Mathematics: analysis and

approaches
Practice HL paper 3 questions

For first examinations in 2021

 Compactness

[31 marks]

This question asks you to investigate compactness, a quantity that measures how compact an enclosed region is.
4A Other measures of compactness exist.
The compactness, C , of an enclosed region can be defined by C  , where A is the area of the region Compactness is dimensionless.
πd 2
and d is the maximum distance between any two points in the region.

(a) Verify that C 1 for a circular region. [2] A circle is the most compact shape.

Consider a rectangle whose side lengths are in the ratio x :1 .

4x
(b) Show that C . [3]
π 1  x 2 

dC 4 1  x 
2

(c) Show that  . [2]

dx π 1  x 2 2

(d) (i) Hence find the value of x which gives maximum compactness for a rectangle.
(ii) Identify the geometrical significance of this result. [3] Here we are asking students to interpret a
derived result. This is valued mathematical
Consider an equilateral triangle of side length x units. thinking. Students should be given
opportunities in the classroom to explain,
interpret and describe mathematical results
(e) Find an expression, in terms of x, for the area of this equilateral triangle. [2] and findings.

(f) Hence find the exact value of C for an equilateral triangle. [3]

Consider a regular polygon of n sides constructed such that its vertices lie on the circumference of a circle of
radius r units. The early parts of the question ask students to
consider specific cases. Now we are asking
students to consider general cases. A diagram
n 2π
(g) If n2 and even, show that C  sin . [4] might be helpful here.
2π n

(h) Illustrate, with the aid of a diagram, that d  2r when n is odd. [1] Here we are testing whether students can see
that calculating d is different for even and odd
values of n.
2π
n sin
If n 1 and odd, it can be shown that C n . It is important to recognise that students are
 π not required to show this result.
π 1  cos 
 n

(i) Find the regular polygon with the least number of sides for which the compactness is more than 0.995.
As n is discrete, a tabular method is the best
[5] solution method. Students will need to
consider both even and odd values of n. This

(j) (i) For n even, use L’Hopital’s rule or otherwise to show that lim
n
C  1.
value of compactness is close to that of a
circle’s.

(ii) Using your answer to part (i) show that lim C  1 , for n  1 and odd. Note that students have an option as to what
n method can be used.
(iii) Interpret geometrically the significance of parts (i) and (ii). [6] The last part asks students to interpret their
results.

1
Compactness markscheme:

(a) A  πr 2 (A1)

2
4A 4πr
substituting correctly A  π r 2 into C  gives C  M1
πd 2
π(2r )2

leading to C 1 AG

[2 marks]

(b) A x and d  1  x2  d 2  1  x2  (A1)

4A
substituting correctly A x and d  1  x 2   d 2  1  x 2  into C  M1
πd 2

4x AG
C
π(1  x 2 )

[3 marks]

(c) Attempting to use the quotient (or product) rule M1


2

d C 4 1  x   x (2 x ) (or equivalent) A1
π 1  x 2 
2
dx

dC 4 1  x 
2

 AG
dx π 1  x 2 2

[2 marks]

dC 4 1  x 2 
(d) (i)   0  1  x 2   0
dx π 1  x 2  2
(M1)

 x  1  x  0
A1

Note: Do not accept x  1 as a final answer.

(ii) The most compact rectangle is a square A1

[3 marks]

1 π 3x2 
(e) A  x2 sin   
2 3 4 
M1A1

[2 marks]

2
(f) dx (for an equilateral triangle) (A1)

1 π  3x2  4A
substituting correctly A  x2 sin    and d  x into C  M1
2 3 4  πd 2

3x 2
4
C 4
 x2

3


A1

2π
n sin
3 n .
Note: Award (A0)(M0)A1 if C is obtained by substituting n3 into C
π  π
π 1  cos 
 n

[3 marks]

1 2π
(g) Attempt to use A  ab sin C with a  b  r and   (M1)
2 n

1 2 2π
each triangle has area r sin A1
2 n

n triangles so) 1 2 2π
(there are A nr sin A1
2 n

1 2π 
4  nr 2 sin 
2 n
C  A1
π  2r 
2

n 2π
leading to C  sin AG
2π n

[4 marks]

(h) Appropriate diagram showing that the length d is not a diameter when n is odd A1

[1 mark]

n such that n 2π
(i) Attempting to find the least value of sin  0.995 (M1)
2π n

n  37 A1

3
 2π
n sin
attempting to find the least value of n such that n  0.995 (M1)
 π
π 1  cos 
 n

n  29 A1

Hence a regular 29-sided polygon has the least number of sides such that C  0.995
A1

2π
n sin
n 2π n  0.995 is correctly
Note: Award (M0)A0(M1)A1 if sin  0.995 is not considered and
2π n  π
π 1  cos 
 n
considered. Award (M1)A1(M0)A0 for n  37 as a final answer.

[5 marks]

 2π 
n 2π  sin n 
(j) (i) Consider lim sin  lim   M1
n  2π n n  2π 
 n 
EITHER

 2π 2π 
  n2 cos n 
 lim   M1A1
n  2π
  2 
 n 

 2π 
 lim  cos 
n
 n

OR

2π
 , as n   ,   0 R1
n

 2π 
 sin n  sin 
lim   lim
2π   0 
A1
n
 
 n 
THEN

1 AG

Note: Allow use of Maclaurin series.

4
 2π
n sin
(ii) Consider lim C  lim n
n  n   π
π 1  cos 
 n

 2π 
 n sin 2 
 lim  n  
n 
 2π  π
  1  cos  
  n M1

 2
 1  A1
 2

1 AG

(iii) As n  , the polygon becomes a circle with compactness = 1 A1

[6 marks]

Total [31 marks]

5
 Gaussian integers

[30 marks]

A Gaussian integer is a complex number, z , such that z  a  bi where a , b   . In this question, you are
asked to investigate certain divisibility properties of Gaussian integers. This question asks students to apply their
knowledge of complex numbers in a context.
Consider two Gaussian integers,   3  4i and   1  2i , such that    for some Gaussian integer .
(a) Find . [2]

Now consider two Gaussian integers,   3  4i and   11  2i .

 Technology can be used in parts (a)and (b).

(b) Determine whether is a Gaussian integer. [3]


The norm of a complex number z , denoted by N  z  , is defined by N  z   z 2 . For example, if z  2  3i

then N  2  3i   22  32  13 . Here students are introduced to the norm of a
complex number. It is the square of the
modulus. This is to aid in determining whether
Gaussian integers are Gaussian primes or not
(c) On an Argand diagram, plot and label all Gaussian integers that have a norm less than 3.
(see later).
[2]
This question part has been set to give students

N    a 2  b 2 .
an opportunity to gain some familiarity with
(d) Given that   a  bi where a , b   , show that the concept of a norm.
[1]

A Gaussian prime is a Gaussian integer, z , that cannot be expressed in the form z   where  ,  are

Gaussian integers with N   , N     1 . Here we define a Gaussian prime. This will be

linked to properties of the norm later in the
question.

(e) By expressing the positive integer n  c 2  d 2

as a product of two Gaussian integers each of norm
n
c 2  d 2 , show that is not a Gaussian prime. [3] This general result helps to illustrate how to
verify that 2 is not a Gaussian prime (part (f)).

The positive integer 2 is a prime number, however it is not a Gaussian prime.

(f) Verify that 2 is not a Gaussian prime. [2]

(g) Write down another prime number of the form c 2  d 2 that is not a Gaussian prime and express it as a
product of two Gaussian integers. [2] For example, 5, 13, 17 and 29 are ordinary
primes. However, they are not Gaussian
primes.
Let  ,  be Gaussian integers.

N    N   N    .
The norm is multiplicative. This provides us
(h) Show that [6] with a method of determining whether a
Gaussian integer is a Gaussian prime.
The result from part (h) provides a way of determining whether a Gaussian integer is a Gaussian prime.

(i) Hence show that 1  4i is a Gaussian prime. [3]

This uses the result of part (h).

(j) Use proof by contradiction to prove that a prime number, p , that is not of the form a 2  b 2 is a
Gaussian prime. [6] This asks students to construct a formal proof
(by contradiction).

6
Gaussian integers markscheme:

(a)  3  4i 1  2i   11  2i (M1)A1

[2 marks]

 41 38
(b)   i (M1)A1
 25 25

  41    38 
(Since Re    and/or Im     are not integers)
  25    25 


is not a Gaussian integer R1


Note: Award R1 for correct conclusion from their answer.

[3 marks]

(c)  1,  i, 0 plotted and labelled A1

1  i,  1  i plotted and labelled A1

Note: Award A1A0 if extra points to the above are plotted and labelled.

[2 marks]

z  a 2  b 2 (and as N  z   z )
2
(d) A1

then N  z   a2  b2 AG

[1 mark]

(e) c2  d 2   c  di  c  di  A1

and N  c  di   N  c  di   c 2  d 2 R1

N  c  di , N  c  di  1 (since c , d are positive) R1

so c 2  d 2 is not a Gaussian prime, by definition AG

[3 marks]

(f) 2   12  12   1  i 1  i  (A1)

N 1 i   N 1 i   2 A1

so 2 is not a Gaussian prime AG

[2 marks]

7
(g) For example, 5   12  22   1  2i 1  2i  (M1)A1

[2 marks]

(h) METHOD 1

Let   m  ni and   p  q i

LHS:

   mp  nq    mq  np  i M1

N     mp  nq    mq  np 
2 2
A1

 mp   2mnpq   nq    mq   2mnpq   np 
2 2 2 2
A1

 mp    nq    mq    np 
2 2 2 2
A1

RHS:

N   N      m 2  n 2  p 2  q 2  M1

 mp    mq    np    nq 
2 2 2 2
A1

LHS  RHS and so N    N   N    AG

METHOD 2

Let   m  ni and   p  q i

LHS

N     m 2  n 2  p 2  q 2  M1

  m  ni  m  ni  p  qi  p  qi  A1

  m  ni  p  qi  m  ni  p  qi 

   mp  nq    mq  np i    mp  nq    mq  np  i  M1A1

  mp  nq    mq  np 
2 2
A1

 N   mp  nq    mq  np  i A1

 N   N      RHS AG

[6 marks]

8
(i) N 1  4i   17 which is a prime (in ) R1

if 1  4i    then 17  N    N   N    R1

we cannot have N   , N     1 R1

Note: Award R1 for stating that 1  4i is not the product of Gaussian integers of smaller norm because no such
norms divide 17 .

so 1  4i is a Gaussian prime AG

[3 marks]

(j) Assume p is not a Gaussian prime

 p   where  ,  are Gaussian integers and N   , N     1 M1

 N  p   N   N    M1

p 2  N   N    A1

It cannot be N    1, N     p 2 from definition of Gaussian prime R1

hence N    p, N     p R1

If   a  bi then N    a 2  b 2  p which is a contradiction R1

hence a prime number, p, that is not of the form a 2  b 2 is a Gaussian prime AG

[6 marks]

Total [30 marks]