Chemical Aspects of Byzantine Glass From

Offprint from / Sonderdruck aus
Glass in Byzantium –
Production, Usage, Analyses
Glas in Byzanz –
Produktion, Verwendung, Analysen
Offprint from / Sonderdruck aus
RGZM – TAGUNGEN
Band 8
Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum
Forschungsinstitut für Vor- und Frühgeschichte
Jörg Drauschke, Daniel Keller (eds)
GLASS IN BYZANTIUM –
PRODUCTION, USAGE, ANALYSES
International Workshop organised by the
Byzantine Archaeology Mainz, 17th-18th of January 2008
GLAS IN BYZANZ –
PRODUKTION, VERWENDUNG, ANALYSEN
Internationaler Workshop der
Byzantinischen Archäologie Mainz, 17.-18. Januar 2008
Verlag des Römisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums Mainz 2010

GLASS IN BYZANTIUM – RGZM – TAGUNGEN BAND 8
PRODUCTION, USAGE, ANALYSES
The products of Byzantine glass-making workshops are 1. Auflage 2010
found throughout the whole of the Mediterranean area 270 Seiten mit 105 Abbildungen, 15 Farbtafeln
and were also distributed into regions far beyond the bor-
ders of the Empire. Research into glass production and ISBN 978-3-88467-147-4
distribution in Byzantium has made enormous progress,
€ 44,–
especially in the last years. Thanks to state of the art scien-
tific methods and a number of recent discoveries, it is not Bestellungen / orders:
only possible today to identify centres of raw glass pro-
shop.rgzm.de
duction, but also to trace additional trade routes to secon-
dary workshops. Furthermore the results of this research verlag@rgzm.de
have revealed details of the formulas used in glass pro- Fax: 0049 (0) 6131 / 9124-199
duction, the source of the raw products and the techno-
logies employed.
The current state of this research was the subject of
discussion at an international workshop hosted in January
2008 by the »Byzantine Archaeology Mainz«. Contribu-
tions to this conference dealt with a geographical area
between North Africa, the Balkans, Asia Minor and the
Near East. The focal point of the workshop was formed
on the one hand by recent results of scientific analyses of
glass and on the other hand by studies of regionally-spe-
cific expressions of Byzantine forms of glass. Thus rese-
Die Kooperation »Byzantinische Archäologie Mainz« wird
arch into Byzantine glass manufacture has once again gefördert durch das Programm »Wissen-schafft-Zukunft« des
produced highly interesting findings and permitted an Landes Rheinland-Pfalz und war Mitglied des Historisch-
insight into the diverse possibilities of modern analytical Kulturwissenschaftlichen Forschungszentrums Mainz-Trier (HKFZ).
methods.
GLAS IN BYZANZ – © 2010 Verlag des Römisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums

PRODUKTION, VERWENDUNG, ANALYSEN
Die Erzeugnisse byzantinischer Glaswerkstätten finden
Redaktion: Jörg Drauschke (RGZM), Daniel Keller (Basel),
sich im gesamten Mittelmeerraum und erreichten auch
Martin Schönfelder (RGZM)
weit entfernte Regionen jenseits der Reichsgrenzen. Die Satz: Manfred Albert (RGZM), Michael Braun (Datenshop
Erforschung der Glasproduktion und -verbreitung in Wiesbaden)
Byzanz hat gerade in den letzten Jahren enorme Fort- Umschlaggestaltung: Reinhard Köster (RGZM) nach Vorlagen
schritte erzielt: Dank modernster naturwissenschaftlicher aus dem Beitrag D. Keller (S. 13 Abb. 1) und Y. Gorin-Rosen /
Methoden und vielen Neufunden ist es heute möglich, T. Winter (S. 169 Abb. 3, 2)
Übersetzungen der Zusammenfassungen: Daniel Keller (D. K.),
Zentren der Rohglasherstellung zu identifizieren und den Eric Landgraf (E. L.), Ariane Schmidt (A. S.) und Autoren
weiteren Vertriebsweg an sekundäre Werkstätten nachzu-
vollziehen. Die Ergebnisse geben darüber hinaus Auskunft
über die verwendeten Glasrezepturen, die Herkunft der Bibliografische Information der Deutschen Nationalbibliothek
Rohstoffe und die angewandten Glastechnologien. Die Deutsche Nationalbibliothek verzeichnet diese Publikation in
Der aktuelle Stand der Forschung wurde im Januar 2008 der Deutschen Nationalbibliografie; detaillierte bibliografische
bei einem von der »Byzantinischen Archäologie Mainz« Daten sind im Internet über http://dnb.d-nb.de abrufbar.
veranstalteten internationalen Workshop diskutiert. Die
Beiträge der Tagung behandeln einen geographischen
Raum zwischen Nordafrika, Balkan, Kleinasien und dem Das Werk ist urheberrechtlich geschützt. Die dadurch begründeten
Rechte, insbesondere die der Übersetzung, des Nachdrucks, der
Nahen Osten. Den Schwerpunkt bilden einerseits aktuelle
Entnahme von Abbildungen, der Funk- und Fernsehsendung, der
Ergebnisse naturwissenschaftlicher Glasanalysen, ande-
Wiedergabe auf photomechanischem (Photokopie, Mikrokopie)
rerseits Studien zur regionalspezifischen Ausprägung oder ähnlichem Wege und der Speicherung in Datenverarbei-
byzantinischer Glasformen. So liefert die Erforschung der tungsanlagen, Ton- und Bildträgern bleiben, auch bei nur auszugs-
byzantinischen Glaskunst immer wieder hochinteressante weiser Verwertung, vorbehalten. Die Vergütungsansprüche des
Erkenntnisse und gibt einen Einblick in die vielfältigen § 54, Abs. 2, UrhG. werden durch die Verwertungsgesellschaft
Möglichkeiten moderner Untersuchungsverfahren. Wort wahrgenommen.
CONTENTS – INHALT
Preface – Vorwort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VII
Daniel Keller
Byzantine glass: past, present and future – a short history of research on Byzantine glass . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Jörg Drauschke, Susanne Greiff

Chemical aspects of Byzantine glass from Caričin Grad/Iustiniana Prima (Serbia) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Katharina Uhlir, Michael Melcher, Manfred Schreiner, Barbara Czurda-Ruth, Friedrich Krinzinger
SEM/EDX and μ-XRF investigations on ancient glass from Hanghaus 1 in Ephesos/Turkey . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Thilo Rehren, Fatma Marii, Nadine Schibille, Lucy Stanford, Carolyn Swan
Glass supply and circulation in Early Byzantine Southern Jordan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Patrick Degryse, Ian C. Freestone, Jens Schneider, Sarah Jennings †

Technology and provenance of Levantine plant ash glass using Sr-Nd isotope analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Anastassios C. Antonaras
Glass-working activities in Late Roman and Early Christian Thessaloniki: local workshops and vessels . . 93
E. Marianne Stern
Medieval glass from the Athenian Agora (9th-14th c.) and some thoughts on glass usage
and glass production in the Byzantine Empire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Binnur Gürler, Ergün Laflı

Middle and Late Roman glass from the Agora of Smyrna from the excavation seasons 1997
and 2002-2003 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Veerle Lauwers, Patrick Degryse, Marc Waelkens

Middle Byzantine (10th-13th century A.D.) glass bracelets at Sagalassos (SW Turkey) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Constanze Höpken
Glas in der Kommagene – Funde aus der Felsnekropole von Perrhe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Yael Gorin-Rosen, Tamar Winter

Selected insights into Byzantine glass in the Holy Land . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Daniel Keller
Abbots’ orders, pilgrims’ donations, glass collection: the supply of glass lamps
for a monastic/pilgrimage church in Southern Jordan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Marie-Dominique Nenna
The glass vessel decor of a funerary chapel in the Bagawat Necropolis, Kharga Oasis, Egypt . . . . . . . 199
V
Sylvia Fünfschilling
Byzantine glass finds from Carthage: from the German excavations, the English excavations
at Bir Messaouda and from the Canadian excavations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Sarah Jennings †
A group of glass ca. 800 A.D. from tower 2 on the Western Defences, Butrint, Albania . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Liz James
Byzantine mosaics and glass: a problematic relationship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Sonja Schönauer
Glas und Gläser in byzantinischen Texten . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Jennifer Price
Concluding remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
List of Contributors – Autoren . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
Abbreviations – Abkürzungen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Plates
VI
JÖRG DRAUSCHKE · SUSANNE GREIFF
CHEMICAL ASPECTS OF BYZANTINE GLASS

FROM CARIČIN GRAD/IUSTINIANA PRIMA (SERBIA)
The research project concerning Byzantine glass from Caričin Grad (municipality of Lebane, area of
Jablanica, SRB) started in 2006 as a co-operation between the Archaeological Institute of Belgrade and the
Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum in Mainz. Dr. Vujadin Ivanišević, the long-time excavator of Caričin
Grad, and Sonja Stamenković M.A., who works on the glass-finds themselves, are participating in the
project. Based on the huge volume of glass from the site, our main interest focuses on the question of the
glass-working activities in Caričin Grad itself, the origin of the raw glass that was transported to the city,
which vessels where produced there and what kind of vessels were probably imported in the form of
finished products. Relying mainly on analyses of the chemical composition of the particular samples, we will
at least try to put the glass from Caričin Grad in the broader context of glass production and distribution
within the Mediterranean world of the 6th and 7th century.
The glass finds of Caričin Grad are not only very numerous, they also represent a great variety of different
vessels, window panes, tesserae and residuals of glass-working activities (see below). Within this first and
preliminary paper, we will give an overview of early Byzantine glass finds from places south of the Danube
that could serve as parallels for the material from Caričin Grad and we will present an introduction to the
site and to the glass material included in our project, together with the initial results of the analyses that
have only just begun.
GLASS FROM EARLY BYZANTINE SITES SOUTH OF THE DANUBE
The preoccupation with glass from a site in the Western Balkans is important as there are not many similar
widely excavated places within this area with a comparable volume of well-documented glass fragments (see
Keller in this volume, fig. 1). Only a few glass remains, especially stemmed goblets and lamps, which were
found during the Forum area excavations in Salona (today Solin, Split-Dalmatia county, HR), can be dated to
later than the 4th century, although the occupation of the area can be proven until about 600 A.D. (period
IV) (Handler Auth 1975). P. Chevalier presented a study of the lamps found in Dalmatia. She distinguished
between lamps with tubular lower parts for use in polycandela, lamps in the form of beakers and lamps with
handles for a single suspension (Chevalier 1997/98, 170-171. 174-179 figs 3-4. 8-9). She suspects that most
of the well-known stemmed goblets were also used as glass lamps, since many of them were found in
churches where they could only have been used for this purpose, if not as liturgical vessels. Of course, a good
deal of them have also been found in profane contexts and so a function as simple drinking vessel must be
taken into account (Chevalier 1997/98, 180-181 fig. 10). Moreover, our knowledge of glass vessels in the
Western Balkans will be broadened by the study of the finds from Butrint (Sarandë county, AL) by Sarah
Jennings (in this volume), even though the time focus will be somewhat later.
To find huge glass assemblages, which could be compared with the material from Caričin Grad, we have
to look eastwards. The glass finds from the British excavations in Nicopolis ad Istrum (prov. Veliko Tarnovo,
BG) on the northern bank of the river Rositsa only 6km away from its estuary into the river Yantra (ancient
iatrus) were published recently by J. D. Sheperd (1999). Due to the beginning of the Roman settlement, the
Glass in Byzantium · Drauschke/Keller (eds) 25

Fig. 1 Golemanovo Kale, BG: fragments of lamps with short, solid lower parts. – (After Uenze 1992, pl. 50,12-15). – Scale = 1: 2.
earliest glass samples can be dated back to the mid 1st century A.D., but there is also rather a lot of mate-
rial from the 4th /5th up to the 6th century A.D. Typical examples of early Byzantine glass production are
window glass fragments, stemmed goblets, different kinds of lamps (rims and lower parts of lamps for
polycandela, but also lamps in the form of beakers and with handles for single suspension), fragments of
beakers, bowls and jars (especially rims and bases), and parts of jugs, flasks and bottles. With few excep-
tions, the vessels are all naturally coloured (green), colourless, and colourless with a green tint (Sheperd
1999, 337-355 fig.11, 12-17). Glass-working debris was also discovered, especially fragments of pot or tank
metal, moils and droplets, but it is most unlikely that they belong to the early Byzantine period (Sheperd
1999, 377-378).
Unfortunately, the glass material excavated in the Late Roman and Early Byzantine fortress of Karasura in
southern central Bulgaria (prov. Stara Zagora, BG) has so far only been published in a preliminary report
and only few samples can be attributed to clear chronological contexts. Judging from these finds, the glass
assemblage of the 5th and the second half of the 6th century comprises stemmed goblets (very numerous
in the last time phase), different kinds of bowls and beakers, flasks and lamps with handles. The most
common colours are green, especially olive green and a yellowish tint, whereas light green or light blue and
deep blue are rare (Gomolka-Fuchs 1992, 261-262 figs 1, 3-4. 6-7. 9-10. 24; 2, 2-23).
To remain in the hinterland of the Danubian limes, the fortresses of Golemanovo Kale and Sadovsko Kale
must be mentioned; these are on the left and right bank of the river Vit near Sadovec (prov. Pleven, BG).
Several glass fragments of yellowish, yellow-greenish and different green tints originating from the exca-
vations of Golemanovo Kale have been published: whereas remains of polycandela lamps with tubular
lower parts are rare, pieces with more or less droplet-shaped, short and solid lower parts (fig. 1) have been
found in higher amounts (but identified as residuals of stemmed goblets). In addition, rim fragments of
hemispherical bowls (identified as beakers) are very common and some handles seem to have belonged to
this vessel type that could also have served as lamps. Other handles show the existence of lamps for single
suspension. The bases of stemmed goblets are numerous and windowpanes can also be found among the
materials. At least some raw glass (»Glasrohlinge«) and chunk glass fragments may indicate local glass
working activities (Uenze 1992, pls 50. 145-148).
Iatrus (today Krivina, prov. Veliko Tarnovo, BG), where the river Yantra joins the Danube, is situated on the
Roman road from Nicopolis, 45 km to the north. The fort was built at the beginning of the 4th century A.D.
and, although it was partially destroyed several times, maintained its importance as a base for the control
of the Danubian limes until the beginning of the 7th century. Especially the excavations conducted by the
Bulgarian Academy of Sciences together with German institutions have brought to light several fragments
of glass vessels from the Early Byzantine settlement phase D comprising mainly the end of the 5th and the
whole 6th century A.D. These include globular and conical beakers, bottles with hemispherical bodies and,
of course, numerous examples of stemmed goblets (Gomolka 1979, 150 pls 59, 42; 60, 85; 63, 23-24; 64,
132; Gomolka-Fuchs 1991, 183 pls 78, 1267; 79, 1308-1309; 80, 1353. 1356; 2007, 299-301 pls 49,
26 Drauschke · Greiff · Chemical aspects of Byzantine glass from Caričin Grad/Iustiniana (Serbia)
Fig. 2 Novae, BG: fragments of stemmed goblets. – (After Olczak 1995, 61 fig. 2, 1. 13-16). – Scale = 1: 2.
3014; 53, 2924-2925; 55, 3006. 3034). Their colour is described as several variations of green (yellowish-
green, olive-green, light green); colourless fragments are only rarely mentioned. Few examples of window-
panes and tesserae are considered as residual finds from earlier settlement phases, where most of the forms
already exist (e.g. Stančev 1995, pl. 15, 45-56). The fragments identified as balsamaria seem rather to be
the lower parts of lamps for polycandela (Gomolka 1979, pl. 61, 122-123), but the low number of glass
lamps in general is remarkable and the possibility of some rim-fragments identified as parts of semicircular
beakers actually being the body of a lamp should be considered. It is also noteworthy that the post-Byzan-
tine settlement of the 7th-10th century (phases E-G) also features some glass vessels, especially stemmed
goblets that perpetuate the Late Roman and Early Byzantine traditions concerning shape and colour. A few
fragments that may derive from glass production and the prevalent poor technical quality of the fragments
may indicate the existence of a glass-workshop that resumed work after the abandonment of the early
Byzantine city (Gomolka 1979, 150; Gomolka-Fuchs 1991, 183-184).
Evidence of the continuous production of glass vessels from the 2nd to the 9th century was brought to light
by Bulgarian and Polish excavations in Novae (today Svishtov, prov. Veliko Tarnovo, BG), only a few kilo-
metres to the west of Iatrus, and also on the south bank of the Danube. The fort of the Danubian limes
founded in the 1st century A.D. evolved into a flourishing Late Antique and Early Byzantine city and saw its
decline at the beginning of the 7th century. Glass working can be verified not only by production waste that
comprises glass droplets and – also during the 5th, 6th and 7th centuries – noncomforming products of
lamps, vessels, stemmed goblets and windowpanes (Olczak 1998, fig. 11-14. 16), but also by remains of
glass furnaces. Several furnaces have been excavated so far in the middle and the northern part of the
Roman-Byzantine city. They can be dated – as far as the context can be clearly identified – to the 4th and
5th century. The quality of the locally produced glass is described as relatively low; greenish colours were
predominantly favoured (Olczak 1998, 119-120; Dyczek 1999). As far as the different kinds of vessels are
concerned, the material is much more related to Nicopolis than to Iatrus: again, one can find stemmed
goblets (fig. 2), lamps of different kinds (typical samples with a long tubular lower part for polycandela,
sometimes with a concave ending instead of a convex one, but also pieces with a short, solid and droplet-
shaped lower part and beakers with handles) (fig. 3), fragments of beakers, bowls and jars. Window glass
fragments must be added, whereas the remains of jewellery (fragments of bracelets) are more likely to be
of an older age. Most of the published glass vessels of the mentioned types found in the western sector of
the site are usually dated from the 4th/5th until the 6th century (Biernacki / Gołębiowska / Filarska 1973;
Billewicz 1975; Olczak 1981). Special attention was paid to stemmed goblets and lamps in particular
(Olczak 1978; 1995; Dankova 1993).

Fig. 3 Novae, BG: predominant
types of glass lamps. – (After Olczak
1995, 51 fig. B). – Scale = 1: 2.
A remarkable assemblage of glass lamps was unearthed further east in Histria (today Istria, jud. Constanţa,
RO), on the shores of the Black Sea. From the excavated destruction layers, it is possible to conclude that
the presumably episcopal basilica, erected at the end of the 5th /beginning of the 6th century, was aban-
doned at the end of the 6th century after being destroyed for the second time. In the following phase (layer
V A, around 600 A.D.) a hoard of lamps and a few further glass vessels were deposited in an extension of
the transept. Lamps for use in polycandela (at least 130 pieces) were found among the very well preserved
material; these were divided into three types (fig. 4): the first comprises the typical samples with a tubular
lower part and a convex ending, whereas the second type features a flat and the third type a concave
ending (Băjenaru / Bâltâc 2001/02, 471-474 pls 1-5). One group of fragments combines vessels shaped like
hemispherical bowls (fig. 5). The pieces with handles also seem to have been used as lamps (Băjenaru /
Bâltâc 2001/02, 479-483; pl. 10). Of special interest are the lamps with feet similar to those familiar from
stemmed goblets, but with a very large body; these often have handles (fig. 5), and this is what distin-
guishes them from the typical beakers (Băjenaru / Bâltâc 2001/02, 474-479 pls 6-9). The predominant
colours are green and yellow tints. Obviously, the lamps served to light the church and lost their function
after its demolition. The material is closely related to the finds from Novae and Nicopolis.
Our survey can be completed by including the glass material that was found during the excavation of the
Museum basilica in Philippi (per. East Macedonia and Thrace, GR). The church was erected early in the 6th
Fig. 4 Histria, RO: different variants of
lamps with tubular lower parts. – (After
Băjenaru / Bâltâc 2001/02, pls 2, 1-2; 3,
14; 4, 1). – Scale = 1: 2.
century and was partially rebuilt after being destroyed by an earthquake in the early 7th century. Nearly
50% of the glass vessels found in the area of the museum basilica were lamps for polycandela with the
typical tubular bases and either flat or convex endings. Around 40% can be ascribed to goblet-shaped
lamps with bases that are similar to those of stemmed goblets, but with large bodies and sometimes three
handles, similar to the above-mentioned pieces from Histria. Amongst the material are two hemispherical
bowls, one with handles, as well as two bottles and two toilet bottles. Almost 65% of the vessels showed
greenish tints and at least about 18% were bluish in colour, whereas only isolated fragments were
yellowish, blue, aquamarine, greyish or colourless. In addition, a huge amount of windowpane fragments
with the same colours was discovered. Some fragments of chunk glass may suggest the existence of glass
working at the site (Antonaras 2007). In this volume, Anastassios Antonaras presents an overview of the
Late Roman and Early Byzantine glass finds and glass-working remains from Thessaloniki, GR.
The survey of glass complexes from the Byzantine area south of the Danube shows close relations between
the sites concerning vessel types and specific shapes, as well as predominant colours. Only a few places
(Iatrus, Karasura) provided a different composition of vessel types, but this may be explained by the dif-
ferent function of the structures excavated thus far. After an introduction to the city of Caričin Grad, we
will give an overview of the glass material and see how it fits into this picture.

Fig. 5 Histria, RO: different variants of hemispherical
bowls, goblet-shaped lamps, and a bottle. – (After
Băjenaru / Bâltâc 2001/02, pls 6, 1-2; 10, 1. 8; 11, 3). –
Scale = 1: 2.
THE EARLY BYZANTINE CITY OF CARIČIN GRAD/IUSTINIANA PRIMA
In his work »De aedificiis«, Procopius mentions the village of »Taurision«, the birthplace of Justinian,
which was situated near the fortress of Bederiana, behind the Thracian border. Following Procopius,
Justinian erected a city in the immediate vicinity of this village, named it »Iustiniana Prima« and provided
it with an aqueduct, many glorious churches, public buildings and large squares. In addition, he chose this
place as the seat for the archbishop of the prefecture of Illyricum (Proc. De aed. IV 1, 17-27). On the basis
of two amendments, decreed on April 15th 535 and March 18th 545, that regulate the civil and canonical
responsibility of Iustiniana Prima, also in geographical terms, the location of the city can be identified more
precisely, whereas further written sources only provide cursory information about the position of Bede-
riana and Iustinana Prima (Kondić / Popović 1977, 369). Since V. Petković first suggested identifying the
place of Caričin Grad as Iustiniana Prima in 1912, many scholars have supported this point of view or
developed alternative models. Today, the identification of the two places is widely accepted, although it
is not entirely reliable. As we will see below, the archaeological remains support this view since they fit
perfectly into the timing of the city of Iustiniana Prima, however, no clear sign, such as an inscription of
similar find, has been found yet. For the moment, we can say that it is highly probable that the two places
are identical.
Caričin Grad was examined archaeologically for the first time in 1912. The study of the early Byzantine city
has continued, with some interruptions, until the present and is carried out by the Archaeological Institute
in Belgrade, with the occasional support of the École Française de Rome. Numerous preliminary papers
(most recently Bavant / Ivanišević 2002; 2003a; 2005; 2006a), exhibition catalogues (Kondić / Popović
1977; Bavant / Ivanišević 2003b; 2006b) and comprehensive material editions (Duval / Popović 1984;
Bavant / Kondić / Spieser 1990) provide information about the continuing excavations.
Based on the information in the publications available, the city (fig. 6) can be described as follows: the
plateau of Caričin Grad, formerly in the western part of the province of Dacia Mediterranea and today in
southern Serbia, was described as the location of a perished city in the year 1880. It stretches along a ridge
aligned to the north, which is bound on three sides by steep slopes and surrounded by two rivulets flowing
into the river of Pusta Reka, a left bank tributary of the Morava. The flatter relief only permits more
comfortable access in the south and southwest.
The whole city area extends over approx. 20 ha. The so-called acropolis in the northwest of the city’s
plateau is well-known and has been investigated in depth. It consists of a polygonal rampart, which is addi-
tionally fastened by rectangular and semicircular towers. The only entrance gate was in the east. The epis-
copal basilica with an overall length of 64 m and a width of 22 m, as well as the baptistery and a building
interpreted as »consignatorium«, are located in the southern part. The building complex uncovered in the
north of the central road has been interpreted as an episcopal palace but could also represent public admin-
istration buildings.
The so-called upper city extends to the east, north and south of the Acropolis. The northern part is divided
into four by a road crossing designed as a circular place. Of the buildings located around this place, the
»basilica with crypt« in the northeast is particularly worthy of mention. The numerous finds uncovered in
this area include fragments of a monumental bronze statue, which possibly represented Justinian I. In the
east of the place, there is a gate and, along the road leading to the south, two further churches (the »cross-
shaped basilica« and the »basilica below the acropolis«), as well as the remains of buildings that are
referred to as the »villa urbana« and »principia«. A long wall with a length of about 100m and a central
gate limit the »upper city« in the south and separate it from the following »lower city«, which is also
accessed by a central road, running from north to south. The »double basilica« and the »basilica with
transept« are located in the northwest. The districts in the south western and south eastern corners of the
lower part of the town were the objects of archaeological fieldwork in recent years. In addition to residen-
tial houses, the remains of craft production and trade activities have also been excavated in the area west
of the main street, which was attended with colonnades. On the east side, the tower at the corner of the
city walls was explored. The »lower town« is protected with a 120 m long rampart and a trench. In front

Fig. 6 Caričin Grad: general plan. – (V. Ivanišević, Arch. Inst. Belgrade).
Fig. 7 Caričin Grad: southwestern quarter of the lower town. – (V. Ivanišević, Arch. Inst. Belgrade).
of the southern wall, traces of an aqueduct, one trench and two churches – »the three-conch-church« and
the »one-nave church« – have been located. The range was probably settled in a similar manner. This is
perhaps also true of the narrow plateau strips to the north of the acropolis.
The beginning of settlement activity of Caričin Grad is currently dated to the 530s and mainly depends, of
course, on the identification of the place with Iustiniana Prima. In addition, the archaeological material
supports this date and tells us something about the duration and end of the settlement activity. Although
an area-wide destruction layer, which could point to an end by force during the course of the Avar or Slavic

invasions, is missing, it is assumed that the city was given up at around 615 A.D. The date depends partic-
ularly on the available coin finds. The latest coin is represented by a hexagram of Heraclius minted between
615 and 625 in Constantinople and was found in the area of intramural housing in the lower town (Popović
1994, 135. 354 no. 330; DOC II 61; MIB III 134). Although no relative succession of layers and embedded
finds can be submitted, particularly for the areas explored as part of older campaigns, it must be empha-
sised that at least all small finds can be dated to the quite short period between approximately 535 and
615 when the place was populated (Bavant / Ivanišević 2003b, 55). Several construction phases can be
distinguished, particularly within the building structures excavated in the southwest district of the lower
town, and these attest to renovations and renewals (Bavant / Ivanišević 2002, 1097-1098; 1096 fig.). This
is important for the samples that will be analysed as part of our research project, since many glass finds
were found in this area (fig. 7). However, apart from these layers, all glass finds can be dated between the
second third of the 6th and the beginning of the 7th century, and this is an important point in view of the
other glass assemblages mentioned that are mainly derived from less well dated contexts.
THE SAMPLE OF GLASS FINDS FROM CARIČIN GRAD
The glass material from Caričin Grad published thus far consists of fragments of stemmed goblets and
bottles, as well as fragments of lamps for polycandela. The latter were found mainly in the area of the
»one-nave church« and the complex of episcopal basilica with baptistery on the acropolis, and also in the
dwellings in the southwest of the upper city, which is dominated primarily by the building complex of the
principia (Kondić / Popović 1977, 419 nos 182-187 pl. 35, 1-2; Duval / Jeremić 1984, 139-142 figs 145-
150; Bavant 1990, 208-212 nos 90-123 pls 22-23).
As mentioned above, the glass finds that will be analysed within our research project were all unearthed
during the excavations of the southwest district of the lower part of town. Several construction phases
could be distinguished and, in part, determined with chronological certainly by means of coin finds. The
majority of the glass finds therefore belong to the last settlement phase of the end of the 6th and begin-
ning of the 7th century. The work on the material (over 350 samples) has only just begun and no typolog-
ical classification of the glass can be presented here, however, in the following, we shall attempt to draw
parallels between the finds and the material from the above-mentioned places.
The residuals of lamps for use in polycandela are represented by the lower parts with convex endings
(plate 1, 1). The predominant colours are variations of green, however, yellowish, bluish and turquoise
tints can also be found. There are no great differences from the lamps known from other sites, but the
types with lower parts of a huge diameter (e.g. Olczak 1981, fig. 49a) and those with flat or convex endings
(e.g. Băjenaru / Bâltâc 2001/02, pls 3, 14-19; 4-5) are not included in our sample. On the other hand, pontil
marks are very frequent.
Due to the high degree of fragmentation of the glass material, as is typical of settlement finds, it is very
difficult to reconstruct the shape of the whole lamps. The rims shown on plate 1, 2 may be part of them,
but they could also be part of hemispherical bowls or goblets. Again, we find the above-mentioned colours,
together with some colourless fragments. The rims are, like most parallel pieces, fire-polished. Inverted
pieces usually belong to flasks.
The characteristic feet of stemmed goblets featuring yellowish-green, light green, blue and turquoise
colours (plate 1, 3) are common. Our group of samples includes pieces with a cylindrical and beaded,
sometimes twisted, stem that is fixed to a discoid, flat or slightly conical base. At present, it is not possible
to say whether the feet were mainly parts of drinking vessels or of goblet-shaped lamps. As the small
handles document (plate 1, 4), some vessels served as lamps for single suspensions but could also be part
of those goblets (e.g. Băjenaru / Bâltâc 2001/02, pls 6-8) or of lamps with tubular lower parts (Olczak 1981,
fig. 49c). At the moment, there are no indications of hemispherical bowls with handles as the typical
handles of this lamp type with long, ripped ends and typical bases (Olczak 1981, fig. 49d; Băjenaru / Bâltâc
2001/02, pl. 10, 8-10; Antonaras 2007, fig. 5, 3b) do not seem to form a considerable part of the glass
material, however, future investigations may change this view.
Some fragments are clearly recognisable as parts of bottles (plate 1, 5), where the same group of colours
are noted. The samples with long cylindrical necks and more or less pronounced funnel mouths may belong
to the typical examples with spherical bodies. They are decorated with applied glass threads at the neck
and at the intersection between the neck and the body and feature ribs on the body.
Tesserae, which were also found in relatively high quantities, sometimes feature golden foils (plate 2, 1).
The original context of the pieces is lost and it is not possible to reconstruct the mosaics to which they once
belonged. An extremely large number of windowpanes were excavated in Caričin Grad. The average thick-
ness of the fragments ranges between 2 and 5mm. It is remarkable, but also understandable, that light
colours predominate among the flat glass fragments (except a few deep blue pieces) and colourless, light
red and brownish tints are added to the colour spectrum (plate 2, 2). We will also include some of the
gold-glass-tile fragments excavated in Caričin Grad. At the moment, they are not known from Byzantine
sites south of the Danube, whereas a fragment from Kephalari (per. Peloponnese, GR) has been published
recently by A. Antonaras, who mentioned the parallels from Caričin Grad and emphasised the main distri-
bution of those tiles in the Near East, especially in Israel (Antonaras 2008, 301-302 figs 4-5).
The glass complex becomes especially exciting due to finds that can prove a local glass workshop. Among
those finds, it is possible to find numerous fragments of raw glass in green, yellowish green, turquoise and
blue tints (plate 2, 3), which correspond to many of the above-mentioned vessels and windowpanes. This
coincidence gives rise to the assumption of a local production together with some finds that may be iden-
tified as production waste (plate 2, 4). They include a fragment that could be the result of cutting off a
cover from an open vessel and a possibly unfinished goblet base, as well as some fused lower parts of
lamps. However, samples like the latter are not necessarily results of failed glass working, but could also
result from damage fires within the settlement. Some glass droplets and other glass fluxes, which are hard
to explain by means of damage fires, clarify the production procedure.
As one can judge from the sample presented, the glass material from Caričin Grad shows many similarities
with the sites described from the region south of the Danube. The fact that some vessel types could not
be proven among the assemblage may be due to the high degree of fragmentation and will perhaps be
clarified during future work on the finds. Nevertheless, due to the huge quantity of fragments, the great
variety of colours, the clear evidence of local glass working and the possibility of a very accurate dating, the
outstanding meaning of the material is more than clear. These features will be completed by the important
analysis concerning the chemical composition of the different glass samples.
BYZANTINE GLASS AND MAJOR QUESTIONS
The chemical study of objects provides valuable information about the products of ancient technologies.
During the last 15 years, there has been a great increase in the number of chemical analyses published
along with typological studies and excavation reports of several Byzantine sites. It is especially interesting
to study glass from the period after the Romans lost control of major production sites in the Eastern
Mediterranean. Was there a continuity of raw materials and production sites and how great was the influ-

ence of Western Asian and Islamic glass production? The huge number of glass finds from Caričin Grad
offer a well excavated and well dated database for studying 6th and 7th century glass 1.
One of the most important data sets is to be found in the numerable studies of Freestone and co-workers
(Freestone / Gorin-Rosen 1999; Freestone / Gorin-Rosen / Hughes 2000; Freestone / Greenwood / Gorin-
Rosen 2002; Freestone / Ponting / Hughes 2002). He defined different Byzantine glass groups with chemical
compositions distinct from earlier Roman examples. Some are primary production sites that would also be
potential candidates for the Caričin Grad material, but most data are from finished products. The occurrence
of raw glass among the Serbian finds indicates at least some secondary working of glass on the site.
Chemical results of an analysed glass object yield information about the two major raw material ingredi-
ents, namely the quartz-rich sand and the flux, without which it would not be possible to melt the glass
within temperature ranges attainable by ancient firing techniques. Soda (natron), a mixture of different
sodium carbonate minerals, commonly contributes approximately 15% by weight of a sand/flux mixture,
but is surely the more expensive ingredient as it had to be transported from distant places, such as the Wadi
Natrun in Egypt, to the glass melting sites where appropriate sands were available. A good glass sand was
a sand with a certain content of calcareous material, often in the form of mollusc shells, sometimes with
fragments of limestone. A further requirement was a relatively low iron content, since iron tends to give
dark greenish or brownish colours to finished glass. The first glass, however, was not made from Egyptian
soda salts, but was produced in Mesopotamia using ashes of plants with a high salt content. The chemical
composition of those plant ashes differs from their mineral counterparts due to the addition of more
magnesium and potassium to the batch (Sayre / Smith 1961).
The interpretation of analytical results can be accomplished by a graphical representation of the data sets 2.
Certain chemical elements, such as calcium (Ca) and alumina (Al), are more characteristic of the mineralogy
of the sand used for producing an antique glass, while potassium (K) and magnesium (Mg) are inherited
from the flux materials used. Using these graphs, it can be shown that, despite the use of similar base
recipes in Roman and Byzantine glass production, different sands were used at different times (Wedepohl
2003; Freestone 2006). One special subgroup, so-called HIMT glass, is defined by relatively »High Iron,
Manganese and Titanium« levels: around the 4th century, this new glass type emerges with examples found
all over North Africa and Europe. Mineral soda is used as the flux but it was produced with sand with
distinctly higher contents of the above-mentioned elements (Freestone / Wolf / Thirlwall 2005). Within a
plot of Mg and K, Islamic glass production sites using plant ashes are identified by higher contents of MgO
and K2O.
After analysing the raw glass material from Caričin Grad, we should be able to answer at least a few of the
following questions: is the raw glass that is available at Caričin Grad a type of glass produced according to
a Roman tradition by using a mineral soda flux, or is there any sign of a plant ash glass? Is the sand used
still the same as was utilised by the Romans or does it compare with one of the newer subgroups?
SAMPLES AND ANALYTICAL DETAILS
The samples available from the Serbian site for analysis include 163 fragments of glass vessels, 55 frag-
ments of window glass, 48 tesserae, 34 chunks of raw glass3, 16 pieces of irregular glass droplets and four
pieces of »sandwich gold glass«. The following study focuses on the raw glass pieces (plate 3) 4. All raw
glass pieces were affected by corrosion and had to be cleaned mechanically before measurement. The
material comes from different excavation levels. The following study is part of a larger project scheme with
the aim of gaining a representative picture of Byzantine glass compositions dating to the 6th and the 7th
centuries 5.
A micro-XRF-system by Roentgenanalytik Messtechnik GmbH (Taunusstein, D) with an analytical spot size
of 0.3 mm was used to analyse the bulk composition of the glass. The small size of the point limits the level
of destruction of the original substance. Surface cleaning is essential when dealing with excavated glass
since even smooth and shiny surfaces have chemical reactions with the soil and this is often not visible to
the naked eye. The chemical composition is affected in such a way that sodium is leached out leaving
behind a body with an outer layer enriched with silicon dioxide.
The system used is an »Eagle III XXL« with an extra large sample chamber measuring 0.75 × 0.75 × 1.35 m.
The device is fitted with a Rhodium tube, with options for measuring in air or in a vacuum, and a nitrogen-
cooled Oxford EDAX-system with a Si(Li) detector (FWHM resolution for MnKα = 146 eV). The conditions
were as follows: beam 40 kV and 355 μA, spot size 0.3 mm, forming time 35 μs, vacuum conditions, 300
live seconds acquisition time. Quantification was performed by means of a system-integrated software
package based on commercially available glass reference materials (Corning A, Corning D, BR U 7, BR EK
010, NIST 610 and 620 SLG) combined with fundamental parameter calculations where certain chemical
elements were missing in the reference samples. Detection limits for most elements are around 0.01 wt.%
and 0.07 wt.% for arsenic due to the AsKα /PbLα peak overlap. For each sample, three to five points were
prepared and measured. Due to the instrumental setting, it is not necessary to take any samples. In the case
of the vessel glass, a circular area of approx. 0.5 mm in diameter was cleaned for analyses with a micro-drill
device to eliminate the above-mentioned corrosion effects.
RESULTS
Basic glass types
The analytical results of the 26 Caričin Grad raw glass chunks are given in table 1. The majority of the
chunks are made of a soda-lime composition that is similar but not identical to traditional Roman glass
formulations. Two of the samples (nos 264. 328) have comparably high contents of potassium and magne-
sium of around 1.5%, which is generally given as the limit separating plant ash soda from mineral soda
(Sayre / Smith 1961). Sodium levels range from 13.5-21.5% with a mean of 18.72% Na2O. No potassium-
rich glasses in the sense of mediaeval European wood ash compositions are found among the 26 samples
analysed 6. The average values for lime (CaO), alumina (Al2O3) and magnesia (MgO) do match the com-
positional values typical of the first millennium (7.36%, 2.25% and 1.17% respectively).
Minor elements and vessel colours
The lowest iron content is 0.35% FeO with a maximum of more than 2%, so that most fragments show
more or less distinct colours of greenish-yellowish or bluish hues, which have not been compensated for by
manganese. On average, manganese (MnO) stretches around 1%, but with a fair dispersion (1.09 ± 0.69%).
As expected, the deeper blue glasses either show elevated copper (no. 263) or a combination of cobalt and
copper (nos 188-189. 281), together with slightly elevated lead (approx. 0.4% PbO). Sample 263 shows an
extreme high lead content of 3.5% and the lowest values for iron, titanium and manganese. As will be
discussed later, this raw glass sample differs in many ways from the average of the others.

sample Na2O MgO Al2O3 SiO2 P2O5 SO3 K2O CaO TiO2 MnO FeO CoO NiO CuO PbO SrO Sb2O5
no.
113 20.34 1.17 2.14 63.54 0.20 0.34 0.99 8.45 0.14 1.82 0.71 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.06 0.04
159-162 20.21 1.27 2.38 65.04 0.23 0.32 1.06 6.86 0.15 0.56 1.78 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.04 0.04
167 18.12 1.17 2.40 66.77 0.11 0.25 0.79 7.77 0.16 1.40 0.92 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.05 0.05
168 18.13 1.18 2.38 66.77 0.11 0.27 0.79 7.73 0.16 1.39 0.91 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.05 0.07
188 19.96 0.91 2.25 68.61 0.09 0.33 0.62 5.34 0.13 0.07 0.91 0.04 0.01 0.17 0.37 0.03 0.05
189 20.02 1.08 2.37 68.36 0.06 0.31 0.64 5.24 0.13 0.08 0.98 0.04 0.01 0.16 0.38 0.03 0.03
231 18.45 1.16 2.30 67.02 0.18 0.28 1.00 6.87 0.14 1.63 0.83 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.05 0.04
257 18.26 1.16 2.23 67.28 0.19 0.31 1.05 7.09 0.13 1.46 0.69 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.05 0.03
261 20.19 0.79 2.03 67.80 0.07 0.29 0.56 6.44 0.13 0.94 0.61 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.03 0.03 0.03
262 17.71 1.21 2.33 66.49 0.21 0.30 1.25 7.68 0.15 1.70 0.82 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.05 0.03
263 13.67 0.80 2.75 67.76 0.10 0.04 0.83 8.17 0.07 0.03 0.35 0.01 0.01 0.92 3.50 0.03 0.06
264 18.59 1.91 1.88 63.90 0.45 0.35 2.04 9.62 0.16 0.16 0.77 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.06 0.04
265 16.74 1.32 2.58 66.54 0.32 0.29 1.25 7.93 0.16 1.82 0.87 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.06 0.04
269 18.43 1.15 2.23 66.13 0.16 0.32 0.94 8.03 0.14 1.63 0.69 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.05 0.04
271 17.85 1.23 2.23 66.73 0.16 0.31 0.91 7.94 0.13 1.65 0.67 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.05 0.06
273 20.25 1.05 1.83 69.41 0.21 0.27 0.61 5.34 0.18 0.05 0.68 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.03 0.03
274 17.71 0.99 2.18 67.17 0.16 0.33 0.92 8.01 0.13 1.59 0.67 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.05 0.03
275 18.72 1.14 2.13 66.12 0.13 0.31 0.91 7.98 0.14 1.62 0.66 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.05 0.04
277 18.86 1.12 2.17 66.36 0.14 0.31 0.90 7.76 0.13 1.47 0.64 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.05 0.03
278 18.30 1.11 2.15 66.35 0.14 0.33 0.94 8.04 0.13 1.67 0.68 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.05 0.03
279 17.36 1.17 2.48 65.75 0.16 0.30 1.04 8.71 0.14 1.92 0.77 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.05 0.03
281 19.88 1.06 2.37 68.39 0.08 0.38 0.64 5.34 0.13 0.08 0.94 0.04 0.01 0.15 0.38 0.03 0.05
314 19.12 1.15 2.42 64.94 0.20 0.58 0.87 7.15 0.16 1.11 2.14 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.04 0.03
328 19.00 1.84 1.81 65.10 0.47 0.30 1.87 8.43 0.15 0.15 0.73 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.05 0.05
A10788 19.33 1.20 2.40 65.64 0.22 0.30 1.06 7.09 0.15 0.92 1.48 0.01 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.04 0.06
A10890 21.45 1.01 2.14 65.52 0.10 0.32 0.71 6.43 0.11 1.30 0.73 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.04 0.05
mean 18.72 1.17 2.25 66.52 0.18 0.31 0.97 7.36 0.14 1.09 0.87 0.01 0.00 0.06 0.19 0.05 0.04
std. dev. 1.51 0.24 0.22 1.40 0.10 0.08 0.34 1.13 0.02 0.69 0.38 0.01 0.00 0.18 0.69 0.01 0.01
Tab. 1 Caričin Grad: main elemental composition of the raw glass chunks in weight%, normalized to 100%.
DISCUSSION
The chemical results now have to be discussed relative to Roman glass traditions, as well as to Byzantine
production sites. For reference, we use the glass groups as defined by Freestone and co-workers (Freestone
/ Gorin-Rosen 1999; Freestone / Gorin-Rosen / Hughes 2000; Freestone / Greenwood / Gorin-Rosen 2002;
Freestone / Ponting / Hughes 2002). As discussed in the above, the 26 raw glasses do not form an entirely
homogeneous group as we have two examples that do not belong to the group of mineral soda glasses
and we will first have to address the question of plant ash glasses.
Plant ash glasses in the first millennium A.D.
One of the most interesting findings for the samples from Caričin Grad is the occurrence of glass com-
positions with a certain amount of plant ash. This glass type is derived from halophytic and other plants
growing on salt-rich soils, with a potassium-dominated variety made from burned wood. It is generally
accepted that values of potassium and magnesium of 1.5% and more by weight are distinctive for the use
of non-mineral soda (Sayre / Smith 1961). Whereas these types of plant ash glass were the first types of
glass to be produced at the very beginning of glass technology, they were gradually replaced by sodium-
rich minerals derived from salt lakes some time during the first millennium B.C. and this became the domi-
nant flux type between about 800 B.C. and A.D. 700 or 800 in many regions of the ancient world, except
East and South-East Asia (Sayre / Smith 1961; Brill 1970; Barkoudah / Henderson 2006; Shortland et al.
2006; Tite et al. 2006). In parts of the Middle East and Western Asia, however, the use of plant ashes in
glass production never ceased entirely, especially in the Parthian and Sassanian empires (Smith 1963;
Wedepohl 2003; Freestone 2006; Henderson 2009). A further candidate for long-term production of plant
ash glass is Egypt, where a few examples have been found in Maréotide near Alexandria (Nenna 2007). So
it is not surprising that even lists of glass analyses for vessels found in the Roman Empire include some with
conspicuously high potassium and magnesium contents. This is, for example, the case for finds from Fish-
bourne (Henderson 1996; 2009), Beirut and Southern Gaul (Carpentras, Golfe de Fos and Ruscino; Thirion-
Merle 2005), Colchester and Fréjus (Lemke 1998), but it must be noted that these findings of plant ash
glass are rare in view of the immense number of published data sets as a whole.
The glass from Beirut includes two pieces of raw glass with a highly calcium-rich plant ash composition 7
dating to the 1st century B.C. This calcium content is much higher than those observed for the two plant
ash samples from Caričin Grad, which contain around 8% CaO. High calcium values are also not found for
Fishbourne or Colchester or for the samples from Southern Gaul, which all date to the first centuries B.C.
and A.D. Whereas our two Serbian plant ash glass samples are turquoise in colour 8, the Imperial Roman
examples from Fishbourne and Colchester are all dark to emerald green with iron contents of between 1.2
and 1.7% (Henderson 1996; Lemke 1998). So we do not find exact counterparts in the Roman period.
In Late Antiquity and the Early Islamic period, the use of plant ash for glass melting was restricted to regions
east of the Euphrates (Smith 1963). Even those regions on the Levantine coast with a flourishing glass
industry based on mineral soda in Roman times switched back to plant ash recipes for glass making in the
middle of the 9th century (Gratuze / Barrandon 1990; Shortland et al. 2006). The reasons for this techno-
logical adjustment are not absolutely clear but there is some evidence to suggest climatic change in the
region, which influenced the evaporation of the soda salt lakes, thus reducing the availability of this raw
material (Freestone / Hughes / Stapleton 2008; Shortland et al. 2006).
Several attempts have been made to distinguish between the traditional Eastern plant ash groups and their
younger Mediterranean counterparts (Freestone 2006; Henderson 2009). It seems possible to differentiate
between Sassanian / Parthian production with an obviously continuous production tradition and the Levan-
tine newcomers by chemical composition with characteristically higher magnesium contents in the Sassan-
ian glass.
The magnesium oxide values for the Caričin Grad glass are low with only around 1.8 and 1.9 wt.% and,
when compared to the graphical distribution scheme given in Freestone 2006 9, show more similarities with
the Syro-Levantine group with their lower MgO values. The two Caričin Grad raw glass samples lie some-
where between the Byzantine natron glasses and could thus be a plant ash glass with a comparably low
ash content or a mixture of both glass types.
In other Byzantine sites and Eastern Mediterranean places, no plant ash glass has been observed. There is,
however, evidence to suggest the use of plant ash in Anglo-Saxon pieces (Freestone / Hughes / Stapleton
2008), namely in the younger Saxon Period II glass (A.D. 550-700), which chronologically match the exis-
tence of Caričin Grad. Freestone and co-workers found two groups: one with high contents of potassium
and magnesia typical of glass derived from plant ash and also a type of mineral soda glass. Those authors
divide the plant ash glass samples into a higher-Mn group and a lower-Mn group (MnO = 1.8 and 0.3%).
In terms of the MnO content of 0.16%, the Caričin Grad plant ash glass would resemble more the low Mn
group. Figure 8 gives an impression of the differences between the Serbian and Anglo Saxon glass. Free-
stone, Hughes and Stapleton (2008) found a linear relationship for their plant ash samples of Saxon II in

Fig. 8 Mineral soda glasses can
be distinguished from plant ash
soda glasses due to lower mag-
nesia and potassium contents. In
this diagram, Anglo-Saxon vessels
dating to the 6th to 8th centuries
analysed by Freestone / Hughes /
Stapleton 2008 are plotted for
comparison. – (After S. Greiff,
RGZM).
terms of K2O, MgO and P2O5 10. This was interpreted as a possible mixing line between mineral soda and
plant ash glass. Due to extreme high Sr levels, they have interpreted the Saxon II plant ash material as a
wood ash source. This trend is not observable here, so the exact plant source of the two Serbian samples
in question cannot be determined in this way.
Groups of soda-lime glass and the question of HIMT glass
From the 5th to 9th centuries, the post-Roman world of glass production had to face economic and/or polit-
ical adjustments that seemed to have gone hand in hand with a change in the composition of glass with
the result that, although basic glass recipes with soda as flux were still dominating the scene, there was
now a certain diversification in the sources of sand, as demonstrated by the proportions of alumina and
calcium, which were clearly different from the traditional Roman compositions (Foy et al. 2003; Freestone
2003; Freestone / Ponting / Hughes 2002; Freestone / Hughes / Stapleton 2008). As mentioned above, of
the five groups, two are from the Levante (Levantine I and Bet Eliézer), two from Egypt (Egypt II and Wadi
Natrun 11) and there is also a so-called HIMT group 12, which seems to have replaced the traditional Roman
soda glass sometime in Late Antiquity, at least in some European regions (Mirti / Casoli / Appolonia 1993;
Foy et al. 2003; Freestone 1994; Freestone / Ponting / Hughes 2002; Freestone / Hughes / Stapleton 2008;
Foster / Jackson 2009). Distribution patterns of HIMT vessel glass suggest that the latter might have been
produced in Egypt (Foy et al. 2003).
The groups as defined by Freestone and others for Late Antique post Roman glasses, some of which are
contemporaneous to the Serbian site, are plotted together with the Caričin Grad samples (black stars).
Another important reference point is the average Roman glass composition (open square) calculated on the
basis of 781 data compiled by Wedepohl (2003). Our samples of Serbian raw glass do not fall into a very
narrow field but are roughly spread in the vicinity of the Roman average. The two plant ash samples
Fig. 9 A diagram with lime ver-
sus alumina. The Caričin Grad
samples are plotted against special
glass groups defined by Freestone /
Gorin-Rosen / Hughes 2000 and
other glass specialists. – (After
S. Greiff, RGZM).
(smaller stars) discussed in the above also form a separate group here since they have a lower alumina and
a higher calcium content than the other 24 samples.
Figure 9 clearly shows that the majority of the raw glass chunks from Caričin Grad still follow a Roman
glass recipe and are not related to the younger production centres in the Levantine or those in Egypt (or at
least not to those known to date). The sand composition is approximately the same as for the Roman glass
production. Beyond the similarities for lime and alumina, there are some differences compared with the
original Roman glass. For the later glass, we observe higher soda and magnesium contents (Beilharz /
Wedepohl 2002; Wedepohl 2003; Freestone / Hughes / Stapleton 2008). The same trend has been observ-
ed for the so-called HIMT glass that will be explored in greater detail later. Explaining these findings is not
straightforward. Is this a sign of the recycling of Roman glass and the addition of a little »fresh« soda to
the mixture for easier melting?
Elevated levels of lead, antimony, copper, zinc and cobalt and other heavy metals in »naturally coloured«
glass are often interpreted as being an indication of the recycling of glass cullet because they are used in
opacified thread decorations and as colouring agents and would be transferred into the newly mixed glass
batch (Foster / Jackson 2009). We do find elevated levels of these compounds in four samples from Caričin
Grad (nos 188-189. 263. 281), all but one of which (no. 263) have a strong blue colour that is generally
produced by deliberately adding compounds rich in these elements. The case of 263 is a little different with
a turquoise-greenish colour. In this case, recycling cannot be ruled out, but it seems more likely that the
colouring minerals are the reason for these elevated contents.
Some samples from Caričin Grad (nos 188-189. 261. 273. 281; A 10890) are included in the graph (fig. 9),
near the field defined for the HIMT glass. What is the relation to the HIMT group, which appears for the
first time in the 4th century? To answer this question, we have to look at a more detailed definition of HIMT
glass (Freestone / Wolf / Thirlwall 2005; Foster / Jackson 2009).

As a result of the original observation by Mirti, Casoli and Appolonia (1993), Freestone (1994) and Foy and
others (2003) that, in the Late Antiquity, a certain group of glass is Higher in Iron, Manganese and
Titanium than the »traditional« Roman glass, Ian Freestone defined this group as HIMT glass. The idea that
these glasses were produced with a silica source that differs from the Belus sediments usually assigned to
Roman period glass production is widely accepted. The strongest evidence for a possible source of HIMT in
Egypt is the fact that this glass occurs more frequently in and around Egyptian sites. Isotopic distribution
patterns indicate a source region where marine and continental sediments merge, which would also indi-
cate Egypt (Freestone / Wolf / Thirlwall 2005). A more strict definition is the strong correlation between iron
and alumina, which we investigated in our Serbian samples.
Taking all Serbian raw glass samples into account for this type of correlation test does not reveal any
convincing link between these two parameters. If we pick out only those raw glass samples that show simi-
larities with the Ca-Al proportion of the HIMT group, we find a rather strong correlation. Consequently,
the position in terms of lime and alumina and the correlation between iron and alumina both support the
thesis that these six samples show some relation to the HIMT glass type. However, we must bear in mind
the fact that at least three of the six are strong blue vessel fragments and at least some of the elevated iron
content could have been introduced by the copper and cobalt colorants, as discussed in the preceding
section.
From »naturally coloured glasses« within the HIMT field, Foster and Jackson (2009) have defined two
subgroups, namely HIMT 1 and HIMT 2, which seem to correspond to different production periods (2 being
earlier than 1). The two types differ in terms of the proportion of typical HIMT oxides and some trace
elements but they share the same high levels of sodium oxide, as well as low levels of lime. The correlation
between the HIMT elements is also a common feature. Similar subgroupings were found by Foy and others
(2003), although, at that time, they were not known under the term HIMT.
While the six Serbian samples in question exhibit certain features, such as the positive correlation between
Fe and Al and the proportions of lime and alumina, the absolute values for the HIMT elements do not
match those defined by Foster and Jackson (2009). This phenomenon of interelemental correlation but
difference in absolute values is seen in other post-Roman glass: In a study of Anglo-Saxon vessels from the
British Museum, Freestone and co-workers have found some groups which (Saxon Period I: A.D. 400-550)
share certain characteristics with older HIMT glass (Freestone / Hughes / Stapleton 2008) in terms of posi-
tive correlations of FeO, MgO, MnO and Al2O3, but with different absolute values for the four oxides.
Another difference is the higher proportion of CaO/Al2O3 in the Saxon I samples, which would better cor-
respond to our non-HIMT samples that gather around the average Roman glass composition as calculated
by Wedepohl (2003). Freestone, Hughes and Stapleton (2008) found that the similarities of their Anglo
Saxon Period I glass »are related to the HIMT either technologically, or geochemically, or both«.
The six Serbian samples with a low proportion of CaO/Al2O3 show more similarities with the classical HIMT
examples than with the Anglo Saxon I group. Among the Saxon Period II glass from Freestone, Hughes and
Stapleton (2008), there is also some deep blue glass.
CONCLUSIONS
The largest proportion of chunks of raw glass from Caričin Grad analysed thus far comprises mineral soda
glass; two out of the 26 types of glass were produced with a certain amount of plant ash. The nature of
the plant ash cannot be determined with certainty but a halophytic source seems more probable than wood
ash. Comparing the mineral soda glasses with compositional groups already defined by other authors indi-
cates that most of them are comparable with an average Roman composition that had been altered slightly
by the addition of more soda flux to a sand source than had previously been the case. These production
centres continued to produce in the Byzantine period, perhaps adapting the compositions slightly. Some
samples bear similarities to another compositional group of glasses already known from the 4th century,
namely the HIMT group. However, most of our HIMT samples are of a distinct blue colour, so that the high
content of the HIMT-characteristic elements may have been introduced into the glass with the colouring
minerals.
The occurrence of plant ash glass in Early Mediaeval European glass assemblages is documented by further
examples, such as the Saxon glass analysed by Freestone, Hughes and Stapleton (2008). Their provenance
may perhaps be traced to the region where the Sassanians produced their glass on the basis of halophytic
plant ashes.
Mixing these glass types, as well as the recycling of Roman glass, may blur the overall picture when consid-
ering the composition of glass vessels in terms of their relationship to one of the five groups mentioned.
Consequently, much more data of post Roman glass has to be gathered.
The next step will be to analyse the remaining pieces of raw glass from Caričin Grad, as well as some trace
element data. Future work needs to compare other object categories such as vessels, flat glass and tesserae,
also found at the site, in order to form a picture of the glass compositions used in the Early Byzantine
period.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to thank Dr. Vujadin Ivanišević and Sonja Stam- ments on this paper, as well as Dr. Daniel Keller and Sonngard
neković for the excellent collaboration and the invaluable com- Hartmann for their help and support.
NOTES
1) We refer in this paper to the 6th and 7th centuries as »Early 6) The first evidence for this glass type does not occur before the
Byzantine«. In other publications the term »late Byzantine« is 8th century (Wedepohl 2003).
being used for the same period.
7) Cobalt blue VRR 650 and violet VRR 654 of Thirion-Merle
2) The chemical composition of a glass is typically given as 2005.
weight percent of the oxides, so if for example »magnesium 8) The turquoise colour is observed on a raw glass piece and
contents« are mentioned in the text, it is meant as magne- would look much paler when turned into a thin vessel.
sium oxide in reality.
9) See fig. 2 in Freestone 2006.
3) One piece of a violet transparent glassy material turned out to
10) As we have only two samples, a possible linearity cannot be
be an amethyst, the purple variety of quartz.
checked.
4) 26 of the 34 samples have been analyzed. 11) During the conference discussion, it was emphasized by
Marie-Dominique Nenna that this term should be avoided,
5) In addition to the Serbian glass, another Early Byzantine find
because the production site could not definitely be assigned
assemblage from Jabal Harun (Jordan) is being under investi-
to the Wadi Natrun at the moment.
gation in the Mainz archaeometry lab, which is representative
of glass compositions in use on the other side of the Medi- 12) HIMT: expression coined by Freestone deduced from high Iron,
terranean Sea. Manganese and Titanium contents.

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ABSTRACT / ZUSAMMENFASSUNG / RÉSUMÉ
Chemical aspects of Byzantine glass from Caričin Grad/Iustiniana prima (Serbia)

The article deals with the initial results of a research project into the Byzantine glass from Caričin Grad, which started
in 2006 as a co-operation between the Archaeological Institute of Belgrade and the Römisch-Germanisches Zentral-
museum in Mainz. The glass finds of Caričin Grad are not only very numerous, but they also represent a great variety
of different vessels, windowpanes, tesserae and residues of glass-working activities. The aim is to analyse the material
within the context of glass-production and distribution within the Mediterranean world of the 6th and 7th century by
relying mainly on analyses of the chemical composition of the samples. An initial typological classification of the nearly
350 fragments is presented here, as well as first results of the analysis of the chemical composition of the 26 raw glass
fragments which, with the exception of two samples with comparably high potassium and magnesium contents, were
revealed to be of a soda-lime composition that is similar but not identical to traditional Roman glass formulations.
Chemische Eigenschaften des byzantinischen Glases von Caričin Grad/Iustiniana prima (Serbien)
Der Beitrag ist den ersten Ergebnissen eines Forschungsprojektes gewidmet, das sich als Kooperation des Archäologi-
schen Instituts in Belgrad und des Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseums in Mainz seit 2006 mit den Glasfunden aus
Caričin Grad beschäftigt. Das Material aus Caričin Grad ist nicht nur sehr zahlreich, sondern beinhaltet auch ein viel-
fältiges Spektrum von Gefäßen, Fensterglas, Mosaiksteinchen und Resten von Glasverarbeitung. Ziel des Projektes ist
es, das Material im Kontext der Glasproduktion und -distribution im Mittelmeerraum des 6. und 7. Jahrhunderts zu
untersuchen, wobei die Analysen zur chemischen Zusammensetzung der einzelnen Proben die Basis bilden. Eine erste
typologische Einordnung der fast 350 Glasproben wird vorgestellt, ebenso erste Ergebnisse der Analyse der chemi-
schen Zusammensetzung von 26 Rohglasfragmenten. Diese repräsentieren eine typische Soda-Kalk-Zusammen-
setzung, die ähnlich, aber nicht identisch ist mit der traditionellen römischen Glasrezeptur; allerdings weisen zwei
Ausnahmen einen vergleichsweise hohen Anteil von Kalium und Magnesium auf.
Les aspects chimiques du verre byzantin de Caričin Grad/Iustiniana prima (Serbie)

Le présent article se consacre aux premiers résultats d’un projet de recherche, né de la coopération de l’Institut
d’Archéologie de Belgrade et du Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum depuis 2006, qui étudie les objets en verre
découverts à Caričin Grad. Le matériel de Caričin Grad est non seulement très abondant, mais présente également un
spectre varié de récipients, de verre à vitre, de tesselles et de résidus de production du verre. Le but de ce projet est
l’étude du matériel dans le contexte de la production et de la distribution du verre dans le monde méditerranéen du
VIe et du VIIe siècle en se basant sur les analyses de la composition chimique des différents échantillons. Un premier
classement typologique de près de 350 échantillons est présenté, ainsi que les premiers résultats des analyses de la
composition chimique de 26 fragments de verre brut. Ces derniers présentent une composition typique de carbonate
de sodium et de calcaire, semblable, mais néanmoins pas identique, à la composition traditionnelle du verre à l’époque
romaine. Cependant, deux exceptions contiennent une quantité relativement importante de potassium et de magné-
sium. A. S.
PLATE 1
Plate 1 Drauschke · Greiff · Caričin Grad, glass fragments: 1 lower parts of polycandela lamps. – 2 Rims of glass vessels. – 3 Bases
of stemmed goblets. – 4 Examples of handles. – 5 Fragments of bottles. – (Photo V. Ivanišević, Arch. Inst. Belgrade).
PLATE 2
Plate 2 Drauschke · Greiff · Caričin Grad, glass fragments: 1 tesserae. – 2 Window panes. – 3 Raw glass fragments. – 4 Possible
nonconforming products and glass-working debris. – (Photo V. Ivanišević, Arch. Inst. Belgrade).
PLATE 3
Plate 3 Drauschke · Greiff · Caričin Grad: three examples of raw glass chunks; the turquoise one is made with plant ashes. –
(Photo D. Bach, Winterbach).
B. Zorn · A. Hilgner (eds)
Glass along the Silk Road

from 200 BC to AD 1000
International conference within the scope of the »Sino-
German Project on Cultural Heritage Preservation« of the
RGZM and the Shaanxi Provincial Institute of Archaeology,
December 11th-12th 2008
Since Antiquity the routes of the so-called Silk Road formed an important
network for commercial, cultural and technological exchange and con-
nected the East to the West. Since glass never played a significant role in Far
Eastern cultures, glass finds from Far Eastern sites provide evidence for far-
reaching trade relationships and imply cross-fertilization with other cultures.
Thus the contributions in this volume deal with a wide geographical area
covering a chronological range from 200 BC to AD 1000. The conference
focused on recent results of scientific analyses of glass and on archaeologi-
cal questions. The possibility of interdisciplinary research was one of the
RGZM – Tagungen focal points of the conference and hence of this volume, as well as questions
Band 9 (2010) concerning workshops, raw material, technology and trade. One goal was
250 S. mit 206 meist farbigen Abb., to provide the participants with an insight beyond their own immediate con-
16 Tab. cerns. By means of presenting studies of regionally specific glass forms and
ISBN 978-3-88467-148-1 techniques as well as current methods and discoveries, even when not
44,– € directly connected to the Silk Road, a broader perspective is offered.
Falko Daim · Jörg Drauschke (Hrsg.)
Byzanz – das Römerreich im Mittelalter

Teil 1 Welt der Ideen, Welt der Dinge
Tei 2, 1-2 Schauplätze
Teil 3 Peripherie und Nachbarschaft
Zur Ausstellung »Byzanz – Pracht und Alltag« die in Bonn vom 26.2.-
13.6.2010 sattfand, erscheint im Verlag des Römisch-Germanischen Zen-
tralmuseums ein dreiteiliger wissenschaftlicher Begleitband.
Von seinen Wurzeln in der römischen Spätantike bis zu seinem Niedergang
im Jahre 1453 durch die Eroberung der Hauptstadt Konstantinopel war das
Byzantinische Reich von einer faszinierenden Vielfalt geprägt. Byzantinische
Kultur und Handwerkskunst beeinflussten über die Jahrhunderte nicht nur
westeuropäische Gesellschaften.
65 Beiträge internationaler Wissenschaftler gewähren Einblick in die facet-
tenreiche Geschichte, Kunst, Kultur und Archäologie des Byzantinischen
Reiches. Aktuelle Forschungsprojekte präsentieren die Hauptstadt Konstan-
Monographien des RGZM tinopel, aber auch andere Plätze des Byzantinischen Reiches wie Pergamon
Band 84, 1-3 (2010) und Ephesos. Ebenso thematisiert werden die Beziehungen des Reiches zu
zus. 1876 S., 1200 meist farbige Abb. seinen Nachbarkulturen, Alltagsleben sowie prägende Aspekte von Kultur
Teil 1 ISBN 978-3-88467-153-5 und Gesellschaft.
90,– € »Byzanz – das Römerreich im Mittelalter« beleuchtet auf einmalige Weise
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170,– € die Möglichkeit, byzantinisch-archäologische Themen in einer interdiszipli-
Teil 3 ISBN 978-3-88467-155-9 nären Breite zu behandeln. Englischsprachige Zusammenfassungen der ein-
80,– € zelnen Beiträge bieten auch einem internationalen Publikum einen Einblick
Teile 1-3 zusammen 295,– € in die aktuelle Forschungslage.
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Offprint from / Sonderdruck aus

Jörg Drauschke, Daniel Keller (eds)

Verlag des Römisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums Mainz 2010

GLAS IN BYZANZ – © 2010 Verlag des Römisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums

Preface – Vorwort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VII

Jörg Drauschke, Susanne Greiff

Patrick Degryse, Ian C. Freestone, Jens Schneider, Sarah Jennings †

Binnur Gürler, Ergün Laflı

Veerle Lauwers, Patrick Degryse, Marc Waelkens

Yael Gorin-Rosen, Tamar Winter

List of Contributors – Autoren . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261

Abbreviations – Abkürzungen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262

CHEMICAL ASPECTS OF BYZANTINE GLASS

GLASS FROM EARLY BYZANTINE SITES SOUTH OF THE DANUBE

Glass in Byzantium · Drauschke/Keller (eds) 25

Glass in Byzantium · Drauschke/Keller (eds) 27

Glass in Byzantium · Drauschke/Keller (eds) 29

THE EARLY BYZANTINE CITY OF CARIČIN GRAD/IUSTINIANA PRIMA

Glass in Byzantium · Drauschke/Keller (eds) 31

Glass in Byzantium · Drauschke/Keller (eds) 33

THE SAMPLE OF GLASS FINDS FROM CARIČIN GRAD

BYZANTINE GLASS AND MAJOR QUESTIONS

Glass in Byzantium · Drauschke/Keller (eds) 35

SAMPLES AND ANALYTICAL DETAILS

Basic glass types

Minor elements and vessel colours

Glass in Byzantium · Drauschke/Keller (eds) 37

Plant ash glasses in the first millennium A.D.

Glass in Byzantium · Drauschke/Keller (eds) 39

Groups of soda-lime glass and the question of HIMT glass

Glass in Byzantium · Drauschke/Keller (eds) 41

Glass in Byzantium · Drauschke/Keller (eds) 43

Sources Dankova 1993: G. Dankova, Kieliszki I unguentaria z Novae. Mate-

Glass in Byzantium · Drauschke/Keller (eds) 45

Chemical aspects of Byzantine glass from Caričin Grad/Iustiniana prima (Serbia)

Les aspects chimiques du verre byzantin de Caričin Grad/Iustiniana prima (Serbie)

Glass along the Silk Road

Falko Daim · Jörg Drauschke (Hrsg.)

Byzanz – das Römerreich im Mittelalter

Verlag des Römisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums, Mainz

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