The sales cycle for your book may begin before you have completed the manuscript. Our
designers will start working on the cover design approximately 15 months before the
scheduled publication date. If you have ideas, or specific images in mind please discuss these
with your commissioning editor well in advance. You should note that a high proportion of
images found on internet searches are unlicensed. We require high-resolution images,
licensed for commercial use (as opposed to editorial use), with model releases where
appropriate. We would thus prefer that images suggested to us are sourced through reputable
agencies such as Corbis, Getty Images or Shutterstock.

If you are considering a title change for your book, please discuss this with your
commissioning editor as early as possible. Once your book has been advertised in a catalogue
it will also have entered all the major bibliographic services internationally, with advance
sales being generated. At this point it is unadvisable to consider changing the title.

Delivering Your Manuscript

Please ensure that the final manuscript has been proof-read and is as free from error or
omission as you can make it. Corrections made at proofs stage are very expensive and costs
will be passed on to the author. If English is not your native language, you should consider
having the book read by a colleague or professional editor who is a native speaker before
submission. If you are the editor of a contributed volume, it is your responsibility to check
through the entire manuscript, paying particular attention to any chapters by non-native
speakers. We ask you to ensure that the chapters are consistent in style throughout the book,
especially in terms of their notes and references.

A checklist for submission is available on our website or through your Commissioning

Editor. Please ensure that you include every element to be incorporated in the book, including
(but not limited to):

• Title page
• Table of contents
• List of contributors
• List of illustrations
• Glossary
• Foreword or preface
• Notes
• Bibliography

The manuscript should be delivered electronically as an email attachment or on a memory

stick or CD. Please ensure that each chapter is saved as a separate document. Artwork should
be supplied electronically as high resolution scans (minimum 300 dpi). Scans or photocopies
of all permissions documents must be supplied at this stage.

On receipt of the manuscript, the Commissioning Editor will check the word count and the
number of illustrations to ensure that the book is in line with its contracted length and you
will be informed of the next stages. Many books are sent for external peer review at this stage
and this process takes approximately 6 -10 weeks. Books appearing in series will be sent to
the series editor/s for review. Readers’ reports, series editors’ reports and any queries or
suggestions from the Commissioning Editor will be sent to you for a response. Any revisions
should be negotiated with your Commissioning Editor and a final submission date agreed.

Please inform your Commissioning Editor if you will be unavailable at any point during the
production process. Any absence we have not been alerted to will have an impact as we work
to very tight schedules. We also need to know if you do not plan to supply your own index
for the book at proof stage, so that we can commission a freelance indexer.

Following receipt and approval of the final manuscript, your Commissioning Editor will
arrange handover to the Production Editor.

The Production Process

You will receive a letter of introduction from the Production Editor at Bloomsbury
Academic, confirming receipt of the manuscript and outlining the route your book will take
to make it ready for print and digital distribution.

The next stages are:

• Copy-editing
• Typesetting
• Proof-reading
• Revision
• Indexing
• Digital Bundle creation (including, among others, a press-ready file and an ePub file)

Most of our books are taken through this process by specialist, out-of-house Project
Managers. Your Project Manager will be in regular contact, sending you information on the
production process, what is required of you, and a detailed schedule.

As a rough guide a standard schedule from handover to our production department to

publication, for a non-complex, project-managed book is as follows:

• Copy-editing (4 weeks, with author queries arising in the 3rd week)

• Typesetting (2 weeks)
• Proof-reading and collation (3 weeks)
• Revision (1 week)
• Revises check and indexing (1 week)
• Final correction (1 week)
• Digital bundle creation (1 week)
• Printing (5 weeks)
• Delivery of bound copies to warehouse and distribution (4 weeks)

Copy-Editing
An experienced, professional copy-editor will be assigned to your book. The level of editing
we request varies according to the needs of the project. It is usual for the copy editor to:
• Correct grammar, spelling and syntax
• Check references and bibliographies for omissions and inconsistencies of style
• Bring any suspected errors, omissions or duplications to your attention.

It is not usual for the copy editor to make stylistic interventions other than to implement our
house style, or undertake any rewriting.

Queries will be sent to you by the copy editor and it is your responsibility to supply answers
by the requested deadline. All changes are then incorporated into the electronic text. Please
note that you will not see the copy-edited manuscript.

Proof-reading
The edited files are tagged to create the XML from which the digital versions of your book
will be produced, and the print version of your book is set in Indesign. You will be sent page
proofs, in electronic PDF format. Please check these carefully since this is the last chance to
make any amendments before the book goes to press. Only essential corrections (e.g.
typographic errors) will be made at this stage. Once corrections have been made your Project
Manager will supply revised proofs in electronic format for you to check, and to allow you to
finalise the index if you are preparing it yourself.

Indexing
If you are preparing your own index, your Project Manager will supply you with detailed
guidelines. A list of headwords and subheadings may be drawn up at first proof stage but we
recommend that page numbers are not added until revised proof stage, when the pagination of
the book is secure. If you have opted for the services of a professional indexer, they will be
asked to compile the index at first proof stage, and you will be sent the index to check at
revised proof stage.

Printing
Once revised proofs have been approved, the Project Manager supplies digital and print-
ready files to us, no later than six weeks before bound copy date. Final artwork for the cover
is submitted from the Design Manager. The Production Editor checks all files and sends them
to the printer.

Publication
Advance copies of the book are checked by the Production Editor. On approval, stock is
delivered into our warehouse, the gratis copied agreed in the contract are sent to the author
and arrangements are made to ship the book to our distributors around the world. As a guide,
the UK publication date is approximately four weeks after receipt of bound copies by the
publisher, and the US and Australian publication dates are eight weeks later – though this
may vary according to where the book has been printed and what the key market
requirements are.

Marketing your book

We will promote your book to the book trade and the academic market, including it in
relevant catalogues, listing it on our website and exhibiting it at relevant academic
conferences. In advance of submitting the manuscript you will be asked to complete a
marketing questionnaire, which forms the basis of the marketing plan for the book and assists
us with drawing up a review list. Please do alert us if you plan to attend a conference or other
event at which you may be able to promote your book, as we may be able to supply flyers or
other promotional materials. We would also be grateful for information on prizes for which
your book may be eligible.

Rights
Bloomsbury has an active rights department, who will try to negotiate rights deals for your
book wherever possible. We attend all the major book fairs, including Frankfurt and London,
which are the major marketplaces for rights sales.
We are grateful for any contacts you may have with potential foreign language publishers,
including any who have published your previous work. If you have already had a title
published in translation please let us know the name of the publisher, the language, the
publication date and any other relevant details.
Title
Informative and specific / concise / understandable

Abstract
The abstract is a one paragraph (<100 words) summary of the report, emphasizing the most significant ideas
and information, questions investigated, the methods used, the principal results and conclusions written in
clear, precise and easy to read wordings.

Introduction
It is a brief section (no more than 1 page usually) focusing on overall issue with a short history or relevant
background and addressing problem/s (context of your study), or question that your research addresses.
Introductions usually follow a funnel style, starting broadly and then narrowing.
Methodology
The Methods section written in paragraph form, chronologically describes the
process/procedure/techniques/reasons for tracking functional variables (Measurements)/ analytical
techniques you undertook to complete the research.
Be precise, complete, and concise: include only relevant information—no unnecessary details, equipment list,
anecdotes, excuses, or confessions.
It does NOT tell us what was discovered. That information should be in the Results section.
It's broken down into subsections, if appropriate.

Results
This section ILLUSTRATES/ SUMMARIZES/ DESCRIBES/ REPROTS but DOES NOT INTERPRET the major findings
of your experiment. Note: Reasoned speculation belongs in Discussion.
Integrate visuals with text: Present the data/facts using graphs and tables to reveal any trends that you found.
Describe the objective observations/ trends/ patterns / results/ briefly in single or several paragraphs.
The presentation of data may be either chronological, logically organized to correspond with the Methods, or
in the order of most to least importance.
While the results section is supposed to objectively describe your research results, it is actually slightly
subjective in the choice and order of findings presented.
Discussion
This section offers your interpretations and conclusions about your findings.
How do your results relate to the goals of the study, as stated in your introduction, and how do they relate to
the results that might have been expected from background information obtained in lectures, textbooks, or
outside reading?
This is your chance to demonstrate your ability to synthesize, analyze, evaluate, interpret, generalize and
signify reasons, effectively.
· Explain key limitations: questions left unanswered, major experimental constraints, lack of correlation,
negative results.
· Discuss agreement or contrast with previously published work.
· Offer possible alternative hypotheses.
· Recommend areas for future study and explain your choices.
· The authors link their findings to their interpretations.
· They explain WHY they think the results occurred.
· They hypothesize why certain results were unexpected.
Other Writing Tips
· Keep it simple. The purpose of this report is to describe your PROCESS, not come to any conclusions that will
alter the world.
· Jargon confuses your reader; it doesn't make you sound smart
· Avoid “I”and “We”, try to use passive voice to keep the focus on our research rather than on you.
· "This." The antecedent "this" needs a noun. This what?
· "It." The pronoun "it" is not particularly descriptive. Use specific nouns as much as possible.
· Words like "very" and "really" do not add significance. Simply say, for example, "This findings was significant
because . . ."
· You do not need to use phrases like "as stated above." In written communication, readers generally don't
need such pointers as they remember what they've read previously in short reports. However, do reference
figures and graphs: "As shown in Figure 3 . . ."
· Use non-sexist language. To avoid "he or she" constructions, write in plural form ("they").

Format
· A Table of Contents is not required, but will help your readers find information more quickly.
· Standard margins.
· Use a conservative font.
· Number the pages.
· Reports not more than 10 pages
· No more than 10 graphs. You can write a fine report with only 5 graphs.
 Duties of EDITOR-IN-CHIEF in a scientific publishing organization

Reports to journal’s Publications Committee and owner’s Board of Directors.

Makes recommendations pertaining to improved dissemination of scientific material.

Oversees publications department staff in regard to the journal.

A. DUTIES

Possess a general scientific knowledge of the fields covered in the journal and be skilled in the arts of
writing, editing, critical assessment, negotiation, and diplomacy.

Publish original, important, well-documented, peer-reviewed articles on a diverse range of scientific

topics of interest to the readership.

Establish policies for

Submission of manuscripts and criteria for authorship/contributorship

Processes for peer review, evaluation of decisions regarding publication, and methods for
reconsideration of rejected manuscripts

Identification and selection of theme issues and supplements

Conflict of interest and disclosure

Handling allegations and findings of scientific misbehavior and misconduct

Communicate publication guidelines and policies (e.g., Instructions for Authors, Instructions for
Reviewers, ethical guidelines, editorial board reports, Editorials).

Provide the journal owner, publications oversight committee, and/or editorial board with reports, as
requested, on the journal’s activities.

Preside at annual meetings of the editorial board and the executive committees.

Receive, review, and act on complaints from those involved in the publication process.

Review and approve the journal’s yearly budget, as proposed by the managing editor, for approval by
the journal’s management committee.

Represent the editorial board in negotiations with the journal’s publisher.

B. EDITORIAL FREEDOM

The editor-in-chief will have complete authority for determining the editorial content within the defined
scope of the journal and participate in the development of the advertising policy.
C. TERM OF APPOINTMENT

The individual elected as editor-in-chief is expected to serve in that position for [a defined number of]
years.

If a person serving as editor-in-chief is unable to complete the current term, [number] months’ notice
should be provided. The editor-in-chief may recommend potential successors to the Society.
Print Media vs. Electronic Media
Media refer to different channels that are used to transmit, store and deliver data or some
information from one place to other, one person to other as well as to the masses. This
term is also used as mass media. The need for media rose from the fact that by nature
human being loves to communicate themselves. So from ancient times different
civilizations developed different "mediums or media" of communication. The ancient
cave paintings, hieroglyphs, symbols, maps, and drawings are all the examples of how
human being communicated from time to time. The major forms of media used all around
the world today are print media, electronic media. In this article an attempt has been
made to compare print media and electronic media.

Print media contain materials that are available to us in printed form and which we can
carry with ourselves or we can simply say they are portable. The major types of print
media are books, magazines, newspapers, newsletters, posters, brochures, press releases
etc. Books are the oldest medium among all the print media and they are still one of the
most widely used among all. These were the books that contributed to the development of
libraries in medieval times across Asia and Europe. Magazines and newspapers are
relatively new form of print media which gained popularity and became common in the
20th century all over the world, thus becoming leading medium of mass communication.
The advent of newspapers and magazines greatly helped in the communication at the
local, national as well as global levels during the last two centuries. It can also be said
that these acted as agents of globalization to a large extent. They also helped in anti-
colonial movements across the world.

Electronic media imply to that form of media which can only be accessed by an
electronic device. The largely used electronic media are radio, television and internet.
Radio is no doubt the oldest of electronic media. It came to the public in late 19th and
early 20th century and within few years it became one of the daily items of use for
millions of people worldwide. It became one of prime sources of entertainment,
knowledge as well as information. Radio was also used as an effective medium to

1
transmit messages during the world wars. The mid-20th century saw the rise of television
as an electronic media and it very quickly became the most fascinating all over the world.
The reason for the success of television is very simple. It appeals to our visual as well as
hearing senses. The visual appeal of television is perhaps unparalleled to any mass media.
Till now it remains the most popular mass media. With the introduction of World Wide
Web (www) the internet also developed into a dynamic force in communication.
According to Internet World Stats there were more than 2.4 billion internet users on June
30, 2012. The internet's popularity as mass media is because of the fact that it enables one
to access any and many information by just click of a button. It is also a two way
communication medium as it helps interacting face to face by the use of appropriate
instruments and internet connection.

Thus we can say that both print and electronic media have contributed greatly in the
process of mass communication. Both have their respective advantages as well as
disadvantages. But to neglect or ignore one for another would not be the ideal way
because each form has its own significance. The books, for example, cannot be replaced
by television, while the attraction of internet and web cannot fully overtake the charm of
newspapers and magazines. Moreover people working in different media fields and their
livelihoods would be affected if any media suffer a setback. But at the same time one
must also be ready to accept the reality that with time it would become difficult for old
media to survive in the new "digital" age. So, for its survival the old media must make
use of new techniques and technologies to upgrade itself and also try to keep intact its
genuineness which by no way is an easy task. But still we can try. The production of the
e-books, e-newspaper and internet radio are some of the successful efforts to assimilate
the old with the new.

2
Natural Sciences and Technology
Science from the Latin scientia (knowledge)

is a system of acquiring knowledge based on the scientific method, as well as

the organized body of knowledge gained through such research.

Science as defined here is sometimes termed pure science to differentiate it

from applied science, which is the application of scientific research to specific
human needs.

Technology

is a broad concept that deals with a knowledge and usage of tools and crafts,
and how it affects a species' ability to control and adapt to its environment.

The following are the cognitive and practical process and design skills that learners will
be able to develop in Natural Sciences and Technology:

1. Accessing and recalling information – being able to use a variety of sources to acquire
information, and to remember relevant facts and key ideas, and to build a conceptual
framework.

2. Observing – noting in detail objects, organisms and events

3. Comparing – noting similarities and differences

between things

4. Measuring – using measuring instruments such as rulers, thermometers, clocks and

syringes (for volume)

5. Sorting and classifying – applying criteria in order to sort items into a table, mind-map,
key, list or other format

6. Identifying problems and issues – being able to articulate the needs and wants of people
in society

7. Raising questions – being able to think of, and articulate relevant questions about
problems, issues, and natural phenomena

8. Predicting – stating, before an investigation, what you think the results will be for that
particular investigation

9. Hypothesizing – putting forward a suggestion or possible

explanation to account for certain facts.
A hypothesis is used as a basis for further investigation
which will prove or disprove the hypothesis

10. Planning investigations – thinking through the method for an activity or investigation
in advance. Identifying the need to make an investigation a fair test by keeping some
things (variables) the same whilst other things will vary

11. Doing investigations – this involves carrying out methods using appropriate
apparatus and equipment, and collecting data by observing and comparing, measuring
and estimating, sequencing, or sorting and classifying.
Sometimes an investigation has to be repeated to verify the results.

12. Recording information – recording data from an investigation in a systematic way,

including drawings, descriptions, tables and graphs

13. Interpreting information – explaining what the results of an activity or investigation

mean (this includes reading skills)

14. Designing – showing (e.g. by drawing) how something is to be made taking into
account the design brief, specifications and constraints

15. Making/constructing – building or assembling an object using appropriate materials

and tools and using skills such as measuring, cutting, folding, rolling, gluing

16. Evaluating and Improving products – using criteria to assess a constructed object and
then stating or carrying out ways to refine that object

17. Communicating – using written, oral, visual, graphic and other forms of
communication to make information available to other people

Source:

Science and Technology

The words science and technology can and often are used interchangeably.

But the goal of science is the pursuit of knowledge for its own sake

while the goal of technology is to create products that solve problems and
improve human life.

Simply put, technology is the practical application of science.

 Difference between Science and Technology

Science Technology

Motto: Science is knowing Technology is doin

Mission: The search for and theorizing about The search for and theorizing about
cause. new processes

Result Making virtually value-free Activities always value-laden

Relevance statements

Evaluation Analysis, generalization and creation Analysis and synthesis of design

Methods of theories

Goals achieve Corresponding Scientific Processes Key Technological Processes

through

Focus: Focuses on understanding natura focuses on understanding the

phenomena Made environmen

Development Discovery (controlled by Design, invention, production

Methods: experimentation

Most observe Drawing correct conclusions based on Taking good decisions based on
quality: good theories and accurate data incomplete data and approximate model

Skills needed t Experimental and logical skills needed Design, construction, testing,
excel: planning, quality assurance, problem
solving, decision making, interpersonal
and communication skills

Natural Sciences Studies on Technology Studies on

Life and Living Structures

Matter and Materials Processing

Energy and Change Systems and Control

Planet Earth and Beyond

Technical Text and Language



Technical Text and Language

Technical writing is a form of technical communication used in a variety of technical and

occupational fields, such as computer hardware and software, engineering, chemistry,
the aeronautics and astronautics, robotics, finance, consumer electronics, and
biotechnology.

The Society for Technical Communication (STC) defines technical writing as a broad field
including any form of communication that exhibits one or more of the following
characteristics:

(1)communicating about technical or specialized topics, such as computer applications,

medical procedures, or environmental regulations;

(2) communicating through technology, such as web pages, help files, or social media
sites; or

(3) providing instructions about how to do something, regardless of the task's technical
nature.

Technical writing involves the creation of useful documents that can be clearly understood
by readers.

Good technical writing clarifies jargon, presenting useful information that is clear and easy
to understand for the intended audience;

poor technical writing may increase confusion by creating or failing to explain unnecessary
jargon.

Technical writing is performed by technical writers, who may be professionals or mateurs.

These writers usually begin such work by learning the purpose of the document that they
will create, gathering information from existing documentation and from subject-matter
experts;

Technical writers need not be subject-matter experts themselves. A good technical writer
needs strong language and teaching skills and must understand how to communicate with
technology.

Advanced technical writers often move into specialized areas such as document
architecture, or information management.

 Technical writing is often associated with online help and user manuals.

It also includes
product release notes,
product troubleshooting guides,
tutorials,
installation guides,
marketing documentation,
e-learning modules,
web content,
legal disclaimers,
business proposals, and
white papers.

Technical writing began to be seen as discipline in and of itself around the time of World
War I, growing out of the need for technology-based documentation in the military,
manufacturing, electronics, and aerospace industries.

 Techniques

Technical writing involves analysis of a document's intended audience in order to translate

complex technical concepts and instructions into a series of simple steps that enable users
to perform a specific task in a specific way.

To present appropriate information, writers must understand the audience and their
goals.

For example, an audience of highly trained scientists will require less explanation of
technical terms than a help guide intended for general audiences.

The writing also seeks to present an attractive layout for easy reading and comprehension.

A writer must understand the medium typically used to view the final product.

For example: An HTML document, such as a web page, frequently has a different layout
than a print document. The use of elements such as hyperlinks and animation will affect
the content and form of the writing.

Technical documents

Broadly speaking, technical documentation can be categorized into three types,

depending on the
1.style of writing,
2.the level of knowledge transferred, and
3.the target audience

End-user assistance documents help a user understand a software or hardware product.

This includes user manuals for computer programs, household products, medical
equipment, mobile phones, and other consumer electronics.

Traditional technical documentation communicates to

a specialized audience. Such documentation includes
maintenance guides, repair manuals, engineering
specifications, research papers, reference works,
annual reports, and articles for technical journals.

Marketing communication such as product catalogs,

brochures, advertisements, introductory pages
for web sites, and press releases are sometimes
created by technical writers.

Publishing Science
 Publishing is the process of production and
dissemination of literature, music, or information
— the activity of making information available to
general public.

Publishing includes the stages of the

DEVELOPMENT,
ACQUISITION,
COPYEDITING,
GRAPHIC DESIGN,
PRINT PRODUCTION
(AND ITS ELECTRONIC EQUIVALENTS),
MARKETING AND
DISTRIBUTION

For example:
Newspapers, magazines, books, literary works,
musical works, software and other works dealing
with information, including the electronic media.

Types of Publishing
With the advent of digital information systems and the Internet, the scope of publishing
has expanded to include electronic resources.

such as the electronic versions of books and periodicals, as well as micropublishing,

websites, blogs, video game publishers and the like.

Publication is also important as a legal concept:

For copyright purposes, where there is a difference in the protection of published and
unpublished works.

As the process of giving formal notice to the world of a significant intention,

for example, to marry or enter bankruptcy;

There are three different categories of a Publishing House:

Non-Paid Publishers : The term non paid publisher refers to those publication houses
which does not charge author at all to publish the book.

Semi Paid Publishers : Publication houses that charges partially to the author in order to
meet the expenses of the book.

Paid Publishers : These days paid publication has become very common, here the author
has to meet with the total expense to get the book published and author has full right to
set up marketing policies.

 PRINT
AND
ELECTRONIC MEDIA

 Print Media

Choice of reading, that is user is free to read anytime, anything he wish

to read and can be carried anywhere.

Much affordable form of media, when compared with the electronic

media.

For an individual, it is quite an easy proof for any sort of information.

People specially living in rural areas can easily afford a newspaper as compared to
TV& Internet etc.

User do not require any kind of medium like radio, television etc. for the
data transmission.

It is your choice to access this media at any point of time, not like
electric media where a program is telecasted at a particular prescribed time.

Very Cheap

Print media allows reader to store away articles that be used any time in
the future.

No problem of BUFFERING or poor Telecasting quality or disconnection or

interruption.

 Electronic Media

A more advanced form of media. It includes MULTIMEDIA content.

Introduces relatively more revenues and job opportunities as

compared to the printed forms.

Relatively more innovative form of media and includes motion pictures,

animation etc. which make things even more attractive.

A variety of options available unlike print media where one has to stick
on to a single set of document.

People can surf through different channels, site etc. whatever they like or want

Very appropriate for immediate broadcast like result of instant POLLS, reviews
of public and some match results.

Can be reached faster and can be made LIVE.

Can be very effective for spreading awareness at national and

international level

The standard of television news is deteriorating much faster than that

of print media.

 Science Publication Editor Roles and Responsibilities

Editors of scientific journals have responsibilities toward the authors who provide the content of the
journals, the peer reviewers who comment on the suitability of manuscripts for publication, the
journal’s readers and the scientific community, the owners/publishers of the journals, and the public as
a whole. Depending upon the relationship between the editor and publisher for particular journals,
some of the roles and responsibilities between the two may overlap in some of the following:

Editor Responsibilities toward Authors

Providing guidelines to authors for preparing and submitting manuscripts

Providing a clear statement of the Journal’s policies on authorship criteria

Treating all authors with fairness, courtesy, objectivity, honesty, and transparency

Establishing and defining policies on conflicts of interest for all involved in the publication process,
including editors, staff (e.g., editorial and sales), authors, and reviewers

Protecting the confidentiality of every author’s work

Establishing a system for effective and rapid peer review (see section 2.3)

Making editorial decisions with reasonable speed and communicating them in a clear and constructive
manner

Being vigilant in avoiding the possibility of editors and/or referees delaying a manuscript for suspect
reasons

Establishing clear guidelines for authors regarding acceptable practices for sharing experimental
materials and information, particularly those required to replicate the research, before and after
publication

Establishing a procedure for reconsidering editorial decisions (see section 2.1.9)

Describing, implementing, and regularly reviewing policies for handling ethical issues and allegations or
findings of misconduct by authors and anyone involved in the peer review process (see sections 2.1.10
and 3.0)

Informing authors of solicited manuscripts that the submission will be evaluated according to the
journal’s standard procedures or outlining the decision-making process if it differs from those
procedures

Developing mechanisms, in cooperation with the publisher, to ensure timely publication of accepted
manuscripts (see section 2.1.6)

Clearly communicating all other editorial policies and standards

The following are examples of editorial policies and standards that editors may require of submitting
authors:

State all sources of funding for research and include this information in the acknowledgment section of
the submitted manuscript.

State in the manuscript, if appropriate, that the research protocol employed was approved by the
relevant institutional review boards or ethics committees for human (including human cells or tissues) or
animal experiments and that all human subjects provided appropriate informed consent.

Describe in the manuscript methods section how cultured cell lines were authenticated.

State in the manuscript, if appropriate, that regulations concerning the use of animals in research,
teaching, and testing were adhered to. Governments, institutions, and professional organizations have
statements about the use of animals in research. For examples, see the statements from the Federation
of American Societies for Experimental Biology,1 the Canadian Council on Animal Care,2 and, for links to
other informational sites, the University of California, San Francisco.3

When race/ethnicity is reported, define who determined race/ethnicity, whether the options were
defined by the investigator and, if so, what they were and why race/ethnicity is considered important in
the study.

List contributors who meet the journal’s criteria for authorship as authors and identify other support
(e.g., statistical analysis or writers), with the contributor’s approval, in the acknowledgment section.
Some journals may require and publish a statement of author contribution for each article. In addition,
some journals have a requirement for original research (sometimes called a guarantor policy) that at
least one author who had full access to all the data takes responsibility for its integrity and the accuracy
of the data analysis. JAMA publishes these statements in the acknowledgment section. A description can
be found in the JAMA Instructions for Authors.4

Reveal any potential conflicts of interest of each author either in the cover letter, manuscript, or
disclosure form,a in accordance with the journal’s policy.

Include (usually written) permission from each individual identified as a source of personal
communication or unpublished data.

Describe and provide copies of any similar works in process.

Provide copies of cited manuscripts that are submitted or in press.

Supply supporting manuscript data (e.g., actual data that were summarized in the manuscript) to the
editor when requested or indicate where (site) the data can be found.

Share data or materials needed by other scientists to replicate the experiment. As an example, the
Information for Authors of the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS)b state: “To
allow others to replicate and build on work published in PNAS, authors must make materials, data, and
associated protocols available to readers. Authors must disclose upon submission of the manuscript any
restrictions on the availability of materials or information.”

Cite and reference other relevant published work on which the submitted work is based.

Obtain permission from the copyright owner to use/reproduce copyrighted content (e.g., figures and
tables) in the submitted manuscript, if applicable.c

Provide written permission from any potentially identifiable individuals referred to or shown in
photographs in the manuscript.

Copyright transfer statement d or licensing agreement.e

aA sample disclosure form can be found at: http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/data/295/1/103/DC1/1

(Accessed March 9, 2012).

bProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS) Information for authors. Available at:
http://www.pnas.org/misc/iforc.shtml (Accessed March 9, 2012)

cAn example of information commonly required for permission to reuse copyrighted material can be
found at: http://www.nutrition.org/publications/guidelines-and-policies/permissions/ (Accessed March
9, 2012).

dA sample copyright transfer agreement is available at: http://circres.ahajournals.org/misc/AHA-CTA08-

2008.pdf (Accessed March 9, 2012).

eA sample licensing agreement is available at: http://www.nature.com/nbt/pdf/nbt_license.pdf

(Accessed March 9, 2012).

Some journals may also request or require adherence to the following trial registration or reporting
guidelines:

Registration information for clinical trials (See section 2.2.6).f, 5

Adherence to the CONSORT statement,6 which helps standardize reports of randomized trials.

The use of the STARD flow diagram and checklist7 for reporting diagnostic tests.

Compliance with MOOSE guidelines8 for reporting meta-analyses and systematic reviews of
observational studies.

Adherence to STROBE checklists9 for the reporting cohort, case-control, and cross-sectional
observational studies.

Adherence to QUOROM guidelines10 for reporting meta-analyses and systematic reviews of randomized
controlled trials.

Adherence to the MIAME standards11 for reporting microarray experiments.

Adherence to any discipline-specific standards for data sharing and/or open access archiving.

fSome guidelines for registering clinical trials can be found at: http://jama.ama-
assn.org/cgi/content/full/292/11/1363 (Accessed March 9, 2012).

A resource that provides information about many of the reporting guidelines is the EQUATOR
network.12

Peer Review

Editors are responsible for monitoring and ensuring the fairness, timeliness, thoroughness, and civility of
the peer-review editorial process.

Peer review by external referees with the proper expertise is the most common method to ensure
manuscript quality. However, editors or associate editors may sometimes reject manuscripts without
external peer review to make the best use of their resources. Reasons for this practice are usually that
the manuscript is outside the scope of the journal, does not meet the journal’s quality standards or is of
limited scientific merit, or lacks originality or novel information.

Referees are chosen by the editors or by associate editors or members of the editorial board to whom
the task has been delegated. The amount of anonymity in the peer-review process varies. Some journals
attempt to mask the identities of both the authors and reviewers (double masked or double blind);
however, although masked, the identity of the author(s) may be known by the reviewers based on the
area of research. Many journals follow the practice of keeping reviewer identities anonymous to the
authors (single masked or single blind). Alternatively, some journals give reviewers the option to reveal
their names, and a few journals provide authors with the names of all reviewers associated with the
manuscript.

Peer review is usually a gift of uncompensated time from scientists to whom time is a precious
commodity. Therefore, it is important for editors to clearly define the responsibilities of these
individuals and to implement processes that streamline the peer review process as much as possible
(see section 2.3 for more on reviewer responsibilities).

Editor Responsibilities toward Reviewers

Assigning papers for review appropriate to each reviewer’s area of interest and expertise
Establishing a process for reviewers to ensure that they treat the manuscript as a confidential document
and complete the review promptly

Informing reviewers that they are not allowed to make any use of the work described in the manuscript
or to take advantage of the knowledge they gained by reviewing it before publication

Providing reviewers with written, explicit instructions on the journal’s expectations for the scope,
content, quality, and timeliness of their reviews to promote thoughtful, fair, constructive, and
informative critique of the submitted work

Requesting that reviewers identify any potential conflicts of interest and asking that they recuse
themselves if they cannot provide an unbiased review

Allowing reviewers appropriate time to complete their reviews

Requesting reviews at a reasonable frequency that does not overtax any one reviewer

Finding ways to recognize the contributions of reviewers, for example, by publicly thanking them in the
journal; providing letters that might be used in applications for academic promotion; offering
professional education credits; or inviting them to serve on the editorial board of the journal

Editors have the responsibility to inform and educate readers. Making clear and rational editorial
decisions will ensure the best selection of content that contributes to the body of scientific knowledge.

Editor Responsibilities toward Readers and the Scientific Community

Evaluating all manuscripts considered for publication to make certain that each provides the evidence
readers need to evaluate the authors’ conclusions and that authors’ conclusions reflect the evidence
provided in the manuscript

Providing literature references and author contact information so interested readers may pursue further
discourse

Identifying individual and group authorship clearly and developing processes to ensure that authorship
criteria are met to the best of the editor’s knowledge

Requiring all authors to review and accept responsibility for the content of the final draft of each paper
or for those areas to which they have contributed; this may involve signatures of all authors or of only
the corresponding author on behalf of all authors. Some journals ask that one author be the guarantor
and take responsibility for the work as a whole

Maintaining the journal’s internal integrity (e.g., correcting errors; clearly identifying and differentiating
types of content, such as reports of original data, opinion pieces [e.g., editorials and letters to the
editor], corrections/errata, retractions, supplemental data, and promotional material or advertising; and
identifying published material with proper references)

Ensuring that all involved in the publication process understand that it is inappropriate to manipulate
citations by, for example, demanding that authors cite papers in the journal13, 14
Disclosing sources (e.g., authorship, journal ownership, and funding)

Creating mechanisms to determine if the journal is providing what readers need and want (e.g., reader
surveys)

Disclosing all relevant potential conflicts of interest of those involved in considering a manuscript or
affirming that none exist.15, 16 Sample correspondence related to this topic is available on the CSE
website.17

Providing a mechanism for a further discussion on the scientific merits of a paper, such as by publishing
letters to the editor, inviting commentaries, article blogs, or soliciting other forms of public discourse

Explicitly stating journal policies regarding ethics, embargo, submission and publication fees, and
accessibility of content (freely available versus subscriber only)

Working with the publisher to attract the best manuscripts and research that will be of interest to
readers

In some instances, a publisher may put pressure on an editor to publish a review or article in an effort to
increase reprint sales. The editor has a responsibility to readers and the scientific community to resist
such pressure18

Journal Ownership

Journals are typically owned by professional societies or associations, foundations, universities,

hospitals, research institutions, libraries, governmental organizations, non-profit organizations, or
commercial publishers.

Editor Responsibilities toward Journal Owners/Publishers

Conducting peer review of submitted manuscripts

Complying with the guidelines and procedures of the owner organization, including any terms specified
in the contract with that organization

Making recommendations about improved evaluation and dissemination of scientific material

Adhering to the owner’s and publisher’s fiscal policies towards the Journal, at least in so much as they
do not encroach upon editorial independence

Adhering to the agreed-upon mission, publication practices, and schedule

Meeting all obligations, which sometimes compete against one another, and handling the demands of
other individuals and groups (such as the parent society, owners, publishers, funders and sponsors,
authors, readers, advertisers, news media, and government agencies) require that the editors have
editorial freedom, comprising both authority and autonomy. It should be recognized that this is a
difficult challenge and, therefore, editors should not hesitate to consult peers and/or organizations, such
as the CSE, should concerns or uncertainties arise.
Responsibilities of Editors toward the Public

Many responsibilities of editors toward the public are carried out through the mechanisms established
for the processes and constituencies mentioned above. Editors’ roles have benefited society in many
ways, from the quality-control measures taken when considering manuscripts for publication to
requiring authors to abide by standards that would advance science and deposit information into freely
available public databases as a condition of publication (e.g., data sharing). Editors are regularly taking
steps to see that the outcomes of the scientific enterprise benefit the public. This includes identifying
dual use research, which is research that can be misused to harm the public or its well-being.

Dual Use Research

One additional area that has emerged with advances in science, technology, and global exchange of
information is consideration of “dual use research.” This is research with a legitimate scientific purpose
that may be misused to pose a threat to public health and/or national security. As defined by the United
States National Science Advisory Board for Biosecurity (NSABB), dual use research of concern (DURC) is a
subset of dual use research “that, based on current understanding, can be reasonably anticipated to
provide knowledge, products, or technologies that could be directly misapplied by others to pose a
threat to public health and safety, agriculture, plants, animals, the environment, and material.”19
Examples include knowledge, products, or technologies that could be misapplied to create or enhance
harmful consequences of biological agents or toxins, disrupt immunity of vaccines, increase transmission
of harmful substances, or alter biological agents and toxins to make them resistant to clinical or
agricultural prophylactic or therapeutic interventions, or conversely to enhance the susceptibility of a
host population to harm.

Everyone has a stake in the responsible management of DURC, but especially individual researchers,
institutions and institutional groups (e.g., institutional biosafety committees), funding agencies,
scientific societies, government/regulatory bodies, journal editors, and the global scientific community.
In the United States, the National Policy on the Transfer of Scientific, Technical, and Engineering
Information, issued in 1985 (National Security Decision Directive-189),20 states that, to the maximum
extent possible, federally funded fundamental research that is unclassified will not have government-
imposed restrictions on its conduct or reporting. More recent legislation, such as the USA PATRIOT Act
of 2001 (P.L. 107-56)21 and the Public Health Security and Bioterrorism Preparedness and Response Act
of 2002 (P.L. 107-188, H.R. 3448), takes additional steps intended to prevent bioterrorism, including the
establishment of a national database of potentially dangerous pathogens and imposition of safety and
security requirements on facilities and individuals with access to them.

Identification and consideration of DURC throughout the research continuum before submission of
manuscripts for publication is an important early step. However, while journal editors do not have sole
responsibility for the management of DURC, inevitably, editors will be faced with submissions that could
be considered DURC and the challenges that come with handling them. Considering the risks and
benefits of publishing DURC is a task in which many editors have no experience. Identifying DURC is
subjective, and it is difficult for even the most knowledgeable editors and scientists to manage
submissions that provide legitimate scientific contributions without censoring their communication
because of potential harmful use.

In 2003, the “Statement on Scientific Publication and Security”22 was published by a group of editors
simultaneously in Science, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, Nature, and the American
Society for Microbiology journals. This statement recognizes the challenge of dual use research and
documents the commitment of journal editors and authors toward responsibly and effectively balancing
the need for public safety with the requirements of transparently reporting scientific results. There may
be times when it is appropriate to “encourage investigators to communicate results of research in ways
that maximize public benefits and minimize risks of misuse.” In rare cases, some information needed to
reproduce the experiment should be eliminated or the manuscript itself should not be published. Editors
who may potentially receive DURC submissions should consider establishing best practices for
processing these manuscripts.

The NSABB and organizations around the world have entered into dialogues with all stakeholders to find
ways to ensure that science continues to be done and communicated in an unfettered way, while being
mindful of and minimizing the risks and consequences of misuse. Tools and information on this topic are
being built and shared by the global community.

Editors can educate journal boards, reviewers, and authors; establish screening methods to recognize
DURC; obtain reviews of these manuscripts from individuals with technical and security expertise; and
create an ongoing network to share experiences and further refine ways for managing DURC.

Editors should develop guidelines and procedures to allow the scientific evaluation as well as the
evaluation of the possible risk of communicating information with dual use potential. Additional
information on what to consider when evaluating a manuscript with potential dual use can be found in
the report titled, Biotechnology Research in an Age of Terrorism.23

2.1.1 Editorial Freedom

An editor essentially is responsible for what appears in his or her journal. To establish and maintain high-
quality journal content, an editor should, prior to accepting a position, receive an explicit written
statement from the journal’s owner that defines the editor’s responsibilities and autonomy. Regardless
of the scientific field, editors should be given full responsibility for editorial decisions on individual
manuscripts (see section 2.5). The editor’s right to editorial freedom may be supported by the following
and should be agreed on by both the editor and the journal owner/publisher:

A journal mission statement

Written editorial priorities, objectives, and measures of success

Written editorial policies

A written job description, specifically detailing components of editorial freedom, including the degree of
control regarding editorial content, acceptance and publication, and advertising content (a sample job
description can be found in the Appendix to this section)

An editorial board, including associate, assistant, and topic editors, that is nominated or appointed by
and reports to the editor

Sufficient support from the parent society, publisher, owner, or other journal sponsors in both funding
and staff to carry out the journal’s stated mission

A mechanism for regular and objective evaluation of editor performance by the publisher or sponsoring
organization based on predetermined and agreed-upon measures of success

Direct lines of communication with the publisher, owner, and any publication oversight body

A mechanism to prevent inappropriate influence on the editor by others and to handle conflicts in an
objective and transparent manner with the goal of conflict resolution and maintenance of trust

Much of the above may be laid out in a contract. The terms of the contract should specify the duration
of the editor’s appointment and the grounds for termination, from both sides.

2.1.2 Confidentiality

Editors and the publication staff should keep all information about a submitted manuscript confidential,
sharing it only with those involved in the evaluation, review, and publication processes.

Editors should consider adding a confidentiality notice to all correspondence, including reviewer forms,
to serve as a reminder to authors, editors, and reviewers.

To minimize the potential to influence editorial decisions, many journals have policies not to release
content to the publication’s sales team until it has been accepted or published.

Journals should have a mechanism – consistent with established industry standards – to safely store,
archive, and/or destroy paper and electronic manuscript review files and related content. Records and
retention schedules, such as how long to keep published manuscripts and associated correspondence or
rejected manuscripts and associated correspondence, should be documented in writing and reviewed
on a regular basis.

Journals may receive subpoenas for information about manuscripts. Legal counsel is advised in this
scenario. Formal subpoenas can be issued only by a regulatory agency or court of competent
jurisdiction. Formal inquiries from law firms, for example, are probably best to politely decline, citing
confidentiality. Generally, editors should resist revealing confidential information when served a
subpoena unless advised to do so by legal counsel. Not only is the requested information usually
confidential, but often uncovering ALL information (for which lawyers are trained to ask) can be time-
consuming, interrupt normal business, and be expensive. Citing, for example, the Avoidance of Undue
Burden or Expense Under Rule 45(c)(1) of the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure may be useful.24

Confidential information should not be used for an editor’s own purposes, and editors should take
reasonable steps to ensure that such information is not used inappropriately for the advantage of
others. In cases of breach of confidentiality by those involved in the peer-review process, editors should
contact the involved parties and follow up on such cases until they are satisfactorily resolved.

Generally, editors of journals with embargo policies should enforce them to encourage the
confidentiality of publication content until the embargo release date, unless the editor is authorized by
the copyright owner or required by law to disclose the information. The copyright owner is often the
journal owner—usually the society or publisher—but may be the author. There are 2 general exceptions
under which an editor may release manuscript content to others not involved in consideration of the
manuscript prior to publication: (1) to an author if a commentary or editorial is being solicited to
highlight the manuscript and (2) to the public when research findings have a major health or societal
impact (a rare event). In the latter case, journals often prefer to coordinate release of the peer-reviewed
study findings with announcements to the public so that details are clearly presented and widely
disseminated. This type of content is often made freely available online prior to print. A good summary
of the importance of releasing information to the public and honoring embargoes is described in a JAMA
editorial25 (see section 2.6).

2.1.3 Conflicts of Interest

Conflicts of interest in publishing can be defined as conditions in which an individual holds conflicting or
competing interests that could bias editorial decisions. Conflicts of interest may be only potential or
perceived, or they may be factual. Personal, political, financial, academic, or religious considerations can
affect objectivity in numerous ways.
Editors should set and regularly monitor a conflict of interest policy for editors, reviewers, editorial
board members, editorial staff, and authors.15, 16 Sample correspondence related to this topic is
available on the CSE website.17 These policies should be published in the journal with the date of their
adoption or publication and made easily accessible to all readers by a parallel online publication (usually
as part of the Instructions for Authors). Editors should strive for fairness and impartiality in their policies.
This can only be achieved if all parties involved in the peer-review process disclose any and all conflicts
and allow the Editor to decide how they should be handled. It is also important to recognize that an
Editor and/or reviewer can be impartial while nonetheless being in conflict of interest. Since the
perception of conflict of interest is detrimental to a journal’s reputation, avoiding even the perception of
conflict of interest should be a priority. Enforcement of these policies must also be considered: practices
to deal with premeditated or inadvertent breaches of the journal’s conflict of interest policy should be
stated in writing, regularly reviewed, and carried out consistently.

One challenge for editors is to recognize the potential for biases arising from conflicts of interest in the
publishing process and to take appropriate action when biases are likely. Some specific types of conflict
of interest are mentioned below.

Personal conflicts. Editors should avoid making decisions on manuscripts that conflict with their own
interest, such as those submitted from their department or by research collaborators, co-authors (in the
case of collaborators or co-authors, some time period should be established, such as “for the past five
years”), competitors, or those addressing an issue in which they stand to gain financially (e.g., stock in a
company whose product is discussed in the article). If they may have a perceived or actual conflict of
interest, editors should delegate handling of any decision to other editors with decision-making
responsibility. Also, editors should submit their own manuscripts to the journal only if full masking of the
process can be ensured (e.g., anonymity of the peer reviewers and lack of access to records of their own
manuscript). Journals should have a procedure in place to guide the handling of submissions by editors,
associate editors, editorial board members, and colleagues/students of any of these to allow for peer
review and decision making that avoids any conflict of interest. Editorials and/or opinion pieces are an
exception to this rule.

Financial conflicts. The most evident type of potential conflict of financial interest arises when an
individual or organization may benefit financially from a decision to publish or to reject a manuscript.
Financial conflicts may include salary, grants from a company with an interest in the results, honoraria,
stock or equity interests, and intellectual property rights (patents, royalties, and copyrights). Some
examples of potential direct and indirect financial conflicts of interest that should be avoided are given
below.

Direct: An editor, author, or reviewer is reporting or considering a study involving a specific commercial
product while he or she holds equity positions or stock options in the company making the product and
thus has the potential to realize direct financial gain if the assessment is favorable.
Direct: A reviewer gains key knowledge by evaluating a competing research team’s work and uses it
prior to the publication of the work but does not cite it in his/her own patent application.

Indirect: An individual involved in the publication process is employed by an organization that would
obtain some advantage from a favorable product-related publication or may receive compensation if a
product does well as a result of a favorable report published in the journal. Similarly, an author of an
editorial commenting on the importance of a research article may minimize positive findings if he or she
has been a consultant to a company selling competing products.

Indirect: When an investigator studies the product of a commercial enterprise from which the
investigator has received monies previously (e.g., consulting fees, honoraria, or speaking fees), the
situation differs slightly. In such case, there is no direct relationship between the evaluation and a
personal gain the investigator may anticipate. Nevertheless, previously received payments could
conceivably influence the researcher’s opinion; therefore, they must be regarded as a potential conflict
of interest and should be disclosed.

Indirect: An author is being considered for a research grant and publication of an article favorable to the
company reviewing the grant may influence the award.

Nonfinancial conflicts. Other nonfinancial conflicts of interest should also be avoided or disclosed. Some
of these include personal, political, academic, and religious conflicts. Examples are listed below.

A reviewer evaluating a manuscript reporting research results similar to results he or she is preparing to
submit for publication might be tempted to delay the review until his or her manuscript is accepted or
might be unduly influenced by the concepts or hypotheses in his or her ongoing and unpublished
research.

A reviewer with strong feelings on a controversial topic might be partial to or biased against a
manuscript on the topic and want to publish or reject it regardless of scientific merit.

An editor chairing a department might struggle to reach an objective decision about a manuscript
submitted by a member of his or her faculty because of his or her commitment to the academic
advancement of those researchers.

2.1.4 Conflict of Interest Disclosure

Explanation and enforcement of authorship disclosure. It is the editors’ responsibility to establish the
authorship criteria guidelines for their journals. Many biomedical journals operate according to the
standards established by the International Committee of Medical Journal Editors (ICMJE).26 It is the
editors’ responsibility to publish their authorship criteria (in print and/or electronic media) and then to
enforce these standards by collecting relevant documentation from authors. Collection can take place
either at manuscript submission or at some point during the peer-review process, preferably prior to
any commitment to accept and publish a study. An observational study by Bates et al27 suggests that,
among 3 highly regarded biomedical publications, the effectiveness of authorship and contributorship
policies varies.

Journals should require disclosure of all conflicts of interest from everyone involved in the publication
process: editors, reviewers, editorial board members, editorial staff, and authors. The intent of
disclosure is to allow others to make an informed decision about the existence and impact of potential
conflicts of interest or bias, including the necessity for recusal or disqualification under extraordinary
circumstances. Editors are better equipped to make informed decisions on potential biases if they have
full knowledge of all the circumstances, and readers and reviewers have more information to interpret
the work when there is a public disclosure. However, some argue that mandatory disclosure of actual or
perceived conflicts does not allow a manuscript to be judged solely on its scientific merits and may
introduce prejudice. Under what circumstances disclosure is needed and how it is handled varies among
journals.

Author disclosures. Some editors and journals require authors to identify the organizations that
provided support for their research and describe the role played by these organizations in the study and
in the analysis of the results. Authors may also be required to disclose all personal, financial, and other
relationships they may have with the manufacturer of any product mentioned in the manuscript or with
the manufacturers of competing products. For example, some journals do not permit consideration of
manuscripts describing research involving a commercial product when the research was supported
financially by a commercial organization involved in the manufacture or sale of that product. Others
prefer that editorials or review articles not be authored by individuals with potential conflicts of
financial interest, feeling that these pieces rely especially heavily on interpretation and objectivity. Many
journals follow the ICMJE recommendation to keep disclosed conflicts of interest confidential during the
peer review process. This allows the editor to consider the potential conflicts after the scientific merit is
assessed. Those journals that request and publish specific conflict of interest information are more likely
to avoid inconsistent handling, but they may unnecessarily use editorial space for this purpose. While
some journals ask that all potential financial conflicts be disclosed, others ask authors to identify only
those that exceed a certain monetary amount.

The ICMJE28 states: “Editors should publish this information if they believe it is important in judging the
manuscript.” This approach gives the editor the discretion to decide whether the potential conflict is
significant enough to reveal. Examples of disclosure forms and actual disclosures can be found in the
Annals of Internal Medicine,g the American Society of Hematology’s journal Blood,h and the American
Academy of Neurology’s journal Neurology.i

Reviewer disclosures. Some journals have established policies that require reviewers to reveal any
potential personal or financial conflicts of interest with respect to the authors or content of manuscripts
they are asked to review, or to affirm that they have no conflicts. In most instances when such conflicts
exist, editors request that reviewers decline to comment on the manuscript. However, if a reviewer is a
colleague of the author but believes that he or she can provide an objective review, the editor may
allow the practice. Many journals use the same conflict of interest disclosure form for both reviewers
and authors, as the potential pitfalls are very similar.

gAnnals of Internal Medicine conflict of interest information is available at:

http://www.annals.org/site/shared/author_conflict.xhtml (Accessed March 9, 2012).

hBlood copyright transfer and conflict of interest disclosure form. Available at:
http://bloodjournal.hematologylibrary.org/site/forms/copyright_transfer.xhtml (Accessed March 9,
2012).

iNeurology disclosure agreement form. Available at:

http://www.neurology.org/misc/DisclosureFormDummyForRef.pdf (Accessed March 9, 2012).

2.1.5 Citation Manipulation

Most metrics of scholarly performance, including the Journal Impact Factor (JIF), are based on citations
to published articles. This may generate strong temptation to inappropriately increase citations,
something that is referred to as citation manipulation or citation gaming.

Citation manipulation refers to any systematic practice that inappropriately pressures authors to cite
material with the primary goal of boosting citation rates. The CSE considers all such practices
unacceptable.

The following forms of citation manipulation (for the purpose of increasing citation rates) have been
reported:14, 29-36

Coercion. At some point during the peer-review process, editors (or anyone else involved in the process)
request that authors add citations from their own journal (or a journal from the same publisher).

Editorials. Editors write editorials in which a disproportionate number of articles from their own journal
are cited.

Reviewers suggesting citations of their own work. Reviewers may suggest that authors cite their articles.

Self-citation. Authors cite disproportionately large numbers of their own articles in all or most of their
publications.

Citation swapping. A group of colleagues (perhaps students or research associates of a particular

researcher) agrees to preferentially and regularly cite each other’s articles in all or most of their
publications.

It should be stressed that some of the practices described above are only inappropriate if the additional
citations requested do not add significantly to the scholarly content of the manuscript (i.e., the intent of
the request is dubious). To alleviate such concerns, the CSE recommends that editors deal with such
issues by clearly informing authors that they need not feel pressured to cite articles simply because they
have been requested to do so, especially if the request does not appear to have scientific merit.

Anybody involved in the peer-review process can become a party to citation manipulation. Therefore, it
is every participant’s responsibility to judge how reasonable such requests are. Stakeholders in the peer-
review and editorial process should be alerted to citation manipulation and bring concerns to the
attention of the editor, publisher, or other accountable party. Journals may also decide to publish a
policy statement condemning citation manipulation practices. It should be noted that most impact
factor formulas monitor when self-citation by a journal reaches an unacceptable level. Although such
behavior may result in a short-term gain, the strategy may not work in the long-term.

2.1.6 Editorial Board Participation

The editor-in-chief or principal editor should define the terms and roles of the editors and editorial
board that are appointed by and report to him or her. As mentioned above, the editor-in-chief should
require disclosure of any conflicts of interest. Some journals request potential editors to identify service
on other publication boards and may consider an editor’s role in the editorial and financial decisions of a
competing publication inappropriate.

The editor-in-chief or principal editor should ensure that the journal’s editors and editorial board are
identified in the journal masthead; receive the necessary training and oversight to adequately perform
editorial functions; and actively perform their responsibilities, such as assigning reviewers or reviewing
manuscripts and advising on policy considerations.

2.1.7 Timeliness of the Publication Process

Editors are responsible for monitoring the turnaround time for every publishing stage from manuscript
receipt to publication or rejection. Processing data and evaluating trends can help editors scrutinize
acceptance and rejection rates of specific types of manuscripts, manage the inventory/backlog of
accepted manuscripts, track reviewers’ and editors’ performance, and assess staffing needs.

Some journals publish annual editorial audits,j which include the total number of manuscripts
submitted, acceptance rates of solicited and unsolicited manuscripts, and the average manuscript
turnaround time. Many journals follow the practice of listing the dates of manuscript receipt and
acceptance as part of the published article. This information helps answer questions from readers and
potential authors about how long it will take to see their manuscript in print. The editor’s responsibility
for timeliness extends to providing prompt responses and decisions for all journal-related activities,
including responses to authors’ queries.
jAn example of an editorial audit is available at:
http://www.conbio.org/Publications/Newsletter/Archives/2008-8-August/newsl013.cfm (Accessed
March 9, 2012).

2.1.8 Errata, Retractions, and Expressions of Concern

Editors have a responsibility to maintain the integrity of the literature by publishing errata or corrections
identifying anything of significance, retractions, and expressions of concern as quickly as possible (see
section 3.5). When appropriate, they should provide a forum (e.g., letters to the editors) for offering
responsible alternative opinions.

Errors in published articles require a published correction or erratum. These corrections should be made
in such a way that secondary publication services, such as PubMed, will identify them and associate
them with the original publication. Many online journals provide a direct link between the original
article and the correction published later.

Editors should monitor the number and types of errors that appear in their journals. This review can be
done simultaneously with the evaluation of other journal statistics. Editors should take corrective
measures when there is evidence of an increase in preventable errors.

2.1.9 Addressing Authorship Disputes

Editors are responsible for promoting the integrity of the literature and fostering good publication
practices. Journals should develop and define authorship or contributorship criteria to minimize
confusion about expectations (see section 2.2). Authorship disputes persist despite the current common
efforts to make authorship or contributorship transparent. Examples include the “honorary” listing of a
person who does not meet authorship criteria, submission of a manuscript without the knowledge or
consent of an author/contributor, misrepresentation of a contribution, and an ordering of the byline
that indicates a greater level of participation in the research than is warranted. A journal’s Instructions
for Authors should define the criteria for authorship or contributorship, but editorial practices should be
in place to consistently handle authorship disputes. For example, an individual may contact the editor
with a complaint about not being included in the author byline of a submitted manuscript despite having
met authorship criteria. In this case, the editor should query the corresponding author regarding the
claim. Depending on the response, the journal may need to turn the investigation of the complaint over
to the institution(s) where the work reported in the manuscript was done. In most cases, the journal will
not have enough information to make a judgment regarding the allegation. Consideration of the
manuscript may have to be postponed pending resolution of the complaint. Authorship abuses may be
driven by some factors that are beyond the role of the editor (tenure decisions, funding, awards, or
competition among authors). Editors, however, should collaborate with research institutions and other
organizations to determine why authorship disputes continue to arise and to work toward solutions.37-
42 Sample correspondence related to this topic is available on the CSE website.17

2.1.10 Considering Appeals for Reconsideration of Rejected Manuscripts

Despite editors’ best efforts to solicit fair and unbiased reviews to evaluate manuscripts fairly, and to
make decisions that are in the best interest of the journal and its readers, authors may still want to
challenge editorial decisions. Editors should have a policy in place to address complaints and help
resolve these issues, although it is not easy to explain to an author that the research reported in his or
her manuscript does not warrant publication in comparison with the many others under consideration.

Determine whether the decision was clearly explained to the author and whether it may have been
based on wrong or questionable information, for example, on an incorrect reading of the manuscript or
on bad advice from a reviewer.

Reconsider rejected manuscripts if the author provides good reasons why the decision may have been
wrong and is willing to revise the manuscript in response to the valid comments of the reviewers and
editors. Many journals allow authors to write a rebuttal letter explaining why their manuscript should be
reevaluated.

Encourage resubmission of manuscripts that are potentially acceptable but were rejected because major
revision or additional data were required, explaining precisely what is needed to make the manuscript
potentially acceptable, and the process and procedures that will be followed in handling the
resubmitted manuscript.

2.1.11 Addressing Allegations or Findings of Misconduct (see section 3.0)

Concerns of possible scientific misconduct are usually expressed first to the editors of a journal about a
manuscript that is under consideration or has already been published. Journals should develop a
consistent policy to encourage the reporting of indications of misconduct, for evaluating the allegations,
and for handling the findings. Journals should include a general statement in their Instructions for
Authors that allegations of misconduct will be pursued. Although the editor is not solely responsible for
monitoring possible failure to meet legal or ethical research and publication standards, it is within his or
her responsibilities to create and enforce policies that encourage good publication practices.43Sample
correspondence related to this topic is available on the CSE website.17 When allegations and/or findings
of misconduct are presented, the editor will be faced with some level of responsibility for investigating,
judging, and/or penalizing the author for these lapses. The Council of Science Editors recommends that
each journal articulates a specific policy on the editor’s responsibility for notifying an author’s institution
of failure to comply with the journal’s ethical standards. Additionally, the editor and the publisher have
a responsibility to inform readers and secondary services of work formally proven to be plagiarized,
fabricated, or falsified.44-47 Sample correspondence related to this topic is available on the CSE
website.17
2.1.12 References

Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology (FASEB). Animals in research and education.
Available at: http://www.faseb.org/Policy-and-Government-Affairs/Science-Policy-Issues/Animals-in-
Research-and-Education.aspx (Accessed March 9, 2012).

Canadian Council on Animal Care. Terms of reference for animal care committees. Available
at:http://www.ccac.ca/en/CCAC_Programs/Guidelines_Policies/POLICIES/TERMS00E.HTM (Accessed
March 9, 2012).

University of California, San Francisco, additional research links. Available at:

http://www.research.ucsf.edu/arc/index.asp (Accessed March 9, 2012).

JAMA Instructions for authors. Available at: http://jama.ama-assn.org/site/misc/ifora.xhtml (Accessed

March 9, 2012).

The Council of Science Editors’ endorsement statement of the ICMJE policy regarding clinical trial
registration is available
at:http://www.www.councilscienceeditors.org/i4a/pages/index.cfm?pageid=3377 (Accessed March 9,
2012).

The CONSORT statement. Available at: http://www.consort-statement.org (Accessed March 9, 2012).

STARD flow diagram. Available at: http://www.clinchem.org/cgi/content/full/49/1/1 (Accessed March 9,

2012).

MOOSE guidelines. Available at: http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/283/15/2008 (Accessed

March 9, 2012).

STROBE statement. Available at: http://www.strobe-statement.org/ (Accessed March 9, 2012).

QUORUM guidelines. Available at: http://www.consort-

statement.org/mod_product/uploads/QUOROM%20Statement%201999.pdf (Accessed March 9, 2012).

MIAME standards. Available at: http://www.mged.org/Workgroups/MIAME/miame_1.1.html (Accessed

March 9, 2012).

The EQUATOR network. Available at: http://www.equator-network.org/ (Accessed March 9, 2012).

Kleinert S, Wager E. Responsible research publication: international standards for editors. A position
statement developed at the 2nd World Conference on Research Integrity, Singapore, July 22-24, 2010.
Section 2.3 Journal metrics and decision-making. Available
at:http://publicationethics.org/files/International%20standard_editors_for%20website_11_Nov_2011.p
df (Accessed March 9, 2012).

Wilhite AW, Fong EA. Coercive citation in academic publishing. Science. 2012;335:42-43.

Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE). What to do if a reviewer suspects undisclosed conflict of

interest (CoI) in a submitted manuscript (flowchart). Available
at:http://www.publicationethics.org/resources/flowcharts (Accessed March 9, 2012).
Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE). What to do if a reader suspects undisclosed conflict of interest
(CoI) in a published article (flowchart). Available
at:http://www.publicationethics.org/resources/flowcharts (Accessed March 9, 2012).

Council of Science Editors. Sample correspondence. Available at:

http://www.www.councilscienceeditors.org/i4a/pages/index.cfm?pageid=3335 (Accessed March 9,
2012).

Marcovitch H. Editors, publishers, impact factors, and reprint income. PLoS Med. 2010;7:e1000355.
Available at:http://www.plosmedicine.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pmed.1000355
(Accessed March 9, 2012).

National Science Advisory Board for Biosecurity. Proposed framework for the oversight of dual use life
sciences research: strategies for minimizing the potential misuse of research information, June 2007.
Available at:
http://oba.od.nih.gov/biosecurity/pdf/Framework%20for%20transmittal%200807_Sept07.pdf (Accessed
March 9, 2012).

National Security Decision Directives. National policy on the transfer of scientific, technical, and
engineering information. Available at:http://www.fas.org/irp/offdocs/nsdd/nsdd-189.htm (Accessed
March 9, 2012).

USA PATRIOT Act. Available at: http://www.fincen.gov/statutes_regs/patriot/ CSE White Paper_Ch-

01(Accessed March 9, 2012).

Journal Editors and Authors Group. Statement on Scientific Publication and Security. Science
2003;299(5610):1149. Available at:www.sciencemag.org/site/feature/data/security/statement.pdf
(Accessed March 9, 2012).

Committee on Research Standards and Practices to Prevent the Destructive Application of

Biotechnology, National Research Council. Biotechnology Research in an Age of Terrorism. Available at:
http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=10827 (Accessed March 9, 2012).

Parrish, DM, Bruns, DE. US legal principles and confidentiality of the peer review process. JAMA
2002;287(21):2839-2841.

Fontanarosa PB, DeAngelis CD. The importance of the journal embargo. JAMA 2002;288(6):748-750.
Available at: http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/288/6/748(Accessed March 9, 2012).

International Committee of Medical Journal Editors (ICMJE). Uniform requirements for manuscripts
submitted to biomedical journals. Available at: http://www.icmje.org(Accessed March 9, 2012).

Bates T, Anic A, Marusic M, Marusic A. Authorship criteria and disclosure of contributions. JAMA.
2004;292:86-88.

International Committee of Medical Journal Editors (ICMJE). Uniform requirements for manuscripts
submitted to biomedical journals. Conflicts of interest. Available
at:http://www.icmje.org/ethical_4conflicts.html (Accessed March 9, 2012).

Arnold DN, Fowler KK. Nefarious numbers. Notices of the AMS. 2011;8:434-437.
Browman HI, Stergiou KI (Eds). 2008. The use and misuse of bibliometric indices in evaluating scholarly
performance. Ethics in Science and Environmental Politics. 2008;8:1-107.

Brumback RA. Impact factor wars: Episode V-The empire strikes back. Journal of Child Neurology.
2009;24:260-262.

Epstein D. Impact factor manipulation. The Write Stuff, The Journal of the European Medical Writers
Association. 2007;16(3):133-134.

Falagas ME, Alexiou VG. The top-ten in journal impact factor manipulation. Archivum Immunologiae et
Therapiae Experimentalis. 2008;56(4):223-226.

Metz K. Bureaucrats, researchers, editors, and the impact factor – a vicious circle that is detrimental to
science. Clinics. 2010;65:937-940.

Smeyers P, Burbules NC. How to improve your impact factor: questioning the quantification of academic
quality. Journal of Philosophy of Education. 2011;45:1-17.

The PLoS Medicine Editors. The impact factor game. PLoS Medicine. 2006;3(6):e291.
http://www.plosmedicine.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pmed.0030291 (Accessed March 9,
2012).

Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE). Changes in authorship – Corresponding author requests

addition of extra author before publication (flowchart). Available
at:http://www.publicationethics.org/resources/flowcharts (Accessed March 9, 2012).

Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE). Changes in authorship – Corresponding author requests

removal of author before publication (flowchart). Available
at:http://www.publicationethics.org/resources/flowcharts (Accessed March 9, 2012).

Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE). Changes in authorship – Request for addition of extra author
after publication (flowchart). Available at:http://www.publicationethics.org/resources/flowcharts
(Accessed March 9, 2012).

Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE). Changes in authorship – Request for removal of author after
publication (flowchart). Available at:http://www.publicationethics.org/resources/flowcharts (Accessed
March 9, 2012).

Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE). What to do if you suspect redundant (duplicate) publication –
Suspected redundant publication in a submitted manuscript (flowchart). Available at:
http://www.publicationethics.org/resources/flowcharts (Accessed March 9, 2012).

Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE). What to do if you suspect redundant (duplicate) publication –
Suspected redundant publication in a published article (flowchart). Available at:
http://www.publicationethics.org/resources/flowcharts (Accessed March 9, 2012).

Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE). What to do if you suspect an ethical problem with a submitted
manuscript (flowchart). Available at:http://www.publicationethics.org/resources/flowcharts (Accessed
March 9, 2012).
Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE). What to do if you suspect plagiarism – Suspected plagiarism in
a submitted manuscript (flowchart). Available
at:http://www.publicationethics.org/resources/flowcharts (Accessed March 9, 2012).

Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE). What to do if you suspect plagiarism – Suspected plagiarism in
a published article (flowchart). Available at:http://www.publicationethics.org/resources/flowcharts
(Accessed March 9, 2012).

Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE). What to do if you suspect fabricated data – Suspected
fabricated data in a submitted manuscript (flowchart). Available
at:http://www.publicationethics.org/resources/flowcharts (Accessed March 9, 2012).

Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE). What to do if you suspect fabricated data – Suspected
fabricated data in a published article (flowchart). Available
at:http://www.publicationethics.org/resources/flowcharts (Accessed March 9, 2012).

2.1.13 Resources and Case Studies

American Chemical Society. Ethical guidelines to publication of chemical research. Available at:
http://pubs.acs.org/userimages/ContentEditor/1218054468605/ethics.pdf(Accessed March 9, 2012).

American Society for Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics. Authorship responsibility, financial
disclosure, and copyright transfer. Available
at:http://jpet.aspetjournals.org/misc/JPET_copyright_form.pdf (Accessed March 9, 2012).

Annals of Internal Medicine. Authorship Issues. Available at:

http://www.annals.org/site/misc/ifora.xhtml#criteria-and-policy (Accessed March 9, 2012).

Biophysical Journal. Copyright permission form. Available at:

http://www.mednet.cl/medios/servicios/mednet/copyright_permission_form.pdf (Accessed March 9,
2012).

Bossuyt PM, Reitsma JB, Bruns DE, et al; for the STARD Group. Towards complete and accurate reporting
of studies of diagnostic accuracy: the STARD Initiative. Clin Chem. 2003; 49:1-18.

Brazma A, Hingamp P, Quackenbush J, et al. Minimum information about a microarray experiment

(MIAME): toward standards for microarray data. Nature Genetics. 2001;29:365-371.

DeAngelis CD, Drazen JM, Frizelle FA, et al. Clinical trial registration: a statement from the International
Committee of Medical Journal Editors. JAMA. 2004;292:1363-1364.
JAMA. Authorship responsibility, financial disclosure, copyright transfer, and acknowledgment. Available
at: http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/data/292/1/112/DC1/1 (Accessed March 9, 2012).

Neurology. Authorship, non-financial, and financial disclosure form. Available at:

http://www.neurology.org/misc/DisclosureFormDummyForRef.pdf (Accessed March 9, 2012).

Society for Conservation Biology. Conservation Biology Editors’ Report: turnaround time. Available at:
http://www.conbio.org/Publications/Newsletter/Archives/1997-8-August/aug97008.cfm#A14 (Accessed
March 9, 2012).

Stroup DF, Berlin JA, Morton SC, et al. Meta-analysis of observational studies in epidemiology: a
proposal for reporting. JAMA. 2000;283:2008-2012.

(Authorship: Diane Scott-Lichter and Deborah Polly took the lead in writing this section of the white
paper on behalf of the CSE Editorial Policy Committee. Diane Scott-Lichter and Deborah Polly revised
this section for the 2009 Update. Howard Browman and Bruce Dancik revised this section for the 2012
Update. Members of the Editorial Policy Committee and the CSE Board of Directors reviewed and
commented on it. This section was formally approved by the CSE Board of Directors on March 30, 2012.)

APPENDIX

Sample Job Description for an Editor

EDITOR-IN-CHIEF

Reports to journal’s Publications Committee and owner’s Board of Directors. Makes recommendations
pertaining to improved dissemination of scientific material. Oversees publications department staff in
regard to the journal.

A. DUTIES

Possess a general scientific knowledge of the fields covered in the journal and be skilled in the arts of
writing, editing, critical assessment, negotiation, and diplomacy.
Publish original, important, well-documented, peer-reviewed articles on a diverse range of scientific
topics of interest to the readership.

Establish policies for

Submission of manuscripts and criteria for authorship/contributorship

Processes for peer review, evaluation of decisions regarding publication, and methods for
reconsideration of rejected manuscripts

Identification and selection of theme issues and supplements

Conflict of interest and disclosure

Handling allegations and findings of scientific misbehavior and misconduct

Communicate publication guidelines and policies (e.g., Instructions for Authors, Instructions for
Reviewers, ethical guidelines, editorial board reports, Editorials).

Provide the journal owner, publications oversight committee, and/or editorial board with reports, as
requested, on the journal’s activities.

Preside at annual meetings of the editorial board and the executive committees.

Receive, review, and act on complaints from those involved in the publication process.

Review and approve the journal’s yearly budget, as proposed by the managing editor, for approval by
the journal’s management committee.

Represent the editorial board in negotiations with the journal’s publisher.

B. EDITORIAL FREEDOM

The editor-in-chief will have complete authority for determining the editorial content within the defined
scope of the journal and participate in the development of the advertising policy.

C. TERM OF APPOINTMENT

The individual elected as editor-in-chief is expected to serve in that position for [a defined number of]
years.

If a person serving as editor-in-chief is unable to complete the current term, [number] months’ notice
should be provided. The editor-in-chief may recommend potential successors to the Society.
Self Publishing: The Pros and Cons
by JOANNA PENN on DECEMBER 3, 2008

Self-publishing is where you do everything yourself from idea to book, or you engage a
project manager to do it for you.

The benefits of self-publishing include:

· You can get a book printed very quickly after finishing it so it can be ready to distribute
and sell within a month.
· You have full control over the whole process, as well as timings.
· You can sell by any means you like e.g. digital, ebook, audio, print, rights to TV.
· You can write for a small niche market that a large publisher would not consider, but you
can still make sales.
· You keep all rights to the material.
· More money can be made per book.
· You can test the market and then approach a publisher with evidence of sales.
· You can get into the game and become an author. As you establish your credibility, you
can approach a publisher with a later project.
· Your time and effort go into marketing and promoting the book instead of chasing a
publisher.
The drawbacks include:
· You need to put up the money for printing, distribution and publicity upfront
· You may have no experience and no contacts in the industry so it will be harder to get
distribution and sales
· You might not sell as many books so even if you make more per book, you may make less
overall
· Self-published books are not considered as “important” as published books by the literary
establishment. (Although on Amazon, it is hard to tell what’s what).
· You need to do it all yourself, unless you outsource the management. (This is also a benefit
for certain people).
In terms of personality, you need to be more of a project manager in order to self-publish.
You have to coordinate a number of things at the same time and if you don’t keep to the list
you will not end up with a book at the end of it all.

On a personal note, I self-published “How to Enjoy Your Job” which is for sale worldwide
on Amazon.com. I wrote the book andthen started to think about publishing. When I looked
at the lead times for traditional publishing, I decided to self-publish as I didn’t want to wait
18 months. I will be looking at how to actually get from idea to book on this blog.
 Principles of Journalism

News values
1. Journalism's first obligation is to the truth

2. Its first loyalty is to citizens

3. Its essence is a discipline of verification

4. It must provide a forum for public criticism and compromise

5. It must strive to make the news significant, interesting and relevant

6. It must keep the news comprehensive and proportional

7. Its practitioners must be allowed to exercise their personal conscience




The activities done on an Audio editing software:

Editing an Audio File - Import the file, edit and export it

Recording - Record microphone, guitar, keyboard

Mixing Voice with Background Music - For podcasts

Recording Multi-track Overdubs - Record over other tracks

Vocal Removal and Isolation

Looping - make an audio loop with Audacity

Making Ringtones and IVR messages - For your cellphone or IVR system

Recording streaming audio playing on the computer

Copying tapes, LPs and other media to CD or computer

Splitting a recording into separate tracks

Burning Audio CDs and importing files from CDs

Exporting to iTunes and Importing from iTunes

Selecting audio and Spectral Selection

Clips - individual sections within an audio track

Splitting and Joining Stereo Tracks

Zooming audios

Effects, Generators and Analyzers

Creating a Crossfade – Mixing audios by lowering one audio when another audio is increased

Mixing Audio Tracks

Getting to Know CorelDRAW
Opening CorelDRAW
If you have been using CorelDRAW, you may have turned off this opening screen. If so,
skip to step 5.

1. When CorelDRAW is loaded, a new section is created on the Start Menu . To

open DRAW, click the Start button from the Taskbar .
This opens the Windows Start menu.
2. Select Programs from the list.
This activates the Programs panel. Programs are contained in groups, but rather
than being initially displayed in a group window, each group is listed.

3. Find the Corel section and select CorelDRAW 12.

This opens up the program with the CorelDRAW welcome screen. If you have
used the program before, you may have turned off this screen.

4. Choose Open Graphic or use the Open command on the File menu .
New Graphic creates a new, one page document. Open Last Edited opens the last
document you had open. The splash screen will show the names of the files over
the icon. The Template icon allows you to access many professionally created
templates you can then modify for your own projects. TheCorelTutor gives you a
brief overview of how to use the program and What's New? shows you all the
improvements from Version 11. Designer.com connects you to the Corel
Designer.com web site where you can find many helpful areas. If you clear the
check from the box in the lower left corner, you will not see this graphic but will
open a new file when you open the program.
5. Direct the Explorer to your hard drive and the folder where you saved the class
files.
6. Choose the file Open 1st.cdr .
If the Panose Screen appears listing fonts that are not loaded, click the OK button.
This utility allows you to load fonts for a document when you open the document.
 You must have the Font Navigator utility loaded and active for the fonts to install
automatically.

The CorelDRAW Window.

Window Components
You can customize this or any other Toolbar or create additional
A - Standard Toolbar
Toolbars.
The Property Bar is dynamic. Property options change depending on
B - Property Bar what you are working on. This enables you to access commands that are
specific to the current tool or feature you are using.
C - Main Tool Box The main tools you will use are accessed from this bar.
The Rulers show the current mouse cursor location as you move in the
D – Rulers
work area.
The Color Palette by default is located to the right of the work window.
E - Color Palette
Like the Toolbars, it can also be relocated. You can choose from a
 preset palette of colors, or use a specific color system such as Pantone
Spot Colors.
The Status Bar is used to give you information about cursor movements
F - Status Bar
or symbol properties such as the fill or size.
The Page Selector is used to add and move between pages. When a file
G - Page Navigator contains multiple pages, individual page tabs appear to the right of the
Page Selector bar.
Dockers allow access to effects, styles, colors, and many other features
H - Docker Tabs of CorelDRAW. They can be floated or “docked” at the side of the
window. When closed, they are accessible through a vertical tab.

Tool Overview
The Toolbox is located in the left portion of the window and contains all the drawing and
editing tools necessary to create objects for an illustration. Tools containing a small
triangle in the corner produce a Flyout. Flyouts contain additional tools, or tool options
and are explained below in the order they appear on the default screen. Flyouts are
described following the Tool Overview.

Pick Tool Selects objects or groups of objects. Once selected, you can use the
Pick Tool of move, stretch, scale, rotate, and skew objects.
Shape Tool
Reshapes objects. Objects are reshaped by moving nodes, lines, and
control points.

Zoom Tool
Changes the current view of the drawing. You can also select
magnification options from the Property Bar in the Zoom mode.

Freehand Tool
Draws lines and curves. You can also use this tool to trace bitmaps.

Converts the freehand strokes you draw to basic shapes and smoothed
Smart Drawing Tool
curves.
Rectangle Tool
Draws rectangles and squares. Squares are created by using the Control
key while drawing.

Ellipse Tool
Draws ellipses and circles. Circles are created by holding down the
Control key as you draw.

Graph Paper Tool Draws a collection of boxes that simulates a sheet of graph paper.
Perfect Shapes Tool A collection of objects which you can add to your drawing. They
include such things as arrows, stars, talk bubbles, and flow chart
symbols.
Text Tool
Adds either Artistic or Paragraph text to your drawing.

Interactive Blend Tool The Blend Tool allows you to merger objects together through a series
of steps. The flyout gives access to several more interactive tools that
are described on the following pages.
Eyedropper Tool The Eyedropper Tool allows you to select a color within an object,
especially a bitmap, and allows you to apply that color to another
object. You can also capture the color for a customized palette. The
flyout gives access to the paint bucket that applies the color.
Outline Tool Sets the outline style of an object or a line. This includes the line type,
ends, color, and weight. The flyout gives quick access to some
changes.
Fill Tool
Assigns the fill style of any object. Fills are only visible on closed
objects. The flyout gives access to control dialogs for each type of fill.

Interactive Fill Tool

Allows you to apply Fountain fills (gradients) using the mouse. The
flyout gives access to the Mesh fill Tool.

Return to Top

Flyouts
Tool buttons containing a small triangle in the lower right corner display Flyouts. Flyouts are used
by CorelDRAW to display additional tools. They are activated by holding down the tool button
with the mouse.

The table below is not meant to be a comprehensive look at each tool Flyout, but rather a reference.

Flyouts
Shape Edit Flyout
Holds Shape Edit, Knife, Smudge, Roughen, Free
Transform and Virtual Segment Delete Tools.

Zoom Tool Flyout Holds the Zoom Tool, which is used for changing the
view magnification, and the Pan Tool, which is used
 for moving the drawing page around the display area.

Curve Flyout Holds the Bezier Tool, Artistic Media Tool,

Dimension Tool and the Connector Tool. Each tool is
used to create specific types of lines.
Rectangle Tool Flyout
Holds the Rectangle tool and the 3-point Rectangle
tool.

Ellipse Tool Flyout

Holds the Ellipse Tool and the 3-point Ellipse Tool.

Object Flyout
Holds the Polygon Tool for creating multi-sided
objects, the Spiral Tool and the Graph Paper tool.

Perfect Shape Flyout

Accesses the collection of shapes you can add to your
drawing .

Interactive Tool Flyout Holds the Interactive Blend, Contour, Distortion,

Drop Shadow, Envelope, Extrude, and Transparency
Tools.
Eyedropper Tool Flyout Holds the Eyedropper Tool and the Apply Tool for
the color, effect, or property selected by the
eyedropper.
Outline Tool Flyout Displays options for changing line color, styles,
weights, and ends.

Fill Tool Flyout Displays options for changing fill color, styles,
creating custom colors, and removing fills.

Interactive Fill Flyout Holds the Interactive Fountain Fill Tool and the
Mesh Fill Tool.

Toolbars and Flyouts can be made to float. Once floating, you can dock them to any part of the
window. To float a Toolbar or a Flyout, place your cursor over the area at the end of the bar that
resembles two ribbed bumps or gray lines. Hold down the left mouse button and drag the bar out to
the main window of the program. All tools on the Flyout will be displayed so you can easily access
them. To dock the Flyout or return the toolbar to its original location, double click on the title bar
of the floating Flyout. To return the Flyout to its original location, click on the closing X in the
upper right-hand corner. Below is the Interactive Tool Flyout in floating mode and in Flyout mode.
Page Navigation with the Page Selector
A CorelDRAW file can have as many as 999 pages. A document of that length, however, might be
created more easily in CorelVentura. To navigate a multi-page document you use the Page
Navigator bar at the bottom left of the work window. From this bar you can add or move from one
page to another. To delete pages you need to use the Delete Page command under the Layout
menu.

1. Click on the Page 2 Tab.

The Page 2 tab should be white. You can also use the Page Up and Page Down keys on the
keyboard.
2. Select the Page Tab for page 3.
The Add Page button should appear as this is the last page for this file.
3. Select the First Page arrow button to go back to page 1
4. Click on the 1 of 3 space.
5. Enter a 3 in the Go To box and click OK .

The Property Bar

The Property Bar is located just under the Standard Toolbar. It is an interactive command center.
Being interactive means that the options on the Property Bar change depending on the current task
or command. It is designed to save time by interactively displaying commands as you work. You
will work more with the Property bar as you progress. This section is meant only as an
introduction.

1. Select the Pick Tool .

2. Place the cursor indicator on top of the purple rectangle and click.
Small black handles appear designating a selection. You will learn about these later in the
class. Notice the Property Bar changed to display a new set of options.
3. Select the text.
Again, new options display for working with text.

Return to Top

Dockers
Twenty-four functions of CorelDRAW 12 display in a dialog window called a Docker. Dockers
are placed into the interface or “docked” as are Tool Bars or the Property Bar. They are accessed
by clicking on the tabs at the right of the working window. Dockers can also float or be closed so
only the tabs show. Dockers replaced Roll-Ups from earlier version of DRAW. To access the
Dockers, go to the Windows menu Dockers.
Docker Function
Displays the characteristics of the object selected including any Web
Properties assignments such as links or hot spots. Allows access to the function that
changes that characteristic.
Shows the hierarchical structure of objects, layers, and pages within a
Object Manager document including the stacking order of the objects. Allows you to move
objects from one layer to another.
Object Data
Sets up a spreadsheet-like document recording information about an object.
Manager
Allows you to change the view without using the menu or the drop down list
View Manager
on the Standard Toolbar.
Link Manager Allows you to create HTML links within your documents.
Lists all the moves you have made so you can reverse them. The default is 99
Undo Docker
steps. You can change this to a smaller number if you wish.
Internet Bookmark
Organizes bookmarks you have assigned within a Web project in DRAW.
Manager
Allows you to set up libraries of objects you use frequently and convert them
Symbol Manager
to symbols.
Artistic Media T his tool acts as an calligraphy pen, a paint brush or an image sprayer.
Blend Gives all the controls for the Blend effect.
Contour Gives all the controls for the Contour effect.
Envelope Gives all the controls for the Envelope effect
Extrude Gives all the controls for the Extrude effect
Lens Gives all the settings for the Lens effect.
Bitmap Color This CorelPhotoPaint feature allows you to mask all pixels of a certain color
Mask in a bitmapped image.
Allows access to all the Transform tools, Position, Rotation, Scale & Mirror,
Transformations
Size, and Skew.
Allows access to the Weld, Intersect, Trim, Simplfy, Front minus Back, and
Shaping
Back minus Front operations.
Color Allow you to create custom colors in each color palette.
Color Palette Lists all color palettes available on the system and allows quick loading and
Browser changing of the palettes.
Sets color palette styles just as you set graphics and text styles for consistency
Color Styles
within a project.
Graphics and Text Sets styles just as you can within a word processor. Allows you to keep text
Styles and objects consistent throughout a project.
A storage area for frequently used clipart, text files and many other file types.
Scrapbook
Also allows quick access to sites on the Web or other networked machines.
 Web Connector Allows you to connect to Corel.com.

Color Palettes
The colorful row of boxes on the right of the screen is the Color Palette. DRAW comes
with 18 color systems and gives you the ability to create your own palette. The palette can
be floated or parked. The type of palette can be changed with the Windows menu, or the
Color Palette Browser Docker. You may have several palettes open at once.

The main color palettes include HKS ® Colors, Trumatch Colors, Uniform Colors, Web
Safe Colors, and the complete Pantone® Matching System including the system that was
shipped with CorelDRAW 8. (The Pantone system is updated by the company on a
regular basis and a major change was made in 1998. Pantone numbers assigned in DRAW
8 will not match the system in DRAW 9 or DRAW 10.) In addition, the Color Palette
Browser Docker includes some specific color systems such as human skin colors and
natural color systems. Here is also where any custom palettes you build will be stored.

Note: When you hold down a chip on the color palette, a box with shades of that color
displays. (Shown below.) By dragging to one of the shades of the first color, you can
choose a shade of a color quickly and apply it to a line or fill an object .

Changing an Option
The Options dialog allows for extensive customizing of CorelDRAW 12. To make this
curriculum easier for you, one of the default settings for CorelDRAW 12 needs to be
changed before we continue.

1. Go to the Tools menu Options Workspace General

Or (Ctrl+J) Workspace General.
2. Change the Regular Undo setting from 99 to 15.
Each time you make a change in a document, CorelDRAW 12, makes a full copy
 of that document so it can reverse your steps if you use the Undo command. A
level of 99 quickly uses up all the resources of your machine even if you are using
a very powerful machine. In my opinion, more than 15 undo's constitutes “Start
over".
3. Click OK.

Changing the View

Often, when working on an image, you want to see it with out the clutter of the screen or
the image has become so complex that you only want to see the outlines of the object.
These are the View options.

1. Go to the View menu and select the Wireframe .

The various view qualities are designed to save screen redraw time for complex
drawings.
2. Change back to the Normal View option.
The other View options are described below.

Views View descriptions

Black and white outlines of the objects. Bitmaps are shown as
Simple Wireframe monochrome grayed areas. Does not show blended objects or some
other effects.
Wireframe Black and white outlines of all objects including blend groups.
Displays most items as they will be printed but uses patterns to
represent certain fills. A checkerboard pattern is displayed for the
two-color fills. Two-headed arrows display for full color fills.
Draft
Hatched line patterns display in place of bitmap fills. A pattern of
repeated PS displays for the PostScript fills. Screen redraw time is
much faster in Draft mode.
Displays all object, high resolution bitmaps and all fills except
Normal
PostScript.
Displays the best possible quality for your monitor and shows all
Enhanced
PostScript fills.
Removes all the DRAW elements from the screen and shows the
Full screen preview image at the best possible resolution and against a white
background.
Shows the selected object at the best possible resolution and
Preview Selected only
separates it from the other objects.
This allows you to rearrange the pages of a multi-page document
Page Sorter View and to view all the pages of a multi-page document in thumbnails
format.

Return to Top
The Zoom Property Bar
As you work on an image, you may want to get closer to see detail or make small
adjustments. DRAW gives you several options for zooming into your object or out. When
the Zoom Tool on the Toolbox is selected, the Property Bar displays the following
options.

Zoom Commands
Allows you to get closer to your drawing and work on detail. You
Zoom In can drag a marquee box around a point and zoom into that point.
Clicking with the cursor zooms you in to double the previously
set view level.
Allows you to move about the page with precision. With a work
Panning area of 250 feet (yes that is feet!), it is easy to get lost. This
allows you to move the page as if you could use your hand.
Clicking with the plus Tool zooms you in double the last view
Zoom in and out setting, for example, if you are at 100%, you will go to 200%.
Clicking with the minus Tool zooms you out to the last setting.
Using the example in the previous sentence, it would put you
back to 100%
Zoom To Selected
Changes the display to show only selected objects (Shift+F2).
Zoom To All Objects Changes the view to display all objects (F4). This will include
objects located outside of the page.

Zoom To Full Page, Page Allows you to see the entire page (Shift+F4). Changes the current
Width, or Page Height magnification to include the left and right edges of the page.
Changes the current magnification to include the top and bottom
edges of the page. All three cause the page to be shown at less
than 100% magnification.

Zooming
1. Go to the Toolbox and select the Zoom Tool (F2).
The mouse cursor changes to the magnifying glass with the plus sign. The Property
Bar also displays the tools described above.
2. Click in an area.
You have just gotten closer to the drawing. You can also zoom in by dragging the
Zoom Tool around a specific area.
3. Press the F3 key on your keyboard.
This shortcut zooms out to the previous view each time you press it.
4. Place the tool icon to the upper right of the Bluebonnet.
5. Click and drag diagonally to create a zoom marquee.
6. Release the mouse.
 By dragging the Zoom Tool around an area, you can enhance the magnification and
be more precise by zooming to a specific area.
7. Go to the Standard Toolbar and select the Zoom Levels list (the box showing the
% of magnifications).
Values for the magnification settings can be selected from the list, or typed in as
needed.
8. Select To Page (Shift + F4).
This will change the display to show you the whole page.

Changing preview settings

1. Go to the View menu and select the Full Screen Preview (F9).
The window changes to display only the drawing. All window components are
removed.
2. Press the Escape key on your keyboard.
This will take you back to a standard preview or you can use the right mouse
button.

You should now be familiar with the CorelDRAW interface. Move on to Chapter 2 and
you will begin working with objects.
 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • •
Offset Printing Technology • • • •
• • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • •
Sheet-fed Offset Printing Basics

© Heidelberger Druckmaschinen AG
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Print Media Academy 2 • • • •
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Printing process: Sheet-fed offset printing

• Offset printing is a planographic process:

Printing and non-printing elements of the
printing form lie next to one another in one
plane
• The printing form – usually a printing plate –
statically stores the information to be printed
as image areas and non-image areas
• The image areas are inked up either
conventionally or without water
– Conventional = two phases:
1. Dampening the printing form
2. Inking up the printing form
– Waterless:
Inking up the printing form using a
special printing ink

© Heidelberger Druckmaschinen AG • Name of author • Date • File name

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Print Media Academy 3 • • • •
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Image areas and non-image areas in conventional offset printing

• Important prerequisite
for inking up the image "e“ = printing element:
Image area on this offset
information on the printing
printing plate
plate:
Good wetting
with dampening solution and
printing ink
Micrographs of an offset printing plate (aluminum)
• Image area
= ink-accepting area:
polymer et al.
• Non-image area
= moisture-accepting
surface: aluminum oxide

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Print Media Academy 4 • • • •
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Printing process: Sheet-fed offset printing

Conventional offset printing

Inking unit
2nd phase: 1st phase:

Phases of the inking-up process

• 1. The dampening solution wets the non-
Plate
printing elements on the printing form, but cylinder

is repelled at the printing areas

Dampening system
• 2. Rollers transfer printing ink from an ink
fountain to the printing form Printing material, e. g. paper

• Dampened non-image areas reject Blanket

cylinder
printing ink, while non-dampened image Impression
cylinder
areas accept the printing ink
Blanket

© Heidelberger Druckmaschinen AG • Name of author • Date • File name

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Print Media Academy 5 • • • •
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Printing process: Offset printing

• Offset printing is an indirect Information is ...

printing process, which means: ... right reading on the
printing form.
the inked up information on the printing
form is first transferred to an intermediate
cylinder, the blanket cylinder, and from ... wrong reading on
the
there to the printing material. blanket cylinder.
• In sheet-fed offset printing, individual
sheets are printed consecutively.
... right reading on the
• In web offset printing, on the other hand, impression cylinder
and the
the printing material is unwound from an printing material.
"endless” reel and guided through the
printing units as a web.

© Heidelberger Druckmaschinen AG • Name of author • Date • File name

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Print Media Academy 6 • • • •
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Influences on print quality in sheet-fed offset printing
• Ink/dampening solution balance • Sheet guidance, gripper setting
• Inking unit • Dampening system • Register setting • Sheet separation
• Printing ink • Dampening solution and alignment
• Color sequence

• Powder application
• Sheet delivery

• Design of the printing units

• Setting of the entire sheet travel path
• Cylinder packing and rolling
• Printing pressure adjustments
(contact pressure)
• Printing material
• Climatic conditions in the pressroom

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Print Media Academy 7 • • • •
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Color printing using autotypical color mixing

• In offset printing a printed image is made up of evenly

inked up binary picture elements:
– halftone dot
– no halftone dot.
• Autotypical = variable-area dots, always having the same
distance from midpoint to midpoint.
• For a screen ruling of 60 l/cm there are
60 x 60 = 3600 halftone dots per cm²
• The dot size determines the tone value (lightness) on
white paper
– small dot = high light reflection = light
– medium dot = medium light reflection = medium
– large dot = low light reflection = dark

© Heidelberger Druckmaschinen AG • Name of author • Date • File name

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Print Media Academy 8 • • • •
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Color printing using autotypical color mixing

• A multicolor image is usually printed with the process

colors cyan, magenta, yellow and black
• Screen angling the individual color separations for
the process colors produces a rosette pattern of the
individual halftone dots
• The halftone dots of the four printing inks can be
printed next to, partly or even completely on top of one
another
• The human eye "sees“ a combination of additive and
subtractive color mixing
• Correct color-to-color
register in the print

• Register deviation of
more than ¼ of the
screen definition
(e. g. 40 µm) has a
negative effect on the
image quality

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Print Media Academy 9 • • • •
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Color printing: Four printing inks – one picture!

• To produce a color print, each

printing ink requires a special Cyan
printing form.
• Each printing form is printed using
the relevant process color:
black (K) – cyan (C) – magenta (M) Magenta
– yellow (Y)
• Printing is mainly in the color
sequence K-C-M-Y,
wet-on-wet in four-color offset Yellow
printing presses:
the printed product is the finished
color image!
Black

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Print Media Academy 10 • • • •
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Printing plate systems in offset printing: Conventional – waterless

As a general rule, offset printing presses can use

– conventional offset printing plates
– waterless offset printing plates.

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Print Media Academy 11 • • • •
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Printing plate systems in offset printing: Conventional – waterless

Inking up the picture information on the printing form

2nd phase: Inking up Inking up

1st phase: Dampening

Conventional offset printing Waterless offset printing

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Print Media Academy 12 • • • •
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Printing plate system: Waterless offset printing

• Waterless offset printing plates have a

special coating structure of
- silicone
- polyester or aluminum

Silicone
(ink-repellent)

Polyester
(ink-receptive)

Example of waterless offset printing:

Heidelberg Quickmaster DI 46-4

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Print Media Academy 13 • • • •
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Waterless offset printing

Advantages of waterless offset printing Data or Waterless Conventional

film offset print offset print

• Lower dot gain than with conventional

offset printing 9%
• In the shadow areas the halftone dots
remain more open
• Halftone dots print sharper, producing 50%
greater color contrast and brilliance in
the printed image

90%

© Heidelberger Druckmaschinen AG • Name of author • Date • File name

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Print Media Academy 14 • • • •
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Conventional dampening system for alcohol-free dampening

• The two dampening form rollers and the Inking form rollers
vibrator roller are covered with plush
material (Molton).
• In some cases the pan roller is also 2
covered with textile 5 4 1
3
• Metering is determined by the speed of 4
the pan roller and/or the vibrator roller
cycle Dampening
Cylinder gap system
• Plush covers hold a lot of water
• Disadvantages are a delayed reaction 1. Pan roller
in the dampening solution control 2. Vibrator roller (surface: plush-covered)
system and the formation of lint 3. Distributor roller
4. Dampening form rollers (plush-covered)
5. Printing plate cylinder

© Heidelberger Druckmaschinen AG • Name of author • Date • File name

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Print Media Academy 15 • • • •
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Conventional dampening system in comparison to a
continuous-type dampening system

100 times magnification of 100 times magnification of halftone

halftone dots, printed with dots, printed with the Alcolor
conventional dampening continuous-type dampening system

Molton/plush Rubber

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Print Media Academy 16 • • • •
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Conventional dampening system in comparison to a
continuous-type dampening system
• In conventional dampening the %
start-up phase takes longer due to
the variations in the ink/water
balance

• Graph: Water content in the ink

measured at the fourth inking form
roller from the start of printing up
to about the hundredth print sheet

Conventional dampening system

Continuous dampening system *)

0
Continuous-type dampening system *) Time
During production the ink/water balance remains stable, once it has been quickly reached
by special predampening during the start-up phase

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Print Media Academy 17 • • • •
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Continuous-type dampening system: The Alcolor dampening system

• Alcolor is a 5-roller dampening system,

which is directly connected to the inking unit
via an intermediate roller

• Pan roller and metering roller have

independent drives, which are electronically
controlled and speed compensated

• Dampening distributor and dampening form

roller run at press speed

© Heidelberger Druckmaschinen AG • Name of author • Date • File name

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Print Media Academy 18 • • • •
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Continuous-type dampening system: The Alcolor dampening system

• The variable speed (slippage)

between the metering roller and the
dampening form roller produces a very
thin dampening solution film

• This extremely thin dampening solution film

is worked into the ink on the dampening
form roller and into the inking unit and
transferred with the printing ink to the
printing plate

• The ink/water balance is quickly achieved

and remains constant

© Heidelberger Druckmaschinen AG • Name of author • Date • File name

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Print Media Academy 19 • • • •
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Continuous-type dampening system: The Alcolor dampening system

• The distributor cylinder C (distribution roller)

Intermediate roller
in the dampening system is driven directly for separating
by the printing press
F E
• Its matt chrome-plated surface ensures that B
the dampening solution is optimally worked D
into the printing ink on the dampening form
roller, producing a suitable emulsion
A
C
• A predampening of the system during the
start-up phase optimizes the printing process
• The connection between inking unit and dampening
system can be interrupted in the event of excessive
emulsification and the formation of an unstable A Pan roller (surface: rubber)
emulsion B Metering roller (surface: chrome-plated)
C Distributor cylinder (surface: matt chrome-plated)
D Dampening form roller (surface: rubber)
E Intermediate roller (surface: Rilsan)
F Inking form roller 1 (surface: rubber)

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Print Media Academy 20 • • • •
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Continuous-type dampening system: The Alcolor dampening system

Functions in detail
• The speed of the pan roller and metering
roller is continuously adjustable F
E
• Basic setting of the dampening solution film B
occurs between A and B
• Fine setting of the dampening film occurs A
between B and D due to the variation in D
speed (slip) between the metering roller and
form roller. A very thin, even film of
C
dampening solution is produced, which can
be controlled exactly by varying the speed A-B: Pre-metering and formation of an initial
dampening film in the nip
B-D: Formation of a very thin dampening film on
the printing ink
C-D: The dampening solution penetrates the printing ink.
D-E-F: Inking unit and dampening system are connected
with one another

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Print Media Academy 21 • • • •
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Continuous-type dampening system: the Alcolor dampening system

The entire process is controlled automatically

• Rapid attainment of an ink/water balance through
a special predampening process during the start-up phase
• Speed compensated dampening: Supply of the required quantity
of dampening solution in accordance with the speed of the printing press
• The dampening system is cleaned together with the inking unit
• The entire system is operated pneumatically

Predampening Production Separated: washup

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Print Media Academy 22 • • • •
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Printing process: Technique to prevent the formation of
hickeys during production
The Vario function works on the principle that the dampening
form roller D runs at a slightly slower relative surface speed to
the printing plate cylinder

The resulting slippage means that dirt particles (hickeys) on

the printing plate are simply wiped away or do not even occur

D
The greater surface roughness of the matt chrome-plated
distributor roller achieves the required frictional resistance, C
without affecting the transfer of the dampening solution

The dampening form roller D is driven indirectly by the rough C Separately driven distributor roller
distributor roller C D Indirectly frictionally driven
dampening form roller - in contact with the
roughly chrome-plated distributor roller

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Print Media Academy 23 • • • •
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Dampening solution in conventional offset printing

Regular mains water is unsuitable for offset printing:

The surface tension is so high that water droplets would form.
This causes problems in correctly dampening the non-image areas.
The water must be conditioned for the printing process and improved with further
additives. An important additive is isopropyl alcohol to reduce the surface tension.

Air Liquid
Surface Wetting behavior
on identical surfaces for
No wetting Wetting Spreading Printing various liquids
plate

Wetting angle
Surface tension of the solid (printing plate, carrier)
Surface tension of the liquid (water)

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Print Media Academy 24 • • • •
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Dampening solution in conventional offset printing

The use of isopropyl alcohol (IPA) offers advantages in the printing process

IPA ...
- reduces the surface tension of the dampening solution
- evaporates quickly, thus cooling the printing plate
and the inking unit
- in the dampening solution increases the viscosity of the
printing ink
- prevents the growth of microorganisms in the dampening
solution
- very quickly stabilizes the ink/water balance,
- helps the printing plate to run clear more quickly,
Spindle for alcohol metering:
- ensures an even dampening solution film, Accurate metering is important!
- evaporates rapidly and pollutes the environment! Attention: Evaporation of IPA
due to higher temperatures!
Aim: Only use as much IPA as is absolutely necessary!

© Heidelberger Druckmaschinen AG • Name of author • Date • File name

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Print Media Academy 25 • • • •
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Printing process: Temperature in the printing press
at 5 % IPA content
• The reduced quantity of IPA means less alcohol
evaporates. This reduces the cooling effect.
• The temperature in the printing press increases
during production. The printing ink tends to scum.
• When operating at a room temperature of > 30 °C
and with a desired IPA concentration of less
than around 10-8%, the inking unit will need to
be temperature controlled
• The ideal setting for the temperature control of an
inking unit is 26 °C. The temperature of the
dampening solution should be around 10 °C

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Dampening solution: Too much – not enough

• Insufficient dampening solution • Too much dampening solution

Results in: Results in:
• filling in of reverse type • water drips
• filling in of half and three-quarter tones • reduced contrast in the image
• vertical ink streaks at the edge of the print • underinked strips in the print image

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Print Media Academy 27 • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • •
Printing process: dampening solution emulsifies into the printing ink

Tiny droplets of dampening solution are evenly dispersed in the ink

. The water content of a "stable" emulsion is up to 20%.

Stable emulsion in Emulsion of printing ink Unstable emulsion:

offset printing: and dampening solution: Cause of printing problems
Optimum emulsion of Shortly before turning into
printing ink and an unstable emulsion
dampening solution

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Print Media Academy 28 • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • •
Printing process: Conditioning of water for production

• The quality of mains water

can vary considerably.
Therefore the water used in the pH value
printing process must be conditioned
10 -0
• An unsuitable pH value of the ideal pH value

Hydrogen ion concentration

dampening solution leads to printing
problems 10 -4
8 9 10 11 12 13 14
• pH value well below 5:
10 -7
More difficult ink drying.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Oxidation of metallic inks.
Shorter service life (durability) of 10 -10 pH
the printing plate neutral
10 -14
• pH value above 7: increasingly acidic increasingly alkaline
Lower surface tension.
Printing plate tends to scum

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• • • • • • • • • • • • •
Printing process: Water hardness – the dH value

• The hardness of the water in 0dH is determined by 0dH = German degree of hardness
the quantity of calcium and magnesium salts
mg CaO/l H
• Hard water with an extremely high concentration of
calcium and magnesium salt can form fatty and
insoluble suds in reaction with fatty acids in the
printing ink 300
soft medium hard
• Suds react both hydrophilically and lipophilically
200
• These different properties lead to printing problems:
– glazing of the inking rollers
– ink piling on the rollers and blanket
– irregular feeding of the dampening solution 100
– tendency to ghost

4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 o dH
4 to 15°dH are recommended

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• • • • • • • • • • • • •
Printing process: Functions in an inking unit

• The printing process requires a constantly even application of ink on the printing plate
• The distribution of ink from the ink fountain occurs via many rollers, which also store the ink
• Inking form rollers ink up the information on the printing form

Ink feed: Ink splitting: Ink storage: Ink application:

The ink fountain Most important Many roller Inking form rollers
supplies the required transport function surfaces store transfer the ink to the
quantity of ink for the transfer printing ink printing plate

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• • • • • • • • • • • • •
Printing process: Remote-controlled ink control

• The ink film thickness is achieved through interaction of the ink

fountain roller and ink metering cylinder (adjusting eccentric)
• For ink control only the eccentric metering cylinder rotates,
allowing a larger or smaller gap for transferring the ink to the
ink fountain roller

Ink fountain liner

Printing ink
Ink fountain roller

Ink metering
cylinder with lateral
supporting collars

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Printing process: Inking unit

Typical inking unit with 18 rollers, of which 4 are

oscillating inking form rollers of different diameters Ink fountain Ink fountain
roller
• Continuously driven ink fountain roller
Speed compensated inking
The speed can be set in percent
via the control console
• Lateral oscillation can be set between
0 – 35 mm Distributor roller
8% 37% with Rilsan
• Setting the application timing of the lateral 7% 48% coating
oscillation
• The majority of ink is transferred to the printing form by
Rubber
the first inking form rollers rollers
• Adjustable oscillation of the form rollers from 0 to 8 mm

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Printing process: Manual setting of the timing
and the lateral oscillation travel

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Print Media Academy 34 • • • •
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Printing process: Timing of application and travel of lateral oscillation

An optimized example:

Ink fading from the lead edge to

the rear edge of the sheet in offset
printing

The ink fading can be counter-

acted by setting the oscillation
timing
Ink zones

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011121314151617181920212223242526272829303132

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• • • • • • • • • • • • •
Printing process: Example of an inking profile on the ink form rollers

With “zero oscillation option”:

inking profile is retained 4
- Better print quality
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
- Less waste during press start-up

Without “zero oscillation option”: Leveling out

of the inking profile during interruptions, such 3
as pile change or blanket washup
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Current inking profile in the inking unit or

on the inking form rollers 2 15

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

During the production run

Current inking profile on the ink fountain roller 1
Ink zones
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

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Print Media Academy 36 • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • •
Printing process: Energy and heat – cooling the printing unit

Around 45 % of the energy is Around 50 % is converted Around 5 % is

converted into heat and into heat and dissipated converted into
released by convection and via peripheral equipment kinetic energy
radiation

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Print Media Academy 37 • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • •
Printing process: Energy and heat – cooling the printing unit
Temperature curve in the printing unit
• Elimination and reduction of heat in the
45º C Temperature of the
press and in the pressroom promotes ink distributor rollers
print quality and productivity 40º C Uncooled press
Printing plate
• The increase in temperature 35º C temperature
Temperature of the
changes the climatic conditions in the 30º C ink distributor rollers
pressroom and causes printing and Cooled press
25º C
quality problems Printing plate
20º C temperature
5,000 10,000 15,000 25,000
Sheets during production

© Heidelberger Druckmaschinen AG • Name of author • Date • File name

 Photoshop Layers
Layers are a very important part of graphics work. If you have never used layers before, make the effort to
learn how they work — you will probably find that it revolutionises the way you approach graphics and images.

A photoshop image file (.psd) can be made up of

numerous independent layers which are overlaid on
top of each other. In the example shown here, a
single image file is made up of three layers.

Any part of a layer which contains no image

information is transparent, so layers below are
visible in these areas. Each whole layer can also
have different opacity settings, so some layers can be partially or completely transparent.

The three layers in our example are a photograph, a lower third graphic and a text key. The chequered areas
contain no information (so they are transparent).

The main thing to note about layers is that each layer can be edited without affecting any other layer. In the
example above, you could change the graphic or text at any time without disturbing the photograph. You could
also re-use the same graphic layer with different photos, or re-use the graphic with different text.

There are so many advantages of working with layers that it's difficult to summarize them, but here are a few
things you'll love:

• You can separate parts of the image and edit them without affecting other parts of the image.
• You can use layers as guides or reference without including them in the final image (just make them
transparent before saving the image).
• You can safely import new images to add to the composition. Move the new image around, resize it and do
whatever you like without damaging the original image.
• You can create multiple versions of a layer and experiment with different effects. You might like to keep an
original image and make a separate layer to work with, so you always have the original image layer to fall
back on.
• You can apply filters and effects to layers independently, e.g. drop-shadow, colour adjustments, etc.
 Photoshop Filters

Photoshop has plenty of powerful built-in Filters. Apply special visual effect to your
images using Filters. Look at the long list in the drop down menu sample to the left.

A very effective way to learn Filters is to play with them. Start with a few that sound
familiar to you.

Before you use any of the filters, create an image in your mind's eye of what you expect
to see. This is important for building your skills and your mental reference library.

Reference Library

I have Zip disks labeled Graphics Library 1 and 2. They contain numerous sub-folders.
One of the sub-folders is labeled Filters.

I suggest that you might do something similar. Save some of your key test images and
related text files into that folder. Review these files periodically for insight, or their value
will become meaningless.

Filter Tests

Start your testing and play by using the default settings or create your own starting
points when necessary. Use the same filter and settings on several other images with
differing range and characteristics such as:

• Color.
• Tone.
• Contrast.
• Sharpness.

Also try out filters on various size images; value settings are influenced by image size. A
larger image will require higher value settings.

Cheap Insurance

Always start with a duplicate image on a new layer. This will keep your reference image
handy and unaltered. Relabel the Background Copy layer to something relevant.
I may label the layer GusBlur_5 if my major action on this layer is the use of the Filter
Gaussian Blur set to the value 5.

Renaming A Layer

Double clicking on a layer opens the Layers Options dialog box where the layer can be
easily relabeled.

Blur Of Choice

The plain Blur and Blur More have no controls. Use Gaussian Blur, it has controls and a
real-time preview.

In Windows "..." after a menu selection indicate further options such as a dialog box or
controls. The following options all launch control windows.

• Motion Blur...
• Radial Blur...
• Smart Blur...

Try these functions on your own. They will probably help solve some graphic
conundrum in the near future.
Expectation and Predictability

Start with a mental image or some other measurable expectation. Play and experiment
based on those expectations. Review the result in comparison to the original mental
picture.

Play with the Filters as you would with a new lens or color films. Get to know their
characteristics. After you gain an inner sense through trial and error, you can select the
right tool and use it "just so" to give birth to your inner ideas.

Save and Review

Write down your expectations and insights. Write down the results and discoveries. Be
sure to write down your conclusions gained from matching the mental image with the
concreate results. Save the text file, along with the image files, to your reference library.

Repeat

Review these files periodically for insight, or their value will become meaningless.

Anything That Works

For some people, this method may be a turn-off or a waste of time. Do whatever it takes
to keep your inspiration cooking.

Plug-ins: Fun Just Got Turbo-charged

Photoshop, like most other professional tools, supports Plug-ins. This allows the use of
Filters developed by other software developers.

Once installed, they appear at the bottom of the Filters drop down list as shown above. I
use Kai's Power Tool 3.0 and Extensis Photo Tools because they work for my needs.
There are many other Plug-ins such as:

• AlienSkin
• Andromeda
• Chromatica
• DigiEffects
• Factory
 • Fastcore
• Digital Frontiers
• Picture Man Collection
• The Flux Collection
• Visual Manipulation
• And more...

Cautionary Note:

There is a tendency among many photographers to become overly fixated with the gear.
They can end up with so much new unfamiliar gear that their reaction time becomes
snail slow. Some have even given up on picture taking altogether because they are too
tired of lugging their technical burdens.

Do not let your photograph or the message get lost behind fancy or cool tricks. I use
Filters to create an effect that adds to the message. I also use Filters that logically
combine effects to save me production time.

Go Next to the last part of this section, Text Tool

Photoshop Elements Workspace
Tuesday, March 22, 2016 5:04 PM

Photoshop Notes Page 1

Photoshop Notes Page 2
Photoshop Notes Page 3
The Editor workspace
Tuesday, March 22, 2016 5:06 PM

Photoshop Notes Page 4

Photoshop Notes Page 5
Photoshop Notes Page 6
Tools
Tuesday, March 22, 2016 5:07 PM

Photoshop Notes Page 7

Photoshop Notes Page 8
Photoshop Notes Page 9
Photoshop Notes Page 10
Photoshop Notes Page 11
Palettes and bins
Tuesday, March 22, 2016 5:09 PM

Photoshop Notes Page 12

Photoshop Notes Page 13
Photoshop Notes Page 14
Photoshop Notes Page 15
Photoshop Notes Page 16
Using layers
Tuesday, March 22, 2016 5:10 PM

Photoshop Notes Page 17

Photoshop Notes Page 18
Photoshop Notes Page 19
Photoshop Notes Page 20
Photoshop Notes Page 21
Photoshop Notes Page 22
Image size and Resolution
Tuesday, March 22, 2016 5:11 PM

Photoshop Notes Page 23

Photoshop Notes Page 24
Photoshop Notes Page 25
Photoshop Notes Page 26
Photoshop Notes Page 27
Filters
Tuesday, March 22, 2016 5:11 PM

Photoshop Notes Page 28

Photoshop Notes Page 29
Photoshop Notes Page 30
Photoshop Notes Page 31
Over Printing
Overprinting refers to the process of printing one colour on top of another in reprographics.
This is closely linked to the reprographic technique of 'trapping'. Another use of overprinting
is to create a rich black (often regarded as a colour that is "blacker than black") by printing
black over another dark colour.
It is also the term used in the production of envelopes customised to order by printing
images (such as logos) and texts (such as slogans) on mass-produced machine-made
envelopes; the alternative way of producing such envelopes is to print "on the flat" and then
cut out the individual shapes and fold them to form the envelopes. However the latter
method is generally only economically viable for large print runs offering returns to scale.
Overprinting also refers to the printing of additional information onto self-adhesive labels
and product packaging. "Best Before", "Use By" dates and batch codes are printed in situ
onto product packaging as the items are packed. Generally thermal printers, ink jet printers
or laser printers are used.

In most cases, when two objects of different colors overlap they knockout — they won't
print on top of each other. To intentionally print one layer of ink on top of another is
to overprint.
Overprinting is sometimes used to avoid the need for trapping and avoid gaps between
touching colors. Spot color intended to designate the application of spot varnish are also set
up to overprint.

Black ink applied to text or native InDesign objects is overprinted by default to prevent
misregistration of small black-type characters positioned over color areas, or of color areas
outlined with black lines.

Overprinting and Trapping

In certain printing operations, the overprinted inks can help reduce gaps
caused by misaligned color plates where two or more colors meet. You can use
the overprinted inks to manually apply a rudimentary color-trapping effect.
For example, in the illustration below, an outline set to overprint is applied to
a character shape to eliminate the likelihood of a visible gap.

In traditional printing, trapping is a complex process in which the physical

areas where color inks meet are expanded to overlap into adjacent areas of
color. Traditional trapping is much more complex than simply applying an
overprint effect—it essentially eliminates the printing inaccuracies due to
misaligned inks.

A trap is created when an expansion is added around a color area that is

adjacent to another color area. Shapes of different colors are trapped in a
direction from the lighter color to the darker color so that the two shapes
slightly overlap.
The process involves two basic techniques to trap the ink areas: choking and
spreading. A spread is created when a lighter-colored shape is positioned in
front of a darker-colored shape. Portions are added to the edges of the lighter-
colored shape in order to spread into the darker color, as shown below.

A choke is created when a darker-colored shape is positioned in the foreground

and a lighter-colored shape is in the background. The lighter background is
choked where the two colors meet, meaning that the lighter background’s
edges overlap into the darker shape’s edges (see below).

Part of this trapping process involves the overprinting of one ink by another.
So, by manually applying trapping to the outline or to the fill property of an
object, or to both, you can create a trapping effect of sorts.

Increasing Your Color Range

In general, overprinting creates a situation in which an ink color is printed
over one or more other ink colors. If the inks are opaque, the overprinted ink
colors are unaffected.
If the ink colors are translucent (as most are), new colors are created where
the inks are overprinted, which can be an enormous benefit for designers or
illustrators trying to maximize their color opportunities on a tight budget.

If you’re working within a limited printing budget, overprinting can expand

your freedom in designing by offering new color opportunities. By
overprinting translucent inks, you can create new color variations. You can
take advantage of this relatively simple strategy by applying basic color-mixing
skills. For example, mixing translucent blue and yellow ink colors produces
green, blue mixed with red produces purple, yellow mixed with red produces
orange, and so on (see below).

To gain even more mileage from your ink selection, you can increase the color
variations by overprinting color tints or fountain fills of your ink colors, or
both (see below).

Navigating Overprinting and Trapping Options

As mentioned earlier, the hidden portions of objects in your document are
typically removed at print time. This printing method is the default condition,
provided no other printing overrides or trapping options have been selected
during printing.

Overprinting and trapping are somewhat intertwined, so you’ll see overprint

options peppered throughout the printing and export options of CorelDRAW.
For example, the EPS export, Publish to PDF, bitmap and duotone conversion,
and separation printing features all include options specific to overprinting.
Let’s examine how overprint options applied to objects in your drawing can
affect your printed output.

The three basic levels of overprinting, listed in a hierarchy from highest to

lowest, are separation overprints, trapping overprints, and document
overprints. A higher-level setting generally overrides a lower-level setting.

Overprint options for specific document objects are referred to as document

overprints and constitute the lowest level of overprinting. If you want, you can
choose from a menu selection of Document Overprint options on the
Separations page of the Print dialog box (see below) to preserve (the default)
or ignore the overprint options you’ve applied. To correct the overprint colors
by applying the current color profile of your separations printer when printing,
you can choose the Simulate option.

At the next level, the trapping options become available, provided that you are
printing to an Adobe® PostScript®-compatible printer and that the Print
Separations option is selected on the Separations page of the Print dialog (see
below). Trapping options enable you to use auto-spreading to apply automatic
overprinting to text or objects, or both. Choosing Always overprint black
causes all text and objects colored black to overprint all underlying object
colors.
Choosing the Auto-spreading option activates further options for choosing
specific spread values for text and objects. If your separations printer is
equipped with its own trapping software, the In-RIP trapping option is
available, enabling you to set specific trapping options for your printed output.
Clicking the Settings button provides access to a dialog that features a complex
set of overprinting and trapping-specific options (see below).

At the highest level, you can also choose to overprint separation ink colors by
using the overprint options in the separation inks list (see below). For these
options to become available, you need to use a PostScript printer and then
choose the Print separations and Use advanced settings options on the
Separations page of the Print dialog. You can activate overprinting at this level
by clicking the Advanced button to open the Advanced Separations Settings
dialog (see below), or by clicking directly in the ink list on the Separations
page of the Print dialog.

Click directly on the symbols adjacent to the ink color in the list to cause the
ink color to overprint all underlying colors for text (A icon) or graphics (the
shapes icon), or both. Each option toggles on or off when clicked.

This exploration of overprinting has shown you how to apply overprints

while CorelDRAW enables you to view your applied overprints on-screen
without having to rely entirely on your imagination to evaluate the
results. Keep in mind that the interrelated subject of trapping is more complex
than what I’ve covered here. For details on this complex subject, your best bet
is to investigate the improved reference documentation in the Help in
CorelDRAW (seeWorking with Color Trapping and Overprinting). The Help
documentation also provides detailed information about the trapping options
available.

If you found this tutorial useful, make a donation. Your show of support
will help fund future tutorials and steer the direction of new site content.
Steve Bain is an award-winning illustrator and designer, and an author of nearly a
dozen books, including CorelDRAW®: The Official Guide.
What’s the Difference Between Raster and Vector?

in Design & Printing, General

What’s the difference between raster and vector? This question is asked by many newbie designers,
webmasters, marketers and other interested individuals – and sometimes the answers can be as
confusing as the names raster and vector themselves. It’s time to clarify the difference between
raster and vector once and for all.

Rasters and vectors defined

A raster image is made of up pixels, each a different color, arranged to display an image.

A vector image is made up of paths, each with a mathematical formula (vector) that tells the path
how it is shaped and what color it is bordered with or filled by.

The major difference is that raster image pixels do not retain their appearance as size increases –
when you blow a photograph up, it becomes blurry for this reason. Vector images do retain
appearance regardless of size, since the mathematical formulas dictate how the image is rendered.

Pros and cons of rasters and vectors

Raster images are capable of displaying a myriad of colors in a single image and allow for color
editing beyond that of a vector image. They can display finer nuances in light and shading at the
right resolution. Vector images are scalable, so that the same image can be designed once and
resized infinitely for any size application – from business card to billboard.

Raster images cannot be made larger without sacrificing quality. Vector images cannot display the
natural qualities of photographs. Raster images are often large files, while vector images are
relatively lightweight. Raster images are used in web and print, vector images cannot as of this
writing be used in electronic format – they must be converted to a raster first. Vectors display at the
highest resolution allowed by the output device, while rasters blur when blown up.

When should I use a raster or a vector?

Raster images are primarily used with photos, which is why Photoshop is a raster editing program.
Adobe Illustrator, on the other hand, is a vector drawing program that automatically creates your
vector formulas as you draw. Logos, letterhead, and other graphic elements are typically best
created as vectors; while photographs are best left for rasters. All vectors must be converted to
raster for web use. Text is typically rendered in vector format.
If you’re not sure whether you should create a raster or vector file, follow this simple rule of thumb:
If you’re drawing something from scratch with only a few colors, go with vector. If you’re editing a
photo with multiple colors, go with raster. Many projects use vector drawings and vector images
together – a brochure, for example, might include a corporate logo (vector) plus an image of happy
customers (raster).

Print VS Electronic Media

Print media typically includes newspapers, articles, journals etc. on the other hand,
electronic media could be internet, television etc.

Print Media

• Choice of reading – Allows user to read anytime and can be carried anywhere.
• A much affordable form of media when compared to electronic.
• For an individual, it’s quite an easy proof for any sort of information – People
specially living in rural areas can easily afford a newspaper as compared to TV’s etc.
• Relatively easier form of accessibility public for campaigns etc.

Electronic media

• A more advanced form of media.

• Introduces more revenues and job opportunities.
• Relatively a more innovative form of media. Thanks to motion pictures, animation etc.
• A variety of options available unlike print media. People can surf through different
channels, site etc.
• Very appropriate for instant POLLS reviews of public.
• Works better for people with hearing and seeing disabilities.
• Can be reached faster and can be made LIVE.

The main intent of any media is to pass information to pubic. Be it electronic or print media,
the public needs to be aware of the news. Most of the people in daily lives start with print
media and gradually, as the day passes by, switch to electronic media.
Media have always played a major role in our lives. In olden days, people carved stories on
stones and temples. Today we have known a lot about those days by seeing the sculptures
carved on such stones. With the invention of paper, it made it easier for people to know about
the happenings around the world through newspapers, magazines, banners, posters, leaflets,
pamphlets etc.
But now with the advent of electronic media like Radio, television, Internet, which have
moving images, facilitate easy understanding; is it really the end of print media?

Why Electronic Media?

On an electronic media, screen glare, font size and website layout can seriously affect
readability. Which of these is easier? Reading a 600 page novel on your laptop or holding the
novel in hand and reading it while lying on your bed? If a person does not mind shelling out
some money, he/she would choose the second option since LCDs hurt our eyes. But these
days with the invention of e-book readers, even this problem does not exist. E-book readers
like Kindle use paper-like ink display which makes it easier to read books and carry
thousands of books everywhere you go. You can download a newspaper within seconds from
the remotest corner of the world. If you do not want to spend money on these costly devices,
you can still read news at your fingertips on your mobile phones, which almost every person
can afford to buy these days. With the invention of Internet, a person in a different country
can read news about his native country just by having an access to a computer or laptop.
These days, people can listen to radio on even their mobile phones, thus making it easy to
listen to them even while travelling.
There are chances that the paper can deteriorate with time and hence the records can get
wiped out. Now that the storage is getting really cheap, it is easier to take multiple backups of
data and thus archival is easier with an electronic media. Also with the usage of various
search tools, it is easier to search for a file or image on a computer, than searching manually
in cupboards. Information is available sitting at home to people, which they would previously
find by browsing in a library. It is easier to grab people’s attention by showing them a visual
or a video than dumping them with a lot of text and few still images. Not everyone can read
print media and for such illiterate people, TV would be helpful.
Electronic media is more environment friendly – the lesser the paper used, the lesser the trees
that are chopped off. It is faster than any other kind of media; for example, if there was an
earthquake or a hurricane somewhere, you can instantly watch the damages caused by it on
the Television within minutes. Live streaming has helped us in watching tennis/football
matches taking place in a different country on TV. Anything that we watch on TV remains in
our memory for a longer time. For example, we still remember Sachin’s ad on TV where he
says “Boost is the secret of my energy”, but how many of us remember Boost’s ad that came
in the local newspaper? These days anyone can open an account online and start blogging.
This way people can use the electronic media to convey a message to hundreds and thousands
of people easily. RSS feeds help us in keeping ourselves up to date with the information
available of the net.

Electronic media these days includes these:

· Social Networking sites where one can meet millions of people – FaceBook, MySpace,
LinkedIn.
· Information can also be shared via the phones through Twitter.
· Sharing Audio/Video through YouTube, FaceBook.
· Digital Photos can be shared using FlickR, Picasa, Facebook.
. Various contests, polls, surveys, asking/answering questions, commenting on
information on the Internet.
. Searching and watching videos/news clips/interviews on Youtube.

Why Print Media?

The longevity of written media is much more than the electronic ones. It is the written media
which has made history recordable and accurate. The age of an old manuscript found while
digging a historical site gives information about the era in which it was written, which is not
possible with electronic media. Print media is durable, whereas a small virus or a bug in the
software can erase the most important data needed from a computer.
Anyone can anonymously post articles and raise their voices. It is difficult to track the real
owner of an article. With electronic media, anyone can copy any piece of information and
present it as his own; plagiarism is at its peak these days. There is no means to determine
which of the two websites have authentic data. Rumors and lies circulate all over the Internet
and hence the legitimacy of the information becomes questionable. The information provided
by a newspaper is usually more authentic and genuine. TV is a very popular media these days
but with so many channels available to watch, there are fewer chances of more people
watching an advertisement or a show on a particular channel and hence there is no guarantee
about viewership, whereas a family which subscribes to a newspaper would definitely go
through it on a daily basis.
Electronic media depends mainly on electricity. In areas with frequent power cuts or in the
rural areas, it is not a viable replacement for newspapers. Print media is easily accessible and
widely read. Anyone can buy it since it is cheaper and available in the remotest of the
villages. In a country like India, subscribing to newspapers is cheaper than taking an Internet
connection. Print media is local to the city or the region and carries information about the
local events like a play being screened in the town or an inter-school chess tournament. Even
if you read a nice article online, what are the chances that you will store it and re-read?
Searching for the article will take forever amidst the GBs of data that you have. I read
Stanford commencement speech by Steve Jobs and I liked it so much that I took printout of it
and kept it in my drawer, because I wanted to re-read later. It is easier to locate a piece of
paper in your drawer than locate a file among the 120 GB data that you have on your hard
disk. On TV, the quality of news is deteriorating these days because of the competition
between the channels. They try to sensationalize the news unnecessarily in an attempt to
increase viewership.
Even though both kinds of media have their own pros and cons, can we survive without any
one of them? I don’t think so. When Tsunami attacked, I saw video clips on the TV.
Watching the video of the destruction live is better than visualizing it with a few photos in
newspaper. But I also read about it in detail in the next day’s newspapers. The newspapers
had the information in greater detail, depth and also had images which were not shown on
TV. According to me, both types of media can exist simultaneously and neither of them will
perish. These days many print media are also available in electronic forms. I used to read
Indian newspapers online when I was in USA. But I also liked reading the local newspapers
there which came in the print media format. Print media has been around from so many
centuries and the reason why it has survived for so long is the reason why it will not die in the
future. We must not compare these two forms of media as they both have their own
importance.

Read more: http://ashscerebrations.com/2010/06/28/print-media-vs-electronic-media/#ixzz2zUrnirTU

Raster and Vector Images
 What’s the Difference Between Raster and Vector?

Rasters and vectors

A raster image is made of up pixels, each a different color, arranged to display an image.

A vector image is made up of paths, each with a mathematical formula (vector) that tells the path how it is shaped and
what color it is bordered with or filled by.

The major difference is that raster image pixels do not retain their appearance as size increases – when you blow a
photograph up, it becomes blurry for this reason.

Vector images do retain appearance regardless of size, since the mathematical formulas dictate how the image is
rendered.

 Pros and cons of rasters and vectors

Raster images are capable of displaying a myriad of colors in a single image and allow for color editing beyond that of a
vector image.

They can display finer details in light and shading at the right resolution.

Vector images are scalable, so that the same image can be designed once and resized infinitely for any size application –
from business card to billboard.

Raster images cannot be made larger without sacrificing quality.

Vector images cannot display the natural qualities of photographs.

Raster images are often large files, while vector images are relatively lightweight.

Raster images are used in web and print, vector images cannot as of this writing be used in electronic format – they must
be converted to a raster first.

Vectors display at the highest resolution allowed by the output device, while rasters blur when blown up.

 When should I use a raster or a vector?

Raster images are primarily used with photos, which is why Photoshop is a raster editing program.

Adobe Illustrator, on the other hand, is a vector drawing program that automatically creates your vector formulas as you
draw. Logos, letterhead, and other graphic elements are typically best created as vectors;

while photographs are best left for rasters.

All vectors must be converted to raster for web use.

Text is typically rendered in vector format.

If you’re not sure whether you should create a raster or vector file, follow this simple rule of thumb: If you’re drawing
something from scratch with only a few colors, go with vector.

If you’re editing a photo with multiple colors, go with raster.

Many projects use vector drawings and vector images together – a brochure, for example, might include a corporate logo
(vector) plus an image of happy customers (raster).

News Publication
Chapter 3
The ABCs of news writing are Accuracy, Brevity and Clarity.

The first and most important is accuracy -- a story can be creative and compelling, but if
it contains errors, it is worthless.

A false news story undercuts the public trust necessary for the survival of a press.

Always check numbers, spellings of names, who said what, and the other basic facts of
any story.

A reporter's job is to find out what is going on, then write a story that's interesting and
informative. Accuracy always comes first.

Second is brevity. Each word in your story should do a job. If not, take it out. Get to the
point. Say it just once. Don't be redundant.

Put the most important fact in the lead. Hook the reader's attention. Explain the lead and
then go on to the next most important fact and then the next.

Lead up to an interesting finish. Don't just stop writing when you run out of information
Clarity starts before you write. Clarity starts with complete, competent reporting.

You should understand your subject so completely that your story leaves it crystal-clear in
the reader's mind. Your story should leave no questions unanswered.

Avoid jargon. Explain anything that wouldn't be obvious to the average person.

The more information you gather, the more you have to sift through to determine what
belongs in the lead. The more you know, the harder it is to tell it quick and make it simple.

It's only easy if you don't know what you're talking about. No one said good reporting is
easy.
THE FIVE 'W's‘

Every news story must cover the "Five W's:" Who, What, When, Where, Why and
sometimes How and So What?

You don't have to cover all these in the lead, obviously, but usually you will address one or
two in the first graph.

The rest should come soon. Make sure they are all covered somewhere in your story.
NEWS VALUES

What is news? The cliche is, when dog bites man, it's not news. When man bites dog,
that's news.

Critics say, why is the newspaper always full of bad news? Because bad news is unusual,
and no one wants to read about ordinary events.

"The Bank Manager arrived to Bank this morning and found things much as he left them
the night before." Who cares?

If the adviser finds a lion waiting for the elevator in the Bank, then there's a story. With
photos.
NEWS VALUES

News usually has at least one of these elements:

• Impact. Impact is determined by the number of people affected, the number of boats
that sink, the number of cars wrecked, etc. The more people affected, the more boats
sunk, the bigger the impact of the story.

• Proximity. The closer your audience is to the event, the greater its news value. If a train
hits a bus in Bangladesh, it may receive small column behind the sports section. If a train
hits a bus on Bangalore, the news will be put on page one.

• Timeliness. "New" is a big part of news. If it happened just before deadline, it's bigger
news than if it happened last week. Even "big" stories last only a week or so.

• Prominence. If it happens to the mayor, it is bigger news than if it happens to the

common man.
The public cares more about celebrities than they do about people they don't know.
If President goes jogging, reporters take pictures. If the Common man goes jogging, dogs
bark, but no one else notices.
NEWS VALUES – Continued.

News usually has at least one of these elements:

• Novelty. If an event is unusual, bizarre, the first, the last, or once-in-a-lifetime, it is has
more news value than if it is something that happens all the time.

• Conflict. War, politics and crime are the most common news events of all.

• Relevance. How does the story affect the reader? If there's no effect at all, maybe
there's no news.

• Usefulness. How can I use this information? Home, business and leisure news sections
have sprouted in newspapers in an attempt to give readers news they can really use.

• Human interest. A story may be weak on the other news values,

but be interesting anyway. It can be as simple as an interview with
a fascinating person who does unusual things. If people are talking
about it, it's news, even if it doesn't meet the criteria of our
other news values.
OBJECTIVITY/FAIRNESS

The reporter's job is to find out the truth and tell it, regardless of who might be made
uncomfortable.

The reporter's responsibility, as implied by the First Amendment, is to serve only the
reader.

The public needs unbiased information in order for democracy to succeed. That means
that your stories must be unbiased. Most reporters believe pure objectivity is impossible.

When you select one word over another, your judgments enter the story.

But fairness is possible, and fairness should be every reporter's goal.

Fairness requires the reporter to recognize his or her own biases in the story, and then
consciously include all relevant points of view -- even ones that the reporter doesn't like,
personally.
OBJECTIVITY/FAIRNESS

Always look for the "other side" in any story. If someone or some institution is accused of
something by a source in your story, you have an absolute obligation to contact the
accused party and give them the opportunity to respond.

This should be done in the first story, not in some later "response" story.

Use neutral language. Avoid exclamation points. Don't say "our college" when referring to
Manipal University, Our tone should be one of the disinterested, but honest observer.

A reporter's credibility is the only guarantee the reader has of the story's accuracy.

There are no policemen in the newsroom forcing reporters to be accurate.

The First Amendment wouldn't allow that.

If we write inaccurate or biased stories, the readers will stop trusting us.
THE LEAD

The lead is usually the toughest part of writing a story.

The lead is the first word, sentence or paragraph of the story. Sometimes it can be
two or three paragraphs.

Duties of a lead:

First, it must interest the reader in the rest of the story.

Imagine the reader as impatient, with lots of other things he or she could be doing
instead of reading your story. Imagine the reader saying, "Get to the POINT! Don't
waste my time! Tell me the STORY!"

Your story has tough competition by other information sources.

Surveys have shown that most people say they get their news from TV, but many
then turn to newspapers for the details behind the headlines.

Lead should be short, punchy, informative lead to attract readers who have grown
accustomed to TV's "sound bite" journalism. But then it must supply the details, the
insights, the context that TV doesn't have time for.
What are the rules for a good lead?

• Keep it short. News writing is always tight, but the lead calls for special care.

Condense your story into one sentence, then one phrase, then one word.

As a general rule, no lead sentence should be longer than 10 words.

• Get to the point. What is the story about?

•Focus on the action. Use the "active voice." Instead of saying something
happened, say who did what to who. Use the action word.

• Hook the reader. Put the most important, interesting, exciting

thing in the lead.

A novel may take 100 pages to lead up to the climax of the story;
a news story puts the climax first and then explains what led
up to it.
HOW TO WRITE A NEWS LEAD

1. Condense story into one or two words.

2. Keep leads short — 20 to 30 words for the first sentence. Or fewer.

3. The news lead should tell the reader what the story is about and be interesting enough to
draw the reader into the rest of the story.
Remember that the readers won’t know what the story is about until you tell them.

4. Find the action in the story. Put the action in the lead.

5. Always double-check names and numbers. Check spelling, style and grammar. Put
everything in order.

6. Attribute opinions. Stick with the facts.

7. Details, description. Report first, then write. Learn all, tell 10 percent.

8. Decide which of the news values best applies to the lead of the story. Write a lead that
emphasizes that news value.

9. Write in the active voice.

10. Don’t lead with a name, time or place unless that is the most interesting/important thing in
the story.
WHAT NOT TO DO IN LEADS

1. Don't make the lead too complicated. Don't load it down with too many names,
figures or details. Keep the lead sentence short -- never more than 35 words.

2. Don't begin with the time, day or date, or place. Better to focus on the action, the
who or what.

3. Don't begin with an empty, say-nothing expression or a generality that fails to

distinguish this news from other news: There were... In a report released today...
According to...

4. Don't begin with a question if the question is answered in the story. Question
leads are cliché leads.

5. Don't begin with a direct quote if it is a full sentence. Don't start with a quote
unless it is an exceptional quote.

6. Don't use a form of the verb to be in the lead, if you can avoid it. Use an action
verb.

7. Don't overstate the news in the lead, making it more dramatic than it really is.
Watch "disaster" words.
NUT GRAPH

is a paragraph, particularly in a feature story, that explains the news value of the story.

It is a contraction of the expression nutshell paragraph, i.e., "in a nutshell" paragraph,

dated at least to the 19th century.

Sometimes the expression nut paragraph is also used.

Writing a nut graph is called nutshelling and the writers are called nutshellers.

In most news stories, the news style of writing is used, and the essential facts of a story
are included in the lead, the first sentence or two of the story.

The nut graph, which often will start in the third or fourth paragraph, will explain what the
story is about, including much but rarely all of the information that would have been
contained in a lead, so as to keep the reader interested.
NUT GRAPH
QUOTES

Quotes bring life to a story.

Let your sources tell the story.

The reporter's voice in the story should outline

the main points and set the stage for the quotes.

Quotes let your sources "talk" to the reader,

giving a personal impact that you can't get any other way in print.

But quotes should be special.

Don't use quotes for information that can be more clearly explained in your own words.

Only direct quotes are contained inside of quotation marks.

Information inside quotation marks must be the source's exact words.

But the words inside the quotation marks must also convey the intent of the speaker.
QUOTES – Cont.

To use the speaker's exact words to say something he or she did not mean is to
take the quote out of context.

It is a serious complaint often made by sources.

At the end of the interview, always check quotes that you intend to use, and if you
are unsure what the speaker meant, ask.

Indirect quotes don't have to use the speaker's exact words, but they must convey
what the speaker meant.
TRANSITIONS

Each paragraph in your story should flow naturally from the one before it.

If you have gathered enough information, and if your lead is strong enough, you may
find that your story seems to "write itself," flowing naturally from beginning to end.

But other stories seem "choppy," with the narrative taking jags and loops that could
lose or confuse the reader.

Transitions smooth out those jags and make the story easier to read.

Here are some guidelines for good transitions:

Make sure your story elements are presented in a logical order.

The most common order is the chronological order.

This happened, then this happened, then this happened.. It goes on.

For the sake of variety, you want to use the word "then" no more than once.

Set the scene for a new area of discussion. Don't just start in a new direction without
notifying the reader.
ENDINGS

Although the news writing style tries to put the most important information in the
beginning, in order to draw in readers, it is also important to save something for a
good ending.

A good ending gives a "rounded out" feeling to a story, especially if the end makes
reference to information in the lead.

The ending should make smooth reference to the lead, tying the story together.
 Introduction to newspaper
 What is a newspaper ?
A newspaper is a regularly published print product
containing information vital to the function of the market it
serves.

 Features in Newspaper includes:

Editorial opinions,
Critical Reviews.
Comic strips, crosswords, 
Horoscopes
Weather forecasts
Games
Advice, gossip, food, 
Classified ads
Display ads
Obituaries
Newspaper Organization
Organization of The Newspaper
 Editorial Page

Editorial page is the most important and major page in the news paper.
It is also known as the opinion page.
It is the page reserved in newspaper and magazines for publication’s editorial.

 Contents of Editorial page

1. Editorial note:
The note of editor or the team of editors
2. Columns:
They are the writings and thoughts on some specific
topics contributed
by well-known writer
3. Letters to the editors:
It is the feedback to the newspaper
4. Editorial cartoons
These are not so much common.
They are not published in each and every paper
 Organization of The Newspaper
Purposes of Editorial Page
Newspaper needs a whole team to work together. The team works in an organized
manner to compile and publish a whole newspaper.

Parts / Departments Of Newspaper Organization

The newspaper organization have many different parts of team and department.
Initially they are three in number
1. Editorial Section
2. Administrative Section
3. Printing Section

Editorial section
The editorial section is pre-divided into four parts
1. Reporting Section
2. News Section
3. Magazine Section
4. Editorial Section
 Organization of The Newspaper
 The reporting Section:

It is the most important section of the newspaper

It includes: Reports about business, Showbiz etc

Chief Reporter is the head of the department, he examines the information and give
approval to the centralized department.

Information can be about the popularity of any person among the adults, men and women
The repots can be of any rules and regulations passed by the government in symbolic form
 Organization of The Newspaper
 The News section

It is a broad section, each of the important headings or topics has different pages, like
Business news will be published on separate page,
Politics section will be publish on separate Page.

Chief Editor is the in charge of this section

People working under him known as sub-editor or news editor.
The senior most experience person are known as senior editors
Different editors have different teams e.g.
Sports page team.
Women page & International page teams.
Similarly different locational news team will be formed where they work only for a
specific location’s news.
 Organization of The Newspaper
 Desk / Groups of the News Section
1. Main Desk:
Deals with Front and Back Pages
2. Foreign Desk:
Deals with foreign news and information
3. Local Desk:
Deals with compiling and publishing of local news
4. Monitoring Desk:
Obtains information and news from other media
5. Sports desk:
Collect and compile news about the sport’s events
6. Business desk:
Deals with commercial news
7. Entertainment desk:
Compiles the information for showbiz page
8. Internet desk:
Usually foreign news are received here
Organization of The Newspaper
 The Magazine Section

Magazines, is a publication, generally published on a regular basis, containing

a variety of articles, entertainment, fashion, home and garden decoration
information, showbiz, business, health, politics world news, photos, videos,
tech views, science and entertainment news.

Different types of Magazines:

1. General interest magazines:
2. Sensational magazines:
3. Scholarly Magazines:

Two Kinds of Magazines:

• Mid-week Magazines
• Weekly Magazines
 Organization of The Newspaper
 Mid-week Magazines
A magazines which comes sometime in between the week

 Weekly Magazines
It is issued on weekly basis example Jang, Sunday magazine, Weekly
Family magazine, economist, Time, Discover etc.
Organization of The Newspaper
 Editorial section

* Opinion page.
* It is reserved in a newspaper or magazine for publication’s editorial
* Chief Editor is the one who decides that what is to be written and how the news
is to be printed in a newspaper
* Major/ Important Page of Newspaper, middle page of the newspaper
* Editorials are short, persuasive essays that express the opinions of the editors
or editors of a publication

The basic parts:

 The questions
 The Opinions
 The proofs
 A conclusions
 Suggestions
 Organization of The Newspaper
Columns and cartoons are also included in Editorial Section

* Columns:
* Cartoons

Cartoons contains following components to convey their intended meaning:

 Stereotype
 Caricature
 Exaggeration
 Symbolism
 Fact
 Opinion
 Fantasy
 Organization of The Newspaper
Administrative section:
Administration in an organization helps in the proper running of the organization in all
aspects.
In charge of this is a Managing Director, besides him there is a General manager

General manager:
He works with four other officials of the staff
Administrator:
Deals with maintenance of offices and records
Chief Accountant:
Responsible for supervision and control of the general accounting area, and for
financial statement and report preparation
Business management:
His primary mission is to develop and increase revenue for the newspaper through
advertisements
Circulation Management:
Responsible for sales, service, distribution and collections in assigned geographic
district
Organization of The Newspaper
 Modern Printing Technology
* Offset Printing
widely used printing technique where inked image is
transferred (or “offset”) from a plate to a rubber blanket,
then to the printing surface
Currently, most books and newspapers are printed using
The technique of offset lithography
Some other techniques
-> Flexography -> Dye transfer
-> Ink jet -> Pad printing
-> Relief Printing -> Rotogravure
-> Screen printing
* Gravure
It is an intaglio printing technique, where the image to be printed is made
up of small depressions in the surface of the printing plate.
Media: Writing for print

Chapter 3
ELEMENTS OF GOOD WRITING

1.Precision. Use the right word. Say exactly what you mean. Be specific.
Use generic terms: firefighters instead of firemen, letter carriers instead of
mailmen.

2. Clarity. Use simple sentences. Noun, verb. Think clearly, then write. Watch grammar and
punctuation.

3. Pacing. Movement of sentences create a tone, mood for the story.

Long sentences convey relaxed, slow mood.
Short declarative sentences convey action, tension, movement.
Use variety of sentence lengths.
Use shorter sentences when writing about the more active, tense part of the story.
ELEMENTS OF GOOD WRITING – Continued.

4. Transitions. Progress logically from point to point. Put everything in order.

5. Sensory appeal.
Appeal to one or more of our five senses: sight, hearing, smell, taste and touch.
What does it sound like? Was the room too hot?
Could you smell the cooking outside on the walkway?
Did the person speak slowly and carefully, or rapidly, with confidence?

6. Using analogies. Describe it as being “like” or “as” something that is familiar to

readers.
NEWS STORY ORGANIZATION

What do I want to say? Where do I put it?

1. The lead.
2. Material that explains and amplifies the lead.
3. Necessary background material.
4. Secondary or less important material.
5. Descending pyramids. Narrative.
6. Transitions.
7. Quotes.
8. Ending.

Know what you want to say. Then say it.

Don’t begin by saying something else which you think will lead up to what you want to
say.
Never start writing without a plan in mind.
What not to be done in a news reporting:

AVOID LOGICAL FALLACIES

Hasty generalization — a conclusion based on insufficient or unrepresentative

evidence.

Deaths from drug overdoses in Fremont have doubled in the past three years.
Therefore, more Americans than ever are dying from drug abuse.

Many hasty generalizations contain words like all, every, always and never, when
qualifiers such as most, many, usually and seldom would be more accurate.
Either have enough data to verify your statements or use qualifiers.

Non Sequitur (Latin for “does not follow”) — a conclusion that does not follow
logically from preceding statements or that is based on irrelevant data.

Ashwin loves food; therefore he will be an excellent chef.

Ashwin’s love of food is no guarantee he will be able to cook.
False Analogy — falsely assumes that because two things are alike in one
respect, they must be alike in others.

If we can put a man on the moon, we should be able to find a cure for the common
cold.

Both are scientific challenges, but quite different.

Either... Or Fallacy — the suggestion that only two alternatives exist when if
fact there are more.

Only Shahrukh and Kajol make good pair in

bollywood. Which is not true.
There are many couples which make good pair,
isn’t it ?
Faulty Cause-And-Effect Reasoning — assuming that because one event
follows another, the first is the cause of the second. Like a non sequitur, it is
a leap to an unjustified conclusion.

Since Ch. Minister - Mr. Jagadeesh Sheetar became CM of Karnataka,

unemployment in the state has decreased by 7 percent. Mr. Jagadeesh Sheetar
should be applauded for reducing unemployment.

We must show Mr. Jagadeesh Sheetar policies caused the decrease.

Circular Reasoning — instead of supporting the conclusion with evidence,
the writer simply restates the conclusion in different language.

Faculty and administrators should not be permitted to come to student council

meetings because student council meetings should be for students only.

The writer has not explained the position, but has merely repeated the point.
Other important considerations in writing for a newspaper:

Avoid one-source stories.

Talk to as many people as possible in the time you have for reporting.

Make sure you leave enough time for the writing portion of the story.

How do you know when you've done "enough" reporting, talked to enough sources,
read enough reports?
The news reporter's job has three parts:

Reporting, writing and meeting deadlines.

The deadline is your discipline.
Learn to meet deadlines, learn how to gather information, and the writing style will
come eventually.

There is a broad, clear distinction between news writing and advertising. Use your
normal objectivity and fairness when writing about advertisers, even if they push
you for a "positive" story, and threaten to pull their advertising if they don't get it.
Our focus is on the reader. Our job is to write truthful, fair stories, and sensible
advertisers will respect that.
Make sense out of numbers.

A number is meaningless without a comparison.

If Ramnarayan ate 5 % of apples, how can you guess the total number of apples
when it is not mentioned, right ?

Story-telling is part of being human.

We try to understand experience by turning it into a story.
We use the story to remember the experience, and to share the experience with
others.
We learn through stories.
News is a special type of story, one that presents facts without the storyteller’s
judgment.

Our Puranas are the best examples for story telling.

Editorial Content and News
Some of the Criteria's which determine the quality of the Newspaper

• Theme: What’s the story about? The news covered in the NP.

• News style: How is the story written? Is it a straight-news, or beating around the
bush style or does it use a more narrative, feature-style of writing? Is it
commentary, criticism or advice?

• Visual complexity: Does it use photos, graphics or color to tell the story?
Where is it placed on the page and does it jump?

• Content organization: Sectioning, content promotion, typographic and other

overall measures were also studied.

• Geographic focus: Is it a local, state, regional, national or international story?

• Origin: Where did the story come from, by the editors or a specific author ?

• Front page diversity: Ethnic diversity of photographs and gender diversity of

sourcing on all front page stories.

• Overall counts: Measures of total number of stories by type, length,

proportion of area, etc.
An editorial, is an opinion piece written by the senior editorial staff or publisher of a
newspaper or magazine.

Editorials are usually unsigned and may be supposed to reflect the opinion of the periodical.
In Australian and major United States newspapers, such as the New York Times and the
Boston Globe, editorials are often classified under the heading "opinion".

Editorials may also be in the form of editorial cartoons.

Typically, a newspaper's editorial board evaluates which issues are important for their
readership to know the newspaper's opinion.

Editorials are typically published on a special page dedicated to them, called the editorial
page, which often also features letters to the editor from members of the public;

The page opposite this page is called the op-ed page and frequently contains opinion pieces
by writers not directly affiliated with the publication.

However, a newspaper may choose to publish an editorial on the front page.

In most English language press, this is done only rarely and on topics considered especially
important; however, it is more common in some European countries such as Italy and
France.
“OPINION PAGE”
An op-ed

(abbreviated from "opposite the editorial page") is an opinion piece that appears on a
page in the newspaper dedicated solely to them, often written by a subject-matter
expert, a person with a unique perspective on an issue, or a regular columnist employed
by the paper.

Op-eds may be solicited by the editorial staff, but may also be submitted by the author
for publication.

Although the decision to publish such a piece rests with the editorial board, any opinions
expressed are those of the author.

Although standard editorial pages have been printed by newspapers for many centuries,
the direct ancestor to the modern op-ed page was created in 1921 by Herbert Bayard
Swope of The New York Evening World.

When he took over as editor in 1920, he realized that the page opposite the editorials
was "a catchall for book reviews, society boilerplate, and obituaries".
Column in a Newspaper:

A regular feature or series of articles in a newspaper, magazine, or the like,

usually having a readily identifiable heading and the byline of the writer or editor,
that reports or comments upon a particular field of interest, as politics, theater or
etiquette, or which may contain letters from readers, answers to readers' queries,
etc.

A columnist is a journalist who writes for publication in a series, creating an

article that usually offers commentary and opinions.

Columns appear in newspapers, magazines and other publications, including

blogs.

Readers often open a publication with an expectation of reading another short

essay by a specific writer who offers a personal point of view.

In some instances, a column has been written by a composite or a team,

appearing under a pseudonym, or (in effect) a brand name.

Some columnists appear on a daily or weekly basis and later reprint the same
material in book collections.
What differentiates a column from other forms of journalism is that it meets
each of the following criteria:

It is a regular feature in a publication

It is personality-driven by the author
It explicitly contains an opinion or point of view

Types of columns

Some types of newspaper columns are:

Advice column Book review column

Community correspondent column Critic reviews
Editorial opinion Feature column
Food column Gossip
Humor Music column
Sports
List of newspapers by circulation

The figures were released recently by Indian Readership Survey conducted

by the Media Research Users Council.

Sr. No Newspaper Name Readership numbers

1 Dainik Jagran 54,254,000
2 Dainik Bhasker 33,432,000
3 Hindustan (local) 29,411,000
4 Amar Ujala 28,720,000
5 Lokmat 23,276,000
6 Daily Thanti 20,305,000
7 Dinakaran 16,741,000
8 Ananda Bazar Patrika 15,318,000
9 Rajasthan Patrika 14,205,000
10 The Times of India 13,447,000
11 Hindustan Times 6,254,000
12 Eenadu 3,179,000
13 Sakshi 1,453,000
14 The Hindu 5,140,000
15 The Telegraph 2,877,000
16 Deccan Chronicle 2,816,000
 Principles of Journalism

News values

1. Journalism's first obligation is to the truth

2. Its first loyalty is to citizens

3. Its essence is a discipline of verification

4. It must provide a forum for public criticism and compromise

5. It must strive to make the news significant, interesting and relevant

6. It must keep the news comprehensive and proportional

7. Its practitioners must be allowed to exercise their personal conscience

Writing styles
Writing styles

Different sections of your report will require different styles of writing

e.g. your Methods and Results sections will be factual and descriptive, your Introduction
will be explanatory, and your Literature Survey and Discussion sections will be discursive
and analytical.

Descriptive writing - gives a detailed account of the characteristics of things.

Discursive writing - investigates things by reasoning or making a reasoned examination.

Factual writing - states the facts of the case exactly as they are, without embellishment.

Analytical writing - examines complex things to discover how they work.

Explanatory writing - makes things clear and gives the reasons for them.
Writing styles – Continued.

The general rules are:

When you are reporting your findings, use the past tense (as you are reporting on
something that has happened).

When you are reporting other people's research, use the present tense (as you are
relating something that is established knowledge).

When you are discussing your findings, use the present tense.
Magazines can be classified in following ways:

News magazines,
Glamour magazines,
Special interest magazines and
Aesthetics & culture magazines
Functions:
The functions of a magazine fall between those of a newspaper and those of a
book.
A magazine plays the role of a newspaper when it carries news of events or
happenings which have relatively less lasting value as in a newspaper.
But a magazine also carries information, which has a more lasting value features
and articles for entertainment and enhancement of knowledge.
This brings a magazine close to a book

If a magazine is technical, the information it carries is

meant for preserving
The design of the cover and of the pages looks so
serious and formal that it gives the feeling of a book
If a magazine carries mainly news of events or topical
features, its design elements like headlines,
photographs and graphics are arranged in such a way
that it emits the flavor of a newspaper
• If the magazine is exclusively meant for a select target audience, the
design style may follow the style of promotional literature and some
times of a formal book design.

• For handling the design problem efficiently, know first at whom the
magazine is targeted.

• Some magazines serve a large geographical area with people having

varied interests and others have a very precise audience
 STEPS INVOLVED:

Editorial Plan
(1) Planning several issues ahead of the due date
(2) Developing a broad idea about the articles received or likely to be received
(3) Provision of advertisement space (both flexible and fixed)
(4) Allocation of space for departments, if any; and
(5) The target date for sending the manuscript/ artwork to the press
Design Planning
It starts with a decision on the appropriate size of the magazine
Functional and aesthetic aspects of the communication medium has to be taken care
Functional aspect includes easy handling, mailing, distribution and accommodating the
content and production feasibility
Aesthetic aspect is concerned with the type, style, size of visuals, number of columns,
standard graphics, affordable white space, etc

Design Approach

cover page,
contents,
editorial,
running pages,
centre-spread and
color pages
The function, or purpose, of the magazine:
We should determine exactly why it is being published, what we hope to accomplish
by sending it out into the world.

The personality of the magazine:

Printed communications, like people, project images. What sort of image do we want
our magazine to project? Is it dignified and reserved or is it informal and aggressive?

The audience we wish to attract:

What sort of person do we want to read our magazine? What are our readers or
potential readers like, where are they located, what are their interests?

The formula for our magazine:

This means the kinds of information, articles, and features we will include in each
issue and how this material will be presented.

Will our magazine contain advertising?

If so, how will our editorial formula affect the
potential for advertising? Will our target editorial
audience be a target market for certain goods and
services? If so, the advertising people take over
here and determine the markets, appeals, and
potential advertisers who will be interested in what
we have to offer.
When and how often our magazine will appear:
If the publication is a weekly, if timeliness is usually an important factor in the
formula, and the design format should reflect this timeliness.

Design and typographic decisions:

These will include the basic format the page size, margins, number of columns per
page, and the typefaces to be used for standing heads, article titles, captions, and
body matter

Editorial style decisions:

Standard practice for spelling, grammar, punctuation, capitalization, and so on, as
well as decisions concerning all the physical aspects of the magazine can be
included in a stylebook or manual. All staff members should use this stylebook as a
guide while doing their jobs.
News design
is the process of arranging material on a newspaper page, according to editorial
and graphical guidelines and goals.

Main editorial goals include the ordering of news stories by order of importance,

while graphical considerations include

readability
balanced, and
unobtrusive incorporation of advertising.
 DESIGNING OF NEWSPAPER

A newspaper is an ephemeral (short-lived) publication.

Its shelf-life is minutes rather than hours; sometimes hours but never days.
Most of the information or messages carried by a morning newspaper become stale
by the afternoon, yet the morning daily is the most eagerly awaited printed material
for the information hungry people

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Body type:
Is it legible and readable?
Headlines:
Is the type selected for the headlines attractive?
Does it reflect the tone of the newspaper?
Typographic color :
Newspaper constants:
Do the standing heads, department and column heads, harmonize with the overall
effect of the layout?
Pictures and cutlines:
Are the pictures cropped for proper emphasis?
Front page layout:
Can the application of the basic principles of design be seen?
Is unity, balance, contrast, and harmony evident in the selection and placement of the
elements?
Is the optical center used to achieve balance?

Inside page layout:

Is a consistent pattern evident for the placement of advertisements?
Section pages and departments:
Are these given the same care as page I?
Commonly applied principles of design include:

 Principle of Rhythm (Also Principle of Movement)

 Principle of Balance
 Principle of Proportion (Also Principle of Mass / Size)
 Principle of Contrast (Variety and Emphasis)
 Principle of Harmony and Unity
Role of Grid In Newspaper Design:

Some newspapers follow strictly 6 or 8.or 12 col grid.

Setting the column according to the story.

The grid is the frame, or skeleton, on which we hang the flesh, in our case, the
stories.

A grid is what determines a well organized newspaper versus one where chaos
reigns.

It is the second step in the design process, after typographic selection.

A grid really helps constructing a page quick and easy and it is especially helpful
for a not-so-experienced designer.

In this case is guides the design, it frames and builds a basic architecture.

Of course, the pages created with a strong grid always seem more modular, more
classic and of course a little more boring then the pages that do not use a grid.

So it just depends on the paper. If you work for a regional or subscription

newspaper, the grid seems to be right choice.

But for a street sale paper, with a variety of design ideas for different pages, the
classic grid is more of an obstacle.
 News style or news writing style

It is the prose style used for news reporting in media such as newspapers, radio and television. News
style encompasses not only vocabulary and sentence structure, but also the way in which stories
present the information in terms of relative importance, tone, and intended audience. News writing
attempts to answer all the basic questions about any particular event - who, what, when, where and
why (the Five Ws) and also often how - at the opening of the article. This form of structure is
sometimes called the "inverted pyramid", to refer to the decreasing importance of information in
subsequent paragraphs. News stories also contain at least one of the following important
characteristics relative to the intended audience: proximity, prominence, timeliness, human interest,
oddity, or consequence.

Overview
Newspapers generally adhere to an expository writing style. Over time and place, journalism ethics
and standards have varied in the degree of objectivity or sensationalism th ey incorporate.
Definitions of professionalism differ among news agencies; their reputations, according to
professional standards, and depending on what the reader wants, are often tied to the appearance
of objectivity. In its most ideal form, news writing strives to be intelligible to the majority of readers,
as well as to be engaging and succinct. Within these limits, news stories also aim to be
comprehensive. However, other factors are involved, some of which are derived from the media
form, and others stylistic.

Among the larger and more respected newspapers, fairness and balance is a major factor in
presenting information. Commentary is usually confined to a separate section, though each paper
may have a different overall slant. Editorial policy dictates the use of adjectives, euphemisms, and
idioms. Newspapers with an international audience, for example, tend to use a more formal style of
writing.

The specific choices made by a news outlet's editor or editorial board are often collected in a style
guide; common style guides include the AP Stylebook and the US News Style Book. The main goals of
news writing can be summarized by the ABCs of journalism: accuracy, brevity, and clarity.

Terms and structure

Journalistic prose is explicit and precise, and tries not to rely on jargon. As a rule, journalists will not
use a long word when a short one will do. They use subject-verb-object construction and vivid, active
prose (see Grammar). They offer anecdotes, examples and metaphors, and they rarely depend on
colorless generalizations or abstract ideas. News writers try to avoid using the same word more than
once in a paragraph (sometimes called an "echo" or "word mirror").
Headline
The headline, heading, head or title of a story ("hed" in journalists' jargon) is typically a complete
sentence (e.g. "Pilot Flies Below Bridges to Save Divers"), often with auxiliary verbs and articles
removed (e.g. “Remains at Colorado camp linked to missing Chicago man”). However, headlines
sometimes omit the subject (e.g. “Jumps From Boat, Catches in Wheel”) or verb (e.g. “Cat woman
lucky”).

Subhead
The subhead is a heading that precedes a few paragraphs of the main text. It informs the reader of
the topic in those paragraphs, helping the reader to choose to begin (or continue) read ing. Articles
should have more than one subhed. Subheads are one type of entry point that help readers make
choices.

Dek
The '"dek,'" or deck, is a phrase, sentence or several sentences near the title of an article or story
such as a quick blurb or article teaser.[2] It is like a subtitle that expands on the hed, again, helping
the reader make choices.

Billboard
Capsule-summary text, often just one sentence, which is put into a sidebar or text-box on the same
page to grab the reader's attention as they are flipping through the pages to encourage them to stop
and read this article.

Lead
The most important structural element of a story is the lead or intro (in the UK) and the story's first,
or leading, sentence. Some American English writers use the spelling lede /ˈliːd/, from the archaic
English, to avoid confusion with the printing press type formerly made from the metal lead or the
related typographical term leading.

Charnley, states that "an effective lead is a 'brief, sharp statement of the story's essential facts.'" The
lead is usually the first sentence, or in some cases the first two sentences, and is ideally 20-25 words
in length. The top-loading principle (putting the most important information first - see inverted
pyramid section below) applies especially to leads, but the unreadability of long sentences
constrains the lead's size. This makes writing a lead an optimization problem, in which the goal is to
articulate the most encompassing and interesting statement that a writer can make in one sente nce,
given the material with which he or she has to work. While a rule of thumb says the lead should
answer most or all of the five Ws, few leads can fit all of these.

To "bury the lead" in news style refers to beginning a description with details of secon dary
importance to the readers, forcing them to read more deeply into an article than they should have
to in order to discover the essential point(s). Article leads are sometimes categorized into hard leads
and soft leads. A hard lead aims to provide a comprehensive thesis which tells the reader what the
article will cover. A soft lead introduces the topic in a more creative, attention-seeking fashion, and
is usually followed by a nut graph (a brief summary of facts). Media critics[who?] often note that the
lead can be the most polarizing subject in the article. Often critics accuse the article of bias based on
an editor's choice of headline and/or lead.[citation needed]

Example lead-and-summary design

NASA is proposing another space project. The agency's budget request, announced today, included a
plan to send another person to the moon. This time the agency hopes to establish a long -term
facility as a jumping-off point for other space adventures. The budget requests approximately ten
trillion dollars for the project. ...

Example soft-lead design

Humans will be going to the moon again. The NASA announcement came as the agency requested
ten trillion dollars of appropriations for the project. ...

Nut graph
One or more brief paragraphs that summarise the news value of the story, sometimes bullet-pointed
and/or set off in a box. The various spellings are contractions of the expression nutshell paragraph.
Nut graphs are used particularly in feature stories (see below).

"Grafs"

Grafs is a slang for "paragraph".

"Kicker"

A closing paragraph of the story which summarizes the key point and may contain a call -to-action.
Inverted pyramid structure
Journalists usually describe the organization or structure of a news story as an inverted pyramid. The
essential and most interesting elements of a story are put at the beginning, with supporting
information following in order of diminishing importance.

This structure enables readers to stop reading at any point and still come away with the essence of a
story. It allows people to explore a topic to only the depth that their curiosity takes them, and
without the imposition of details or nuances that they could consider irrelevant, but still making that
information available to more interested readers.

The inverted pyramid structure also enables articles to be trimmed to any arbitrary length during
layout, to fit in the space available.

Writers are often admonished "Don't bury the lead!" to ensure that they present the most
important facts first, rather than requiring the reader to go through several paragraphs to find them.

Some writers start their stories with the "1-2-3 lead", yet there are many kinds of lead available. This
format invariably starts with a "Five Ws" opening paragraph (as described above), followed by an
indirect quote that serves to support a major element of the first paragraph, and then a direct quote
to support the indirect quote.[citation needed]

Feature style
News stories aren't the only type of material that appear in newspapers and magazines. Longer
articles, such as magazine cover articles and the pieces that lead the inside sections of a newspaper,
are known as features. Feature stories differ from straight news in several ways. Foremost is the
absence of a straight-news lead, most of the time. Instead of offering the essence of a story up front,
feature writers may attempt to lure readers in.

While straight news stories always stay in third person point of view, it's not uncommon for a
feature article to slip into first person. The journalist will often detail his or her interactions with
interview subjects, making the piece more personal.

A feature's first paragraphs often relate an intriguing moment or event, as in an "anecdotal lead".
From the particulars of a person or episode, its view quickly broadens to generalities about the
story's subject.

The section that signals what a feature is about is called the nut graph or billboard. Billboards appear
as the third or fourth paragraph from the top, and may be up to two paragraphs long. Unlike a lede,
a billboard rarely gives everything away. This reflects the fact that feature writers aim to hold their
readers' attention to the end, which requires engendering curiosity and offering a "payoff." Feature
paragraphs tend to be longer than those of news stories, with smoother transitions between them.
Feature writers use the active-verb construction and concrete explanations of straight news, but
often put more personality in their prose. Feature stories often close with a "kicker" rather than
simply petering out.
 Qualities and responsibilities of a journalist
The job of a reporter is to gather news and write it for his organization. Sub-editor makes it fit to print.
Reporters go out in the field while sub –editor’s work at the “News desk” where all the news that
comes, is selected, edited, each news story is given a suitable headline and its place in the newspaper is
decided.

Reporters can become senior reporters, correspondents, senior correspondents, chief reporters, special
correspondents and foreign corresponds, sub editors, chief sub editor, deputy news editor and news
editor. But the basic job of a reporter remains news gathering and filling the reporter or “copy” to the
news desk.

To be a good reporter or good sub-editor what one needs is common sense and command over
language. These two requirements in fact summarize the qualities of newsman should have as other
qualities flow from these two and the basic Human values.

News sense: It is the basic quality of news man. Every reporter has to have news sense or nose for news
to distinguish news from non-news. He should be able to compare various news values and decide
where to being his story and should not miss important details.

Clarity: A reporter should have clarity of mind and expression. A person who is confused himself cannot
tell a story to others. Only clarity of mind is not enough unless it is accompanied by clarity of expression
without clarity of mind has no meaning.

Objectivity: Reporter and sub- editor should aim at objectivity while dealing with a story. They should
not allow their personal bias or ideas to creep in to a story. They should not take side but try covering all
the different viewpoints to achieve balance in the story.

Accuracy: A reporter should strive for accuracy. He should check and recheck his fact till he is satisfied
that he has them accurate. In this respect he should not take any chance as accuracy is directly
proportional to the credibility of a reporter and his newspaper.

Alertness: A reporter should always be a last which dealing with his subjects. Many major news breaks in
the past were possible because of alertness of reporter. Scoops don’t walk in to newspaper offices - alert
reporters catch them in air and pursue.
Speed: In today’s world speed matters everywhere. A person who cannot work fast cannot be a good
reporter. While maintaining all other desirable qualities a reporter should strive to work faster. He
should think fast, write fast and write or type fast for he has to meet deadlines or may have to go to
another assignment. Calmness: Reporter and sub editors often work in trying circumstances. They have
to remain calm and composed in most exciting and tragic circumstances. In many situations they have to
be calm devoid of hysterical actions or utterances and apply appropriate mental and physical effort to
write or edit the story.

Curiosity: Reporters should have an unsuitable curiosity for reporters it is useful in developing last for
facts that may lead to better stories.

Skepticism: It is another necessary quality which a reporter and sub editor should cultivate. They should
not take anything for granted. They should have an unwavering posture of doubt until faced with
undesirable posture of doubt until faced with undesirable proof.

Reporters should be more vigilant for many forces constantly try to use them and though them their
paper. Many people try to plant on reporters fall in to such traps in good faith. They should have enough
skepticism to avoid such plots.

Punctuality: It is a good habit for reporters it is a must for if they are not punctual they may miss
something for which they made have to depend on secondary sources. It is always better to be punctual
and then wait than reach late and ask others – a rival may misinformation you or hide some important
information.

Patience: It is quality which helps a reporter in big a way for many a time almost daily. He has to test his
patience, the voluntary self control or resistant that helps one to endure waiting, provocation, injustice,
suffering or any of the unpleasant vicissitudes of time and life. Most of the time a reporter waits for
someone or something and patience gives him the willingness to wait without becoming dissented or
anxious.

Imagination: This basic mental faculty helps reporters in writing better stories that retain readers
interest creative faculty is very useful. Is he can add sparkle to somebody else copy and make it lively.
Besides, imagination headlines attract the reader and improve the quality of a news paper.

Farsightedness: An intelligent envisioning of the future helps news men in general. The quality helps
them identify processes and people who will be important in future. Reporters can watch such
processes and cultivate people who may become important news sources in the future.
A reporter with foresight can think ahead and prepare for eventualities with a little for thought sub -
editors can plan their work so as to avoid tension and it results in better functioning of the desk.

Self Discipline: One can achieve a degree of proficiency in sub editing or reporting by systematic effort
and self control. In this sense self discipline suggests dedication and firm commitment.

Integrity: It is a virtue in itself and implies undeviating honesty and strict adherence to a strong code of
ethics. It is more important for a reporter for they are more exposed to temptations.

Fearlessness and Frankness: These qualities help reporters in asking unpleasant questions and taking
risks to find out truths. Nobody gives a story on a platter. The reporter will help to probe, question and
exercise his power of dedication to get a good story.

Tactfulness: A reporter should be fact full. He should have the ability to handle sensitive people and
situations gracefully without causing heart or angry feelings. He should considerably of others and
should be careful not to embrace upset or offend them.

Initiative: A reporter who works in the field should have an outgoing nature with initiative an d drive.
These qualities will help him get acquainted with news sources and get stories from them. A meet
retiring or shy person is not fit for reporting. He may be good at desk. Reporters need a fair amount
assertiveness and aggressiveness to be successful in their career.

Mobility: A reporter should be mobile. He should enjoy moving around and should not hesitate traveling
distances to get stories when required. He should go to his news sources as often as possible for such
constant contacts help him get news.

Diligence: Reporter and sub-editors should be diligent. Their jobs require painstaking exertion of intense
care and effort, alertness and dedication to the task and very watchfulness. They have to make
extremely fine distinctions while writing or editing copy.
Types Of Lead
By Dr. I. Arul Aram

A lead (or an intro) is the beginning paragraph for a story. It is the hardest part to
write as it sets the tone and introduces the reader to the rest of the story. A good
lead paints a vivid picture of the story with a few words. Not many reporters can
produce sharp, original leads. Writers of little talent and scant judgment load their
leads with official sources, official titles, official phrases, even official quotes, and
produce long-winding, cumbersome and dull leads. If the lead is not effective, the
reader may skip the story. It should be appropriate for the story. The lead must be
accurate, short and crisp. The lead should reflect the mood of the story. A routine
lead is a short summary of an event. But if the story is interesting, a wide varieties
of lead can be tried out. This chapter cites several examples fromThe Professional
Journalist and The AP Writing Handbook.

Suppose a crowd has collected about a wrecked automobile at a street corner

outside a park. A passerby stops and taps a truck driver on the arm.
`` Hey, Mac. What happened?''
``Two kids got killed. Car jumped the curb.''
The truck driver here has done the same job of a reporter in summarising a news
event. But a traditional reporter would write like this:

Police Chief J.W. Carmichael announced today that two children were killed
outside Prospect Park, at Jackson Ave. and 16th St., N.W., when a ``recklessly
driven'' automobile jumped the curb near where they were playing at 2 p.m. and
ran them down.

This 40-word horror could have been avoided by eliminating the name of the
police chief, a partial quotation and overloading the lead with too many
information.

Such routine events and spot events are normally written in straight or summary
leads.

Straight lead (or Summary lead)

A good lead incorporates the inverted pyramid style with the most important facts
first. It tells readers what they want to know in a creative manner. If the reader
only read the lead, he or she would have a solid grasp of the story. T he above
accident report can be written in a straight lead. Journalists often resort to summary
leads pressed for time.
Two children at play were killed today when a sports car jumped the curb outside
Prospect Park and ran them down. Twelve in the group were injured.

Police Chief J.W. Carmichael attributed the tragedy to reckless driving. The
driver, slightly injured, was . . .

Compared to news reports, magazines and newspaper features have a great scope
for varied leads which appeal to the reader. A capable journalist can always use a
variety of leads when situations permit. We shall discuss different types of leads.

Punch lead is a variation of summary lead. Here attention is attracted by

concentrating with a brief, to-the-point lead sentence and developing details later
in the story.

An attractive 35-year-old woman executive was arrested today on charges of being

the "queen" ruling a multi-million-dollar narcotics ring.

Unfolding a bizarre story, police said . . .

Cartridge lead is another variation of summary lead. This lead is brief and contains
one single news incident, to be expanded later in the story. Its impact makes it a
lead to reserve for important stories.

President Kennedy was slain by an assassin today in a burst of gunfire in

downtown Dallas.
(UPI, Nov. 22, 1963)

Besides being a straight lead, this lead brings in action and colour, and makes the
lead on a spot story fast moving. Not always a lead has to a straight lead. Despite
its usefulness, the inverted pyramid lead is not suitable or desirable for all news
situations.

Descriptive lead

A descriptive lead describes how an event happened rather than simply telling
what the event is about.

BRIGHTON, England (UPI) -- Mrs. Pamela Bransden slowly counted five,

snapped into a hypnotic trance, and gave birth to an eight-pound baby. It was as
easy as that.

Today she relaxed at her home here, delighted that she has become Britain's first
self-hypnosis mother.

Eyewitness accounts can provide the background for writing lucid descriptions
which help the reader to visualise a news situation.
An ominous silence, broken only by the call of a faraway bird, hung over the
battle-scarred hills when suddenly an explosion followed by the yells of charging
troops smashed the stillness.

The loyalist offensive, launched to clear roving guerrillas . . .

Quotation lead

Quotes frequently are the essential documentation for a lead and should be used
immediately after a paraphrase that summarises them. Here paraphrasing the
verbatim quotation permits the removal of unnecessary words. But if a verbatim
quotation itself is very important or interesting, it can be the lead itself. This lead
would add an element of interest such as drama, pathos, humour, astonishment, or
some other factor that will reach out to the reader. The brief statement by U.S.
President Johnson in 1968 that he would not be a candidate for reelection was
widely used as a lead.

Here, however, is a quote lead that takes a lot of explaining.

``I was furious that that disreputable young man had the audacity to sit in my
antique rosewood chair.''

That's how tiny, 82-year-old Louise Freeland today described her brush with a
gun-toting escaped convict whom she talked into surrendering to Sheriff's officers.

Here goes a report on the increase in juvenile crime:

"I'd like to jail parents themselves who are so lax their kids are boosting the crime
rate!"

This statement came from Juvenile Court Judge Warren Jones, in releasing a
report on the rapid rise in juvenile crime rate in this city.

When a fellow engineering student was murdered by John David in his hostel room
in a ragging rage, the lead for a follow-up story was a Biblical quotation found on
the door of the culprit.

"Peace unto those who enter here."

These are the words seen on the door of John David's room. The irony is that
David gave eternal peace to Navukarasu, a fresher.

When Neil Armstrong landed on the moon, most newspapers led with the first
words he spoke:

"A small step for man, but a giant leap for mankind."
Question lead

Many editors dislike question lead on the basis that people read newspapers to get
answers, and not to be asked questions. But if the question is provocative, it may
be used as a lead.

What is the first thing that a woman buys when she is advised that she won
$2,50,000 in a jingle contest?

Mrs. Jane Roe, informed by XYZ Soaps that her entry took top prize in the
nationwide contest, said that she will buy a rhyming dictionary that . . .

Personal lead

It involves the use of the first person singular in the lead. Normally such a use is
discouraged except for a columnist or such privileged writers.

(By Reg Murphy, while editor of the Atlanta Constitution, after being released by a
kidnapper)

When the tall, heavy, garishly dressed stranger appeared at the door, it was clear
this was trouble.

He said, ``I'm Lamont Woods,'' in a Southern accent quickened by exposure to

speech patterns elsewhere.

I let him into my living room for a moment but hustled him out quickly because of
the anxiety within him. My wife, Virginia, stayed out of sight but went to the
window as we left and noted that he was driving a dark green Ford Torino. She
tried for the licence plate but couldn't see it.

And so I went driving into the Wednesday dusk with a man we both knew was
trouble. Neither of us guessed then that it would amount to 49 hours of terror at
the hands of a kidnapper telling a bizarre political tale and demanding $7,00,000
ransom . . . .

'You' lead (or Direct Address lead)

The `You' lead is intended to make a personal appeal to the reader involved in a
complicated situation. The second-person approach reaches out to involve the
reader and capture his/her attention. Here is an example, fairly typical of a trend
toward consumerism in the news:

WASHINGTON (UPI) -- If you are one of 30 million Americans working for a

company with a private pension plan, Congress has given you a new bill of rights.
It is the Employment Retirement Income Security Act and it promises that if you
have worked long enough to earn a pension, you will receive one at retirement
age. Nothing -- including bankruptcy, plant closings, dismissal or resignation --
can stand in the way.

Let us look at one more example:

Ski fans, here's your opportunity!

The recent storm deposited five inches of powder snow on Pleasure Mountain and
the public ski lift is being operated . . .

Contrast lead

To vary monotony, a saga can be split into two sentences -- the first of which refers
to the humble beginning and the second to the hero's latest triumph. When Van
Cliburn, the pianist, returned from a musical triumph in Moscow, one reporter
wrote:

Harvey Lavan (Van) Cilburn Jr. of Kilgore, Tex., came home from Russia today
with 17 pieces of luggage. They bespoke his triumph as pianist in Moscow. He had
three when he went over.

Here goes another example:

Richard Roe, who started 47 years ago as a $10-a-week janitor for Consolidated
Corporation, today took office as the firm's $2,63,000-a-year chairman and chief
executive officer.

Delayed lead (or suspended interest lead)

A situation can be exploited in an interesting way so that an ordinary item stands

out. The reporter delves in several paragraphs to find out what had happened. The
reader must get the story by reading to the end of the story.

Dwight David Eisenhower once said he would rather win the Medal of Honour
than be president. Dwight Harold Johnson -- who was named for Dwight
Eisenhower -- said once to a friend that ``winning the medal has changed my life
so much I don't know if I'll ever get my head straight again. But I know this.
Nobody's hero forever.''

Friday, April 30, in the drizzle of a Detroit dawn, Dwight Johnson died but not as
a hero. He died in the emergency room of a Detroit hospital with three bullet
wounds in his side and one in his head. He was shot, according to police, by a
store owner he had tried to rob.

Here goes another example:

Bill Turner, 8, received a red coaster wagon for Christmas and it led to problems.

This morning, while leaving for school, he noticed that it was missing from his
front yard.

Two hours later his mother, Mrs. John Turner, received a call from school officials
asking why Bill was absent.

Shocked and fearing that his son was hurt, she called police, who contacted
hospitals and searched the banks of the Red River. They prepared to drag the
waters.

At that moment, they say a boy pulling a red wagon through a nearby field.

Bill explained to his mother and police that a friend told him other boys had taken
the wagon to a field two miles from his house. He planned to get it on his way to
school.

The youngster said he went to the wrong field and lost track of time because he
was so intent on finding the wagon.

Blind identification lead

If the person concerned is not well known in the community, his/her name is less
important than other salient facts that identify the person. eg. "a 80-year-old
woman" instead of her name.

A police inspector's son was attacked with a knife by some miscreants on Mount
Road this evening.

The victim Pratap Daniel, 20, has been admitted to a private hospital and his
condition is critical.

Anecdotal lead

The anecdotal lead is used when the anecdote is bright and applicable and not too
wasteful of space. It brings the reader quickly into a news situation that might not
attract his attention if it were routinely written. Here is one that began a series on
divorce in the U.S.

David and Kay Craig's two-year-old marriage is a second one for both and their
story is one that is being repeated with increasing frequency across the country.

Each was married for the first time at 18. David's marriage lasted through fi ve
years and two children. Kay's first marriage ended in divorce after a year and
eight months.
The Craigs (not their real name) are among the 13 million Americans who,
according to the Census Bureau, at one time or another have been through a
divorce. More than four million Americans currently list their marital status as
divorced. The rate of divorces in this country has been and still is steadily
increasing.

Gag (or funny) lead

A journalist who writes a funny story put up the saddest face in a newsroom.
Journalistic homour requires the skilled and practice. Here is how an AP reporter
wrote when a woman broke her leg trying to climb out of a locked London public
toilet:

LONDON -- What's a lady do when trapped in a loo?

Literary allusion lead

Parallelling the construction of a nursery rhyme or part of a well-known literary

creation can add to variety.

Mary had a little camera, and everywhere that Mary went the camera was sure to
go.

Mary Richards' perseverance in carrying her camera on every trip with her
anthropologist husband has resulted in the publication of her first book, a
collection of photographs of natives in seldom-visited areas of South America.

Reference

Hohenberg, John. The Professional Journalist. New Delhi: Oxford, 1978.

Writing for the AP: The Second AP Writing Handbook. The Associated Press, New
York, 1959, p. 4.