PHYSICS MASTER NOTES (RANKER NOTES)

1) What is Zener Diode? Explain in Brief.

• Small-signal and rectifier diodes are never intentionally operated in
the breakdown region because this may damage them. A Zener diode
is different; it is a silicon diode that the manufacturer has optimized
for operation in the breakdown region.
• The Zener diode is the backbone of voltage regulators
• Zener diode is used in circuits that hold the load voltage almost
constant despite large changes in line voltage and load resistance.

2) What are the specifications of Zener Diode?

Below are the specifications of Zener Diode:
• Voltage (Vz): The Zener voltage means the reverse breakdown
voltage, which may be 2.4 V to about 200 V. Even, it may go up to 1 kV
while the maximum for the surface-mounted device is approximately
47 V.
• Current (Iz -max.): The maximum current at the rated Zener voltage Vz
will be 200 Micro Ampere to 200 Ampere.
• Current (Iz-min.): The minimum current required for the diode to
break down will be 5 mA and 10 mA.
• Power rating: The maximum power, which may be dissipated by the
Zener diode, is given by the product of voltage across the diode with
the current flowing through it. Some typical values are 400 mW, 500
mW, 1 W, and 5 W.
• The voltage tolerance is typically ±5%.
• Temperature stability of the diodes is around 5 V.
• The leaded devices and the surface mount either as discrete devices
or within integrated circuits.
• Zener resistance (i.e. Rz): The diode exhibits some resistance value
too, which may be evident from the I-V characteristics.

3) Explain Voltage regulator circuit for Zener Diode.

Zener Diode as a voltage regulator Circuit:
• A Zener diode is one of the specially designed diodes that
predominately works in reverse biased conditions.
• They are more heavily doped than ordinary diodes, due to which they
have narrow depletion region.
 PHYSICS MASTER NOTES (RANKER NOTES)
• While regular diodes get damaged when the voltage across them
exceeds the reverse breakdown voltage, Zener diodes work exclusively
in this region.
• The depletion region in Zener diode goes back to its normal state when
the reverse voltage gets removed.
• This particular property of Zener diodes makes it useful as a voltage
regulator.

4) Explain the design of a voltage regulator circuit.

• Here the Zener diode is connected across the load RL. We want the
voltage across the load to be regulated and not cross the value of Vz.
• Depending on our requirement, we choose the suitable Zener diode
with a Zener breakdown voltage near to the voltage we require across the
load.
• We connect the Zener diode in reverse bias condition.
• When the voltage across the diode exceeds the Zener breakdown
voltage, a significant amount of current starts flowing through the diode.
As the load is in parallel to the diode, the voltage drop across the load is
also equal to the Zener breakdown voltage.
• The Zener diode provides a path for the current to flow and hence the
load gets protected from excessive currents.
• Thus the Zener diode serves two purposes here: Zener diode as a voltage
regulator as well as it protects the load from excessive current.

5) Explain the effect of supply voltage variation.

• A zener diode is operated in reverse bia
6) Give a exaplanation of Zener break down mechanism in brief.
• The Zener breakdown occurs in heavily doped p-n junction diodes
because of their narrow depletion region. When the reverse biased
 PHYSICS MASTER NOTES (RANKER NOTES)
voltage applied to the diode is increased, the narrow depletion
region generates a strong electric field.
• The Zener breakdown occurs in heavily doped p-n junction diodes
because of their narrow depletion region.
• When a reverse biased voltage applied to the diode reaches close to
Zener voltage, the electric field in the depletion region is strong
enough to pull electrons from their valence band. The valence
electrons which gains sufficient energy from the strong electric field
of depletion region will breaks bonding with the parent atom.
• The valence electrons which break bonding with the parent atom will
become free electrons. These free electrons carry electric current
from one place to another place. At the Zener breakdown region, a
small increase in voltage will rapidly increase the electric current.
• Zener breakdown occurs at low reverse voltage whereas avalanche
breakdown occurs at high reverse voltage.
• Zener breakdown occurs in Zener diodes because they have very thin
depletion region.
• Breakdown region is the normal operating region for a Zener diode.
• Zener breakdown occurs in Zener diodes with Zener voltage (Vz) less
than 6V.

• Explain in Brief about Tunnel Diode.

• A tunnel diode (also known as a Esaki diode) is a type of

semiconductor diode that has effectively “negative resistance” due
to the quantum mechanical effect called tunnelling.
• Tunnel diodes have a heavily doped p-n junction that is about 10 nm
wide. The heavy doping results in a broken band gap, where
conduction band electron states on the N-side are more or less
aligned with valence band hole states on the P-side.
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• The application of transistors in a very high in frequency range are
hampered due to the transit time and other effects.
• Many devices use the negative conductance property of
semiconductors for these high frequency applications.
• A tunnel diode is one of the most commonly used negative
conductance devices. It is also known as Esaki diode after L. Esaki for
his work on this effect.

7) Write the applications of tunnel diode.

The applications of tunnel diode include the following.
• Tunnel diode is used in different oscillators like relaxation,
microwave, etc.
• It is used as a switching device with very high speed.
• It is used like a logic memory storage device.
• It is used as a microwave oscillator with high frequency
• This diode is used as an oscillator, amplifier & switch
• It is used as a high-frequency component.
• It works as a storage device to store logic memory.
• It is used in FM receivers & oscillator circuits because it is a low-
current device

8) Explain Silicon controlled Rectifier.

• The Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR) is the most important and
mostly used member of the thyristor family.
• SCR can be used for different applications like rectification,
regulation of power and inversion, etc. Like a diode, SCR is a
unidirectional device that allows the current in one direction and
opposes in another direction.
 PHYSICS MASTER NOTES (RANKER NOTES)
• SCR is a three terminal device; anode, cathode and gate as shown in
figure. SCR has built in feature to turn ON or OFF and its switching is
controlled by biasing conditions and gate input terminal.
• This results in varying the average power delivered at the load , by
varying the ON periods of the SCR.
• It can handle several thousands of voltages and currents. SCR symbol
and its terminals are shown in figure.

9) Write about the BJT (Bipolar junction transistor)

(Refer PPT)
10) What is UJT (Uni Junction Transistor)? Explain in brief.

• A Unijunction Transistor (UJT) is a three terminal semiconductor

switching device.
• It consists of a bar of n-type silicon material with a terminal attached
at its two ends known as base 1 and base 2.
• A third terminal is connected with a heavily doped p-type material
alloyed into the bar part way along its length, and is known as the
emitter.
• Since there is only one rectifying junction within the device, it is
called a ‘Unijunction’ transistor.
• The unijunction transistor exhibits negative resistance in its
characteristics.
• It finds use in relaxation oscillators in variety of applications.

11) Explain Polarization and its types.

Below are the types of Polarization
• Electronic Polarization:
→ When Electric field is applied to a atom, displacement in opposite
direction is observed between nucleus & electrons due to this
dipole moment is induced.
 PHYSICS MASTER NOTES (RANKER NOTES)
→ This type of polarization is called Electronic Polarization.
→ Ex: Germanium, Silicon, Diamond etc.

• Ionic Polarization:
→ Some materials like ionic crystals does not possess permanent
dipole moment.
→ When Electric Field is applied on this type of material
displacement of ions is observed.
→ Due to an external electric field a position & negative ion
displaces in the direction opposite to each other due to the
distance between them is reduced & ionic polarization is
generated.
→ Ionic polarization is observed in materials like NaCl, KBr, KCl etc.
• Orientation Polarization

→ Orientation polarization occurs in dielectric materials which

possess molecules with permanent dipole moment (i.e. in polar
molecules. E.g. H2O, HCl)
→ In the absence of an external field, because of random
orientation of the dipoles due to the thermal agitation the
material has net zero dipole moment.
→ But under the influence of an external applied electric field, the
dipoles undergo rotation so as to reorient along the direction of
the field. As shown in the figure.
→ Thus, the material itself develops electric polarization.
• Space Charge Polarization
→ The space charge polarization occurs in multiphase dielectric
materials.
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→ When such materials are subjected to an external electric field,
especially at high temperature the charges get accumulated at
the interface or at the electrodes because of sudden change in
conductivity as shown in the figure.
→ Since the accumulation of charges with opposite polarity occurs
at opposite parts in the low resistivity phases, it leads to the
development of dipole moment within the low resistivity.
→ Grain boundaries often lead to space charge polarization as
they can trap charges migrating under the influence of the
applied field.

12) Give the information about different types of dielectric materials

Dielectric materials can be solid, liquid or gaseous. A high vacuum can also
be used as a dielectric even though its relative dielectric constant is only
unity.
Types of Dielectric Materials are as follows
• Solid Dielectrics:
Solid dielectrics are most commonly used in electrical engineering;
these are very good insulators.
Ex: - Porcelain, glass, plastic , rubber, cotton wood and mica
• Liquid dielectric materials:
Liquid dielectric materials are basically of three types which include
→ Mineral insulating oils
→ Synthetic insulating oils
→ Miscellaneous insulating oils.
The function of insulating liquids is to provide electrical insulation and
to dissipate heat (cooling agent)
Ex: - Transformer oil, vegetable oil, capacitor oil, cable oil etc.
• Gaseous Dielectric Materials:
Gaseous Dielectric materials are used both as insulators and as cooling
agents.
Ex: - Air, hydrogen, nitrogen, helium etc.

13) Explain the laws of electrostatics field in presence of dielctrics.

In the presence of dielectric material between the plates of the
capacitor, a charge q‘ of the opposite sign is induces on its surface due
to polarization as shown in Fig. (b). Now the net charge enclosed by
 PHYSICS MASTER NOTES (RANKER NOTES)
the Gaussian surface is q – q‘ and due to the induced charge, the
electric field in the region between the plates is also getting reduced.
Suppose the modified electric field Vector E is, then Gauss`s law
becomes
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14) What are the properties of a good dielectric?

Below are the boundary conditions:
• It should have high resistivity to reduce leakage current.
• It should have high dielectric strength.
• It should have high mechanical strength.
• It should have high fire resistance.
• It should have high thermal conductivity.
• It should have low dielectric loss.
• It should have low water absorption quality