CHAPTER 5 - GASES

Properties of Gases

Gas has no fixed shape or volume;

It contains particles (atoms or molecules) separated by distances very much larger than
the particle size;
 Gases are compressible and expandable due to plenty of empty spaces between
molecules;
 Inter-particles attractions in gases are negligible;
 Particles are constantly moving and colliding especially with container walls;
 Collisions of particles with surfaces result in pressure.
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5.1 PRESSURE
Force
Pressure is defined as force per unit area; Pressure = ; (P = F/A)
Area
Force = mass x acceleration.
If mass in kg and acceleration in m/s2, force = kg.m/s2 = Newton (N)
Newton
Pressure = = N/m2 = Pa (Pascal, SI unit for pressure)
meter 2

Atmospheric Pressure or Barometric Pressure?

The atmosphere contains a mixture of gases, mainly N 2 and O2. Gas molecules
constantly colliding with the Earth’s surface and results in the atmospheric pressure.
Atmospheric pressure is measured with a barometer, hence called barometric pressure. The
first mercury barometer was invented in 1643 by an Italian scientist, Evangelista Torricelli
(1608 - 1647).
 The first barometer was made of a meter-long glass tubing, closed at one end. Torricelli
filled the tubing with mercury and then inverted it into a bowl of mercury reservoir. He
found that the mercury column in the tubing only dropped to a level of about 30 inches
above the mercury reservoir. He explained that the mercury column is supported by the
air pressure that exerts on the surface of mercury in the bowl, thus preventing the
column from completely falling into the bowl. Torricelli mainly used his barometer to
determine the relationships between changes in the air pressure with the weather.

Pressure may be expressed in terms of the height of a liquid column. Pressure exerted by a
liquid column is directly proportional to the gravitional constant, g, the density of liquid, d, and
the height of the column, h.

Pressure = g.d.h
Since g and d are constant for a given liquid, pressure is proportional only to the height of that
liquid column. Based on the mercury barometer, pressure is expressed in terms of the height of
mercury column supported by that pressure. At sea level, the atmospheric pressure supports a
mercury column of 760 mm tall. Thus 1 atm = 760.0 mmHg = 760.0 torr.

(In honor of Torrichelli, 1 torr is defined to be equivalent to 1 mmHg.)

Other pressure units are: 1 atm = 14.70 psi, and 1 atm = 101 325 Pa (1 Pa = 1 N/m2).
Pascal (Pa) is the SI unit for pressure.

Exercise-1:

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1. A car tire is inflated to a pressure of 32.0 psi. Convert this pressure unit to atm, torr, and
kilopascal (kPa). (Answer: 2.04 atm; 1550 torr; 207 kPa)

2. The osmotic pressure of an aqueous solution is measured in terms of water column that
rises above the solution. If the osmotic pressure is 18.0 inches of water (density = 1.00
g/cm3), what is the osmotic pressure in mmHg? (density of mercury = 13.6 g/cm 3)
(Answer: 33.6 mmHg)

3. If 1 atmospheric pressure supports a mercury column 76.0 cm tall, what height of water
column can be supported by the same pressure? (density of water = 1.00 g/cm 3; density
of mercury = 13.6 g/cm3) (Answer: 10.3 m or 33.9 ft)
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Manometer or Pressure Gauge?

Manometer is a device used to measure gas pressure in a container. There are two
types of manometers – opened-end and closed-end manometers. How are these two
manometer different from each other and how are they alike? Which one gives the reading of
the gas pressure in the tank directly? Which one requires you to know the air pressure in order
to determine the gas pressure in the gas tank?

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5.2 The Gas Laws – Boyle’s, Charles’s, and Avogadro’s Laws

Gas behaviors are governed by the mathematical relationships between pressure, temperature,
volume, and the molar quantity of the gas. These relationships are summarized into various gas
laws, such as, Boyle’s law, which summarizes the inverse relationship between volume and
pressure of a gas sample at constant temperature; Charles’s law summarizes the direct
relationship between volume to temperature at constant pressure, and Avogadro’s law relates
the gas volume to molar quantity of the gas at constant temperature and pressure.

Boyle’s Law:
At constant temperature, gas volume is inversely proportional to its pressure.
1 b
V  ; V= ; or PV = b (T is constant and b is a numerical constant)
P P

For a given quantity of gas at constant temperature, if the volume changes from V1 to V2, then
the gas pressure will also change from P1 to P2, such that,

P1 V1 P1 V1
P1V1 = P2V2; then, V2 = ; and P2 =
P2 V2
(How would the plots of V versus P and V versus 1/P look like?)

Exercise-2:
1. A gas is compressed from 24.5 L to 1.50 L at constant temperature. If the initial pressure
of the gas was 0.986 atm, what is the final pressure? (Answer: 16.1 atm)

2. To what new volume should a 0.112-L gas expands so that its pressure drops from 35.0
psi to 5.50 psi? (Answer: 0.713 L)
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Charles’s Law:
At constant pressure, the volume of a gas sample is directly proportional to its
temperature in Kelvin.

V  T, or V = cT; (where c is a numerical constant and T is in Kelvin.)

For a given quantity of gas at constant pressure, if the temperature (in Kelvin) changes from T 1
to T2, then the volume will change from V1 to V2, such that,

V2 V1
= ; then, V2 = V1(T2/T1) and T2 = T1(V2/V1)
T2 T1

(How would the plot of V versus T look like?)

If the temperature increases, but the volume remains unchange, then the gas pressure will
increase. The pressure-temperature relationship at constant volume can be summarized by the
expression:

P1 P2
= ; and P2 = P1(T2/T1) ; and T2 = T1(P2/P1);
T1 T2

Exercise-3:
1. If a 345-mL sample of gas at is heated from 20oC to 100oC at constant pressure, what is
its final volume? (Answer: 439 mL)

2. A given gaseous sample is compressed at constant pressure to one-half its initial volume.
If the initial temperature is 22 oC, what is its final temperature? (Answer: -126oC)

3. A car tire is inflated to a pressure of 28.0 psi at 22 oC. After driving for 1 hr, the tire
pressure is found to have increased by 8.5%. What is the new temperature (in oC) of the
air inside the tire? (Answer: 47oC)

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Avogadro's Law
At constant temperature and pressure, the volume of a gas is directly proportional to
the number of moles of the gas.

V  n; V/n = a ; (where a is a constant, and T & P are constant);

V2/n2 = V1/n1 ;

The Avogadro’s law implies that equal volumes of gases at the same temperature and pressure
contain the same number of moles (hence the same number of molecules).

Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP)

Since gas volume is temperature and pressure dependent, it is necessary to defined a
standard temperature and pressure condition when describing the molar volume of gas. The
standard temperature and pressure (or STP) implies T = 273.15 K (0 oC) and P = 1.000 atm.
It was experimentally determined that, at STP, 1.000 mol of ideal gases occupy a volume of
22.414 L, which is the molar volume of ideal gas at STP.

Exercise-4:

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1. What is the volume of 0.683 mol of nitrogen gas at STP? (Answer: 15.3 L)

2. How many moles of helium gas would occupy a volume of 6.8 x 103 L at STP?
(Answer: 3.0 x 102 moles)

3. An amount of ozone gas occupies a volume of 2.04 L at 1 atm and 25 oC. If all of this gas
is converted to oxygen, what would be the volume of the oxygen gas under the same
temperature and pressure? The reaction is: 2 O3(g)  3 O2(g)
(Answer: 3.06 L)
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5.3 The Ideal Gas Law

Combining Boyle's, Charles's and Avogadro's Laws we obtain the following expression:

nT R(nT)
V  ; or V= ; (where R is a universal gas constant.)
P P
This leads to the ideal gas equation: PV = nRT
L.atm
Since 1.000 mol of ideal gases has a volume of 22.414 L at STP, R = 0.08206 /mol.K.
L.torr
If P is expressed in torr, R = 62.36 /mol.K

For a fixed amount of gas, Boyle’s and Charles’s laws may be combined to yield the following
relationships between volume, pressure and temperature:

V  (T/p);  V = (a constant)(T/P)
P1 V1 P2 V2
Which yields the expression: = ;
T1 T2
Re-arranging the above expression, we obtain other equations, such as:
P1 T2 V1 T2 P2 V2
V2 = V1.( ).( ); P2 = P1.( ).( ); T2 = T1.( )
T1 P2 T1 V2 P1 V1

Exercise-5:
1. A sample of nitrogen gas has a volume of 12.2 L at 25 oC and 1.0 atm. What is its volume
at -20 oC and 285 torr? (Answer: 27.6 L)

2. A sample of ideal gas has a volume of 120 mL at 25 oC and 750 torr. If the gas is
compressed to 76 mL and the pressure decreases to 608 torr, what is the new
temperature of the gas? (Answer: -120.oC or 153 K)

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Using Ideal Gas Equations to Solve Molar Mass and Density of Gas:
A. Determination of Molar Mass:

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For an ideal gas, PV = nRT;  PV = (g/M)(RT);

where g is mass in grams, and M = molar mass of gas)

which yields PM = (g/V)(RT),

Since density, d = g/V,  PM = dRT, and M = dRT/P;

PM
B. Gas Density, d=
RT

1. Gas densities vary greatly with temperature and pressure; it decreases as temperature rises
and increases as pressure increases.

2. Gas density is directly proportional to its molar mass.

(Explain how does a hot-air balloon work.)

Exercise-6:
1. A 2.78-g sample of a gas occupies a volume of 4.24 L at 23.6 oC and 755 mmHg. What is
the molar mass of the gas? (Answer: 16.1 g/mol)

2. What is the density (in g/L) of hydrogen chloride gas, HCl, at 1.00 atm and 25 oC?
(Answer: 1.49 g/L)

3. If the average molar mass of air is 29 g/mol, calculate the density of air at 25oC and at
65oC, respectively. (Answer: 1.19 g/L at 25oC, and 1.05 g/L at 65oC)

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5.4 Gas Stoichiometry

If a reaction involves gaseous reactants and/or products, the molar quantities of such
substances can be calculated using the ideal gas equation (n = PV/RT), provided their volumes
at a certain temperature and pressure is known. For example, the molar volume of ideal gas at
STP (standard temperature and pressure) is 22.4 L. Thus, the molar quantity of an ideal gas
can be calculated from its volume at STP, such that, n = (Volume at STP)/22.4

Exercise-7:
1. Oxygen can be prepared in the laboratory by heating solid potassium chlorate, KClO 3,
which decomposes according to the equation:
2 KClO3(s)  2 KCl(s) + 3 O2(g)
Calculate the volume (in liters) of oxygen gas produced if the temperature is 23.6 oC and
the pressure is 735 mmHg when 37.2 g potassium chlorate is completely decomposed?
(Answer: 11.5 L of O2 gas)

2. Sodium azide (NaN3) decomposes when ignited according to the following equation:
2 NaN3(s)  2 Na(s) + 3 N2(g)

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 How many grams of NaN3 must decompose to produce 55.0 L of N2 gas at 31 oC and 810
mmHg of pressure? (Answer: 102 g of NaN3)

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5.5 Dalton's Law of Partial Pressure

Partial Pressure, Pi, is the pressure that a gas in a mixture would exert if it were to be
present alone in the same container. In a mixture containing non-reacting gases A and B, if the
partial pressure of gas A is PA, and that of B is PB, the total gas pressure is,

Ptotal = PA + PB ;

If PA = (nA)(RT/V), and PB = (nB)(RT/V)

Then, Ptotal = PA + PB = (nA + nB )(RT/V) = ntotal(RT/V)

Dalton's Law states that, "the total pressure of a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the
partial pressures of individual gases in the mixture".

Ptotal = Pi = P1 + P2 + P3 +...

(where, P1, P2, P3, etc., are partial pressures of individual gases in the mixture)

When a gas is collected over water, the gas contains water vapor, which also exerts pressure,
called the water vapor pressure, Pw. The total pressure of the collected gas is the SUM of the
gas pressure and the water vapor pressure. If the atmospheric (or barometric) pressure and
the vapor pressure of water at a particular temperature are known, the pressure of dry gas can
be calculated as follows:

PT = Pbar = Pgas + Pw; Pgas = Pbar – Pw;

Exercise-8:
1. A 5.00-L container contains 25.0-g gaseous mixture of 50.0% N 2, 15.0% O2, and 35.0%
He, by mass. What is the total gas pressure inside the container at 25 oC?
(Answer: total gas pressure = 13.4 atm)

2. A 5.00-L container contains 0.43 mol O2 and 0.57 mol N2 gases at 25oC. What are the
partial pressure of each gas in the container and the total pressure of the mixture?
(Answer: PO2 = 2.1 atm; PN2 = 2.8 atm; Ptotal = 4.9 atm)

3. A piece of zinc metal is reacted with excess hydrochloric acid, HCl (aq), and the hydrogen
gas produced is collected over water at 24.4 oC. (a) Write a balanced equation for the
reaction. (b) If the total pressure of the gas mixture (H 2 and water vapor) is 753.8 mmHg
and the total gas volume was 658 mL, calculate the moles of H2 produced.
(c) How many grams of the zinc were reacted. (The vapor pressure of water at 24.4 oC is
23.0 mmHg.) (Answer: (b) 0.0259 mol of H2; (c) 1.69 g of Zn reacted)

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5.6 The Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases

Ideal gas laws are derived from empirical data and observations of gas behavior. These
laws are summaries of physical characteristics of gases at relatively low pressures.

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The Kinetic Molecular Theory (KMT) of gases consists of a set of postulates, which try to
explain this behavior of gases. The theory is summarized as follows:

1. Gases contain particles (molecules or atoms) that are point masses – their total molecular
volume is negligible compared with the volume occupied by the gas.

2. Molecules are in constant, random motions; molecular collisions are completely elastic
3. Intermolecular forces are negligible - particles neither attract nor repel each other.
4. The average kinetic energy of a gas sample is directly dependent only on the temperature
in Kelvin.
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Using the KMT of gases to explain gas laws:

Pressure-Volume Relationship
At constant temperature, gas molecules travel with a constant average speed. Reducing
the volume results in shorter distances traveled by molecules, which leads to a higher
frequency of molecular collisions. This leads to a higher gas pressure, as stated by Boyle’s law.

Pressure and Temperature

Raising the temperature causes an increase in the average molecular speed. This causes
the frequency of molecular collision to increase and leads to a higher gas pressure. Gay-Lussac
law states that gas pressure will increase proportionally with temperature at constant volume.

Volume and Temperature

To maintain a constant pressure when the temperature increrases, the volume of the
gas must increase, so that the frequency of collisions is reduced. Charles’s law states that gas
volume will increase proportionally as the temperature is increased at constant pressure.

Effect of Increasing the Number of Molecules on Gas Volume

When more molecules are added to the same volume at constant temperature, the
number of molecular collisions will increase, which leads to an increase in pressure. If the
pressure were to be constant, the volume must increase, in accordance with Avogadro’s law.

Temperature and Root-Mean-Square Speed

The root-mean-square speed of gas molecules at a given temperature is given by the
following expression:
urms = (3RT/M)
where R = 8.314 J/mol.K = 8.314 kg.m/(s2.mol.K). Therefore, the molar mass M must be given
in kg/mol. (J = kg.m2/s2). For example, the root-mean-square speeds for H2 and O2 at 0oC are:

urms for H2 = (3 x 8.314 kg.m2.s-2.mol-1.K-1 x 273 K) = 1.84 x 103 m/s

(2.016 x 10-3 kg.mol-1)

urms for O2 = (3 x 8.314 kg.m2.s-2.mol-1.K-1 x 273 K) = 461 m/s

(32.00 x 10-3 kg.mol-1)

The urms of Helium gas at 25 oC is:

urms = (3 x 8.314 kg.m2.s-2.mol-1.K-1 x 298 K) = 1.36 x 103 m/s.

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 (4.0 x 10-3 kg.mol-1)
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5.7 Effusions and Diffusion

Diffusion is the term used to describe the mixing process of gases or when a gas spread
out from a source; while effusion is the passage of gas through a tiny opening. The rate of
effusion implies how fast gas escapes through this opening.

Thomas Graham (1805 – 1869), a Scottish chemist, found that the rate of effusion of a
gas is inversely proportional to the square root of its molar mass.

Rate of effusion  1__

M
The relative rates of effusion of two gases at the same temperature and pressure are equal to
the inverse ratio of the square root of their molar mass. Based on the kinetic molecular theory,
rate of effusion is directly proportional to the root-mean-square speed, urms, of the gas
molecules. The relative rates of two gases can be expressed as follows:

Rate of effusion of gas A u rms of gas A (3RT/M A ) MB

= = =
Rate of effusion of gas B u rms of gas B (3RT/M B ) MA

For a given period, the relative number of moles of gas A and B effused is:

Mol of gas A effused MB

=
Mol of gas B effused MA

Since effusion time is the inverse of rate, if ta is the effusion time for an amount of gas A, and tb
is the effusion time for the same amount of gas B, then,

Effusion time of gas A tA MA

= =
Effusion time of gas B tB MB

The relative rate of diffusion of two gases may be expressed in terms of the relative distance
traveled by these gases for a given period of time such that,

distance traveled by molecule A MB

=
distance traveled by molecule B MA

Exercise-9:
1. What is the average kinetic energy and urms of N2 molecules at STP? The molar mass of N2
is 2.8 x 10-2 kg/mol. (R = 8.314 J/mol.K; J = kg.m2.s-2) (Answer: urms = 493 m/s)

2. At a certain temperature and pressure, 6.2 mg of N 2 gas effuses through an opening in

90. seconds. How much of H 2 gas would effuse through the same opening in 90. seconds
under the same condition? (Answer: 1.7 mg of H2)

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3. Calculate the relative distance traveled by: (i) NH3 and HCl gases; (ii) NH3 and H2S gases,
under the same temperature and pressure.
(Answer: NH3 travels 46.4% farther than HCl; NH3 travels 41.5% farther than H2S)

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5.8 Real Gases

The ideal gas equation represents an approximation of the behavior of real gases at high
temperature and low pressure. For ideal gases, PV = nRT; where the compressibility factor, z
= PV/nRT = 1. For a mole of ideal gas, n = 1; z = PV/RT = 1. For real gases, the
compressibility factor, z = PV/nRT  1.

Two factors cause the deviation from ideal behavior. Firstly, intermolecular forces exist
in real gases, which become very significant at high pressure and low temperature when
molecules are closer together. Attractive forces tend to reduce the effective gas pressure; the
pressure of a real gas is lower than that expected for an ideal gas under the same condition.
Secondly, gas molecules are not point masses; they occupy a finite space in the container. The
space occupied by gas molecules are not compressible, which reduces the compressibility factor
of the gas. Under moderate pressure, both intermolecular forces and molecular volume lead to
a compressibility factor of less that 1.

The mathematical equation that represents the behavior of real gases is very
complicated. However, a simplified version of the van der Waals equation for real gases, which
takes into account intermolecular forces and molecular volume of gas particles, provides an
approximation of the behavior of real gases. The van der Waals equation for the pressure of
real gases is:

nRT n2a
P = - ;
(V - nb) V2

When re-arranged, it yields the following equation:

(P + n2a ) x (V - nb) = nRT; a = factor due to intermolecular forces
V2 b = molecular volume
For a given gas, the weighting factors a and b are determined by iteration method until one
that gives the best fit of the observed pressure is obtained under all conditions.

At low pressure there are fewer gas molecules and the total molecular volume (nb) is
negligible relative to the volume V occupied by the gas. Under this condition, the free (space)
volume available to the gas molecules is essentially equal to the volume of the container. At
high pressure, V is small and the molecular volume of the gas becomes significant and the free
volume available becomes significantly less than the volume of the container.

While at high temperature, molecules are moving very fast and interparticle interactions
become insignificant and the term (P + n 2a/V)  P. Thus, real gases approach ideal behavior
under low pressure and high temperature conditions.

Exercise-10:
1. Use (a) the ideal gas equation, and (b) the van der Waals equation, to calculate the
pressure exerted by the following gases when the volume and temperature are 5.00 L and
298 K, respectively:
(i) 1.00 mol of Cl2(g) (a = 6.49 L2.atm.mol-2; b = 0.0562 L.mol-1);

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 (ii) 1.00 mol of CO2(g) (a = 3.59 L2.atm.mol-2; b = 0.0427 L.mol-1);
(c) Which gas shows the greater departure from ideal behavior?
(Answers: (i) (a) 4.89 atm, (b) 4.69 atm; (ii) (a) 4.89 atm, (b) 4.79 atm; (c) Chlorine)

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5.9 Chemistry of the Atmosphere

The principal components of the atmosphere are nitrogen and oxygen gases, but CO 2
and H2O are important atmospheric gases that keep the Earth’s climate moderately warm. The
atmosphere is divided into different strata, based on how the temperature changes with
altitude. In order of increasing altitude, they are: the troposphere, stratosphere,
mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere. About 99% of the atmosphere’s mass lies
within 30 km from the Earth’s surface, and 75% lies within the lowest 11 km, which covers the
entire troposphere, where climatic changes occur. The four major components of a clean, dry
air in the troposphere are N2 (78.08%), O2 (20.95%), Ar (0.93%), and CO2 (0.03%), (all
percentages are by volume).

Pressure and Temperature variations of the Atmosphere

The mass of the atmosphere is the highest at sea level and decreases with altitudes,
which results in the decrease of pressure. Within the troposphere, atmospheric pressure
decreases from 760 torr at sea level to about 150 torr at the upper boundary. This rapid
decrease in pressure is also the result of a gradual decrease in temperature. Within the
troposphere, temperature drops by about 7 oC per kilometer until –55oC (218 K). However, in
the stratosphere temperature increases from about 218 K (-55 oC) to 280 K (7oC) at 50 km.
While in the mesosphere, temperature drops smoothly again to about 180 K (-93 oC) at around
80 km. Within the thermosphere, which extends to approximately 500 km, temperature rises
again, but varies between 700 and 2000 K, depending on the intensity of solar radiation and
sunspot activity. The exosphere, which is the outermost region, maintains these temperatures
and merges with the outer space.

Variation in Composition
Based on the chemical compositions, the atmosphere is usually divided into two major
regions, homosphere and heterosphere. The homosphere includes the troposphere,
stratosphere, and mesosphere, and the heterosphere covers the thermosphere and exosphere.
The homosphere has a relatively constant composition, containing (by volume)
approximately 78% N2, 21% O2, and 1% mixture of other gases (mostly Argon). The
composition of the homosphere is relatively uniform due to convective mixing. Air directly in
contact with land is warmer than the air above it. The warmer air expands, its density
decreases, and rises through the cooler, denser air, and mixing occurs. The cooler air sinks and
comes in contact with lands, which eventually becomes warm and rises, and the convection
process continues. Soaring birds and glider pilots use this convection air current to stay aloft.

The heterosphere contains regions that are dominated by few atomic or molecular species.
Convective heating does not reach these heights, so the gas particles become layered according
to molecular mass: nitrogen and oxygen molecules in the lower levels, oxygen atoms in the
next, followed by helium and hydrogen atoms.

Embedded within the lower heterosphere is the ionosphere, containing species such as
O+, NO+, O2+, N2+, and free electrons. Ionospheric chemistry involves numerous light-induced
bond breaking (photo-dissociation) and light-induced electron removal (photo-ionization)
processes. For example, the formation of oxygen atoms occurs by the following steps:

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 N2  N2+ + e- (photo-ionization)
N2 + e -  N + N
+

N + O2  NO + O
N + NO  N2 + O
———————————————————————————
O2  O + O [overall photo-dissociation of O2]
———————————————————————————

Ozone in The Stratosphere

Most of the high-energy solar radiation is absorbed by the thermosphere. However, a
small amount reaches the stratosphere causing photo-dissociation, which breaks O 2 to O atoms.
The energetic O atoms collide with other O2 molecules to form ozone (O3):

O2(g)  2 O(g); (photo-dissociation)

O2(g) + O(g) + N2(g)  O3(g) + N2*
Here, N2 serves as an energy sink to absorb excess energy produced by the exothermic reaction
of O3 formation. Stratospheric temperature increases with altitude due to this exothermic
reaction.
The ozone layer in the stratosphere is vital to live on Earth because it absorbs a great
portion of solar ultraviolet (UV) radiation, which causes its decomposition:

O3(g) + UV  O2(g) + O(g)

UV radiation is extremely harmful because it can cause bond dissociations and, thus, interrupt
normal biological processes. Without the stratospheric ozone, much more of this radiation
would reach the Earth surface, resulting in increased mutation and cancer incidence.

Depletion of The Ozone Layer

Under normal conditions, the stratospheric ozone concentration varies seasonally but
remains fairly constant annually through the complex series of atmospheric reactions. Two
reactions that maintain a balance in ozone concentration are the following:

O2(g) + O(g)  O3(g) [formation]

O3(g) + O(g)  2 O2(g) [breakdown]
However, based on the ground-breaking research by Paul Crutzen, Mario J. Molina, and F.
Sherwood Rowland, for which they received the Nobel Prize in 1995, we now know that the
release of industrially produced chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) has shifted the balance by
catalyzing the breakdown reaction.

CFCs are used as air-conditioning refrigerants, plastic foam reagents, and aerosol
propellants. These lead to large quantities of this product being released into the atmosphere.
CFCs are chemically inert near the Earth’s surface, but once they reach the stratosphere, the
high-energy UV-radiation causes them to dissociate and release Cl atom (reactive free
radicals):
CF2Cl2(g) + UV-radiation  CF2Cl(g) + Cl(g)

Chlorine atomic is very reactive, which readily attacks ozone molecules and breaking it down to
oxygen gas:
O3(g) + Cl(g)  O2(g) + ClO(g)
ClO(g) + O(g)  O2(g) + Cl(g)
————————————————————
Net reaction: O3(g) + O(g)  2 O2(g)

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———————————————————————————
Therefore, chlorine atoms produced by the photodissociation of CFCs, acts as a homogeneous
catalyst in the breakdown reaction of the ozone gas.

Earth’s Primitive Atmosphere

Scientists agree that the primitive Earth’s atmosphere did not contain oxygen gas. The
origin-of–life models propose that about 1 billion years after the earliest organism appeared,
blue-green algae evolved. These on-celled organisms used solar energy to produce glucose by
photosynthesis:
6CO2(g) + 6H2O(l) + h  C6H12O6(aq) + 6O2(g)

As a result of this reaction, the O 2 content of the atmosphere increased and CO 2 decreased. The
increase in O2 allowed more oxidation reactions to occur, which changed the geological and
biological makeup of the early Earth. Iron(II) minerals changed to iron(III) minerals, sulfites
changed to sulfates, and eventually organisms evolved that could oxidize other organisms to
obtained energy. It has been estimated that the level of O 2 may have increased to the current
level of about 20% approximately 1.5 billion years ago.

Atmospheric Pollutants
The chemistry of the troposphere is strongly influenced by human activities. Large amount
of gases and particulates are released into the troposphere by our highly industrial civilization.
Severe air pollution occurs especially around many large and industrial cities. The two major
sources of air pollution are transportation and processing plants that use petroleum and coal as
fuel sources. The combustion of petroleum in vehicles produces CO, CO 2, NO, and NO2, along
with unburned molecules from petroleum. When this mixture is trapped close to the ground in
stagnant air, reactions occur producing chemicals that are potentially irritating and harmful.

The complex chemistry of air pollution seems to center around the nitrogen oxides (NO x).
At the internal combustion engines of cars and trucks, where temperatures are high, N 2 and O2
(from air) react to form NO that is released into the air with other exhaust gases. NO is then
immediately oxidized to NO2, which absorbs UV-radiation and breaks up into NO molecules and
oxygen atoms (O):

N2(g) + O2(g)  2 NO(g)

2 NO(g) + O2(g)  2 NO2(g)
NO2(g) + UV  NO(g) + O(g)
Oxygen atoms may combine with O2 to form ozone:
O(g) + O2(g)  O3(g)
Ozone is a very strong oxidizing reagent, which attacks other pollutants as well as materials,
causing the latter to be degraded at a faster rate. Ozone on the Earth’s surface also undergoes
photo-dissociation, producing energetically excited O2 molecules (O2*) and oxygen atom (O*).
The latter readily react with water molecule to form hydroxyl radicals (OH), which is strong
oxidizing agent.

O* + H2O  2 OH

OH radical can oxidize NO2 to form nitric acid: OH + NO2  HNO3.

The free radical OH can also react with unburned hydrocarbons in the polluted air to produce
other chemical that are irritating and harmful to the respiratory system. The end product of this
complex processes is often referred to as photochemical smog, so called because light is
required to initiate some of the reactions. [Note that, while ozone layer is desirable in the

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stratosphere to block most of the uv-radiation from the sun, it is highly harmful on the Earth’s
surface because of its strong oxidizing property.]

The other major source of pollution results from burning coal power plants. Much of the
coal found in the Midwest contains significant amount of sulfur, which, when burned, produces
sulfur dioxide:

S(in coal) + O2(g)  SO2(g)

Reaction of SO2 with oxygen in the air produces SO 3, which readily dissolves in rainwater to
form sulfuric acid:
SO2(g) + ½O2(g)  SO3(g)
SO3(g) + H2O(l)  H2SO4(aq)
Sulfuric acid is highly corrosive to both living things and building materials; its present in acid
rain has resulted in damaging effects on the environments. In many parts of the northeastern
United States and southeastern Canada, acid rain has caused some freshwater lakes to become
too acidic to support aquatic life.

The use of high-sulfur coal by power plants further aggravates the pollution problems. An
industrial method to reduce the amount of SO2 released into the atmosphere is by using a
system called a scrubber before it is emitted into the power plant stack. A common method of
scrubbing is to blow powdered limestone (CaCO3) into the combustion chamber, where it is
decomposed to lime and carbon dioxide:

CaCO3(s)  CaO(s) + CO2(g)

The lime then combines with SO2 to form calcium sulfite:
CaO(s) + SO2(g)  CaSO3(s)
To remove the calcium sulfite and any remaining unreacted SO2 gas, an aqueous suspension of
lime is injected into the exhaust gases to produce slurry of CaSO3.

Unfortunately, there are many problems associated with scrubbing. The systems are
complicated, expensive and consume a great deal of energy. The large quantities of calcium
sulfite produced in the process present a disposal problem. With a typical scrubber,
approximately 1 ton of CaSO3 per year is produced per person served by the power plant. Since
no use has been found for this compound, it is buried in a landfill. Thus, air pollution by sulfur
dioxide will continue to be a major problem, one that is expensive in terms of damage to the
environment and human health as well as in monetary terms.

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Appendix
Temperature and Root-Mean-Square Speed
The goals of KMT of gas are to provide plausible explanations of the molecular behavior
of gases that are related to pressure and temperature of the gas. The kinetic energy of a
molecule of mass m and traveling at speed ux in x-direction is ex = ½mux2.

Similarly, the kinetic energy of an identical molecule traveling in the y- and z-direction is
ey = ½muy2 and ez = ½muz2, respectively.

The average kinetic energy of a molecule traveling in any direction is, ek = 1/3(3/2 mu2)
Then, the average kinetic energy of a mole of gas particles is
Ek = NA(½mu2) = ½Mu2 where NA is the Avogadro’s number.

Since molar mass M = NAm, Ek = ½Mu2

Force is the change in momentum per unit time. When a molecule traveling with speed u
collides with the wall head-on and bounces in the opposite direction with the same speed, the
change in its momentum = 2mu per collision.

If the molecule is in a cubic box of length L, the distance traveled by molecule between collision
is L, and the time taken between collision is t = L/u. Consequently,

Force = 2mu = 2mu = 2mu2 .

t L/u L
If this force were concentrated on one face of the wall of area L2, the pressure exerted on that
face of the wall is Force = 2mu2/L
area L2
If the same force is applied on all the six faces of the cubic box, the average pressure exerted
on each wall is P = 2mu2/L = mu2
6L2 3V

In a mole of gas, the average pressure exerted by the Avogadro’s number of molecules in V
volume is
N A (mu 2 ) 2 N A ( 1 2 mu 2 ) ( 2 3 )( 1 2 Mu 2 )
P= = =
3V 3V V
RT ( 2 3 )( 12 Mu 2 )
But, for one mole of gas, the pressure P = = = (2/3)Ek
V V
This implies that the average molar kinetic energy of gas is Ek = 1/2Mu2 = (3/2)RT.
That is, the average molecular kinetic energy of a gas is dependent only on the temperature (in
Kelvin), but is independent of the quantity or the molar mass of the gas.

Since molar mass is M = NAm, then NA(1/2 mu2) = 1/2Mu2 = 3/2RT ,

Since 1/2Mu2 = 3/2RT  u2 = 3RT/M, and urms = (u2) = (3RT/M),

where R = 8.314 J/mol.K = 8.314 kg.m/(s2.mol.K) and urms is called the root-mean-square
speed.

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At constant temperature, the root-mean-square speed urms is inversely proportional to the
square root of the molecular mass. At constant temperature, the ratio of the root-mean-square
speed of two gases with molar masses MA and MB is given as,

(urms of gas A) = (3RT/MA) = (MB/MA)

(urms of gas B) (3RT/MB)

For example, under the same temperature, the urms of H2 is about 4 times that of O2:

(urms of H2) = (Molar mass of O2) = (32.0 g/mol) = 4

(urms of O2) (Molar mass of H2) (2.02 g/mol)
__________________________________________________________________________

Additional Exercises
1. An aerosol-spray can contains a gas at 1.82 atm when the temperature is 22.0 oC. What
is the pressure inside the can when it is placed in a boiling water at 100. oC. (Assume gas
temperature equals that of boiling water) (Answer: 2.30 atm)

2. What volume of N2, measured at 735 torr and 40 oC, is produced when 50.0 g of sodium
azide, NaN3, decomposes according to equation: (Answer: 30.6 L)

2 NaN3(s)  2 Na(s) + 3 N2(g)

3. How many grams of methane gas (CH4) would consume 7.45 L of O2(g) at 27 oC and 751
mm Hg when the former reactant is completely combusted? (Answer: 2.39 g of CH4)

4. If 0.00312 mol N2O effuses through an orifice over a period, how much NO2 would effuse
in the same period of time under the same conditions? (Answer: 0.00305 mol)

5. The density of oxygen, O2, is 1.42904 g/L at STP. What is the molecular mass of a gas
whose density is 0.89320 g/L at STP? (Answer: 20.001 u)

6. A sample of gas that occupies 270 mL at 740 torr and 98 oC weighs 0.380 g. What is its
molar mass? (Answer: 44.0 g/mol)

7. If the density of acetone vapor is 2.09 g/L at 1.00 atm and 65oC, calculate the molar mass
of acetone. (Answer: 58.0 g/mol)

8. A small bubble with a volume of 2.1 mL rises from the bottom of a lake, where the
temperature and pressure are 8oC and 6.4 atm, respectively. If the temperature and
pressure on the surface are 25 oC and 1.0 atm, respectively, what is the final volume (in
mL) of the bubble if its initial volume was 2.1 mL. (Answer: 14.3 mL)

9. A 8.37-g sample that is 92.0% KClO 3, by mass, is decomposed and the O2 gas produced is
collected over water at 23.0oC and 768.5 mm Hg pressure. The decomposition proceeds as
follows:
2 KClO3(s)  2 KCl(s) + 3 O2(g).
What is the volume of gas collected? (Vapor pressure at 23.0 oC is 21.1 mmHg.)
(Answer: 2.33 L of O2)

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