Frédéric Kröger Academic Writing - Summary

Academic Writing – Summary

❖ Introduction
o Quiz p. 34 important points
▪ In-text citation ➔ (Manton, 2008)
▪ Proofreading ➔ Checking for minor errors
▪ Different kind of nouns ➔ countable, uncountable, proper
▪ Suffix
▪ Prefix
▪ Acknowledgements ➔ generally used to thank people who helped
❖ British English vs American English
o VOCABULARY
o Many vocabulary items differ but they are mainly well known and widely understood
o Still 2 main problematic variations
▪ Words which are not commonly understood (E.g. tap (UK) vs faucet (US))
▪ Words with different meanings in each country (E.g. vest)
o SPELLING
o ACADEMIC LANGUAGE
o PUNCTUATION

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Frédéric Kröger Academic Writing - Summary

❖ Writing Process (Part 1)

o BASIC OF WRITING (Unit 1.1)
o AW attempts to be accurate (E.g. very hot vs heated to 65°C)
o Project ➔ Subject chosen by student
o Essay ➔ Title given by teacher (1000 – 1500 Words)
o Format of short and long writing tasks (p. 45)
▪ Abstract ➔ short summary which explains the paper’s purpose and main findings
▪ References ➔ List of all sources the writer has mentioned in the text
▪ Appendix ➔ Section, after the conclusion, where additional information is included
▪ Acknowledgments ➔ Section where those who have helped the writer are thanked
▪ Literature review ➔ Part of main body where views of other writers are discussed
▪ Case study ➔ Section where one particular example is described in detail
▪ Foreword ➔ Preliminary part of a book usually written by someone other than author
o Text components (p. 48)
▪ Citation
▪ Abbreviations
▪ Italics ➔ Show words from other languages or add emphasis
▪ Brackets ➔ Used to give extra information or to clarify a point
o Sentences containing 2 or more clauses uses:
▪ Conjunctions (E.g. but) (Unit 4.5)
▪ Relative pronouns (E.g. which)
▪ Punctuation (E.g. semicolon)
o FINDING SUITABLE SOURCES (Unit 1.2)
o Main features of academic texts
▪ Formal or semi-formal vocabulary
▪ Sources are given
▪ Objectives, impersonal style
o Types of text (p. 484)
o READING (Unit 1.3)
o Reading methods

o Text features worth checking before reading

▪ Author ➔ Well known in his field
▪ Publication date and edition ➔ Do not use a first edition if there is a (revised) second or later
edition available
▪ Abstract
▪ Contents ➔ List of main chapters or sections. Tells you how much space is given to the topic
▪ Introduction or preface ➔ Often where author explains his reasons for writing and describes
how text is organised
▪ References ➔ Shows all sources used by author
▪ Bibliography ➔ Sources author has used but not necessarily specifically cited. Not required for
short writing tasks
▪ Index ➔ Alphabetical list of all topics and names mentioned in a book

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Frédéric Kröger Academic Writing - Summary

o Reading abstracts (Standard structure)

▪ Background position
▪ Aim and thesis of the paper
▪ Method of research
▪ Results of research
o Assessing internet sources critically
▪ Reputable website (.ac. = academic in the URL) ?
▪ Name of author given ?
▪ Language of text in a suitable academic style ?
▪ Any obvious errors in the text (E.g. spelling mistakes, suggesting careless approach) ?
o Critical thinking (p. 80)
o AVOINDING PLAGIARISM (Unit 1.4)
o Acknowledging sources (2 ways to use an idea in your work)
▪ Summary and citation
▪ Quotation and citation
→ In-text citations are linked to a list of references at the end of main text
o Avoiding plagiarism by summarising and paraphrasing
▪ Paraphrasing ➔ Rewriting a text so that the language is significantly different while the
content stays the same
▪ Summarising ➔ Reducing the length of a text but retaining the main points
▪ Citation ➔ Short in-text note giving the author’s name and publication date
▪ Quotation ➔ Using exact words of original text in your work
▪ Reference ➔ Full publication details of a text or other source
o FROM UNDERSTANDING ESSAY TITLES TO PLANNING (Unit 1.5)
o Planning process (3 steps)
▪ Analyse title wording
▪ Decide how much space to give to each part of the answer
▪ Prepare an outline using your favoured method
o Analysing essay titles
▪ Analyse ➔ Break down into the various parts and their relationships
▪ Assess/Evaluate ➔ Decide the value or worth of a subject
▪ Describe ➔ Give a detailed account of something
▪ Discuss ➔ Look at various aspects of a topic, compare benefits and drawbacks
▪ Examine/Explore ➔ Divide into sections and discuss each critically
▪ Illustrate ➔ Give examples
▪ Outline/Trace ➔ Explain a topic briefly and clearly
▪ Suggest/Indicate ➔ Make a proposal and support it
▪ Summarise ➔ Deal with complex subject by reducing it to the main elements
o Essay length
▪ Most of the time, 20% of words is sufficient for introduction and conclusion
o FINDING KEY POINTS AND NOTE-MAKING (Unit 1.6)
o Why make notes
▪ To avoid plagiarism
▪ To keep a record of reading/lectures
▪ To revise for exams
▪ To help remember main points
o Note-making methods
▪ Notes are paraphrased
▪ Source is included
▪ Symbols are used
▪ Abbreviations to save space
▪ Notes are organised in lists

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Frédéric Kröger Academic Writing - Summary

o SUMMARISING AND PARAPHRASING (Unit 1.7)

o Stages of summarising (p. 119)
▪ Read original text carefully and check any new or difficult vocabulary
▪ Mark key points by underlining or highlighting
▪ Make notes of the key points, paraphrasing where possible
▪ Write summary from your notes, reorganising the structure if needed
▪ Check summary to ensure it is accurate and nothing important has been changed or lost
o Techniques for paraphrasing (p. 128)
▪ Changing vocabulary by using synonyms
▪ Changing word class
▪ Changing word order
o REFERENCES AND QUOTATIONS (Unit 1.8)
o Citations and references (p. 139)

o Reference verbs
▪ Summaries and quotations are usually introduced by a reference verb
(E.g. argues, claimed, …)
o Reference systems (p. 141)
▪ Various systems of referencing employed
• Harvard → used in UK for Social Sciences and Business
• MLA → similar to Harvard but more common in US for Arts and Humanities
• APA → widely used in US in Social Sciences
• Vancouver → commonly employed in Medicine and Science
• Footnote/Endnote systems → used in Humanities
o Using quotations (p. 142)
▪ When original words express an idea in a distinctive way
▪ When original is more concise than your summary could be
▪ When original version is well known
o Abbreviations in citations
▪ et al. ➔ Used when 3 or more authors are given (full list of names is in the references)
▪ ibid. ➔ Taken from same source as previous citation
▪ op cite. ➔ Taken from same source as previously, but a different page
o Secondary references (p. 147)

o COMBINING SOURCES (Unit 1.9) (p. 151)

o ORGANISING PARAGRAPHS (Unit 1.10)
o Paragraph structure (p. 165)
▪ Paragraph ➔ Group of sentences which deal with a single topic
▪ Usually first sentence introduces the topic. Other sentences may give definitions, examples,
extra information, reasons, restatements and summaries
o Introducing paragraphs and linking them together (p. 169)
o INTRODUCTIONS AND CONCLUSIONS (Unit 1.11)
o Introduction components (p. 173)
o Introduction structure
▪ Definition of key terms, if needed
▪ Context (Relevant background information)
▪ Review of work by other writers on the topic
▪ Purpose or aim of the paper
▪ Your research methods
▪ Any limitations you imposed
▪ An outline of your paper
o Opening sentences (p. 177)

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Frédéric Kröger Academic Writing - Summary

o Conclusions
▪ Tend to be shorter and more varied in format than introductions
▪ Can include :
• Statement showing how aim has been achieved
• Discussion of implications of your research
• Short review of main points of your study
• Some suggestions for further research
• Limitations of your study
• Comparison with the results of similar studies
o Conclusion structure
▪ Summary of main findings or results
▪ Link back to the original question to show it has been answered
▪ Reference of the limitations of your work (E.g. geographical)
▪ Suggestions for future possible related research
▪ Comments on the implications of your research
o REWRITING AND PROOFREADING (Unit 1.12)
o Rewriting
▪ After completing draft, should leave it for a day and then reread it and answer questions :
• Does this fully answer the question(s) in the title ?
• Do the different sections of the paper have the right weight ?
• Does the argument or discussion develop clearly and logically ?
• Have I forgotten any important points which would support the development ?
• Is the essay the required length, not too short or too long ?
o Proofreading (p. 185)
▪ 10 most common types of error in student writing :
• Factual
• Word ending
• Punctuation
• Tense
• Vocabulary
• Spelling
• Singular/Plural
• Style
• Missing word
• Word order

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Frédéric Kröger Academic Writing - Summary

❖ Elements of Writing (Part 2)

o ARGUMENT AND DISCUSSION (Unit 2.1)
o Discussion vocabulary (p. 195)

o Organisation
▪ Discussion can either be organised
• Vertically ➔ Grouping benefits in one section and the disadvantages in another
→ simpler pattern suitable for short essays
• Horizontally ➔ Examining the subject from different viewpoints
→ allows more complex approach in longer essays
o Language of discussion (p. 199)
▪ Impersonal phrases
• It is generally accepted that
• It is widely agreed that
• Most people
• It is probable that
• The evidence suggests that
▪ Minority viewpoint
• It can be argued
• One view is that
o Counter-arguments
o Providing evidence
o CAUSE AND EFFECT (Unit 2.2)
o Language of cause and effect
▪ Focus on causes
• Verbs (E.g. caused, led to, resulted in, produced, …)
• Conjunctions (E.g. because of, due to, owing to, as a result of, …)
▪ Focus on effects
• Verbs (note use of passive)(E.g. were caused by, were produced by, resulted from)
• Conjunctions (E.g. due to, because of, as a result of, …)
o COMPARISON (Unit 2.3)
o Comparison structure
▪ 2 basic comparative forms are
• -er is added to one-syllable adjectives and two-syllable adjectives ending in -y,
which changes into an ‘i’
• More/less … are used with other adjectives of 2 or more syllables
▪ Can be modified by use of adverbs (E.g. slightly, marginally, considerably, significantly, …)
▪ Similarity or near-similarity can be noted by use of ‘as as’ or the same as
o Forms of comparison (p. 215)
o Using superlatives
▪ When using superlatives, take care to define the group
▪ The most/the least are followed by an adjective
▪ The most/the fewest are used in relation to numbers
o DEFINITIONS (Unit 2.4)
o Simple definitions (p. 223)
▪ Are formed by giving a category and the applications
o Category words (p. 224)

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Frédéric Kröger Academic Writing - Summary

o Complex definitions
▪ Quote a definition from another writer
▪ Give variety of relevant situations
▪ Explain a process
▪ Use category words
o EXAMPLES (Unit 2.5) (p. 228)
o Phrases to introduce examples
▪ For instance, for example, e.g.
▪ Such as
▪ Particularly, especially (to give a focus)
▪ A case in point (for single examples)
o Restatement

o GENERALISATIONS (Unit 2.6)

o Using generalisations
▪ Often used to give a simple introduction to a topic
▪ Avoid using generalisations which cannot be supported by evidence or research or are unclear
o Structure
▪ 2 ways
• Most commonly using the plural (E.g. Computers have transformed the way we live)
• Singular + definite article (more formal) (E.g. The computer has transformed the
way we live)
o Building on generalisations
▪ Can be used in various ways when presenting the results of research or developing a thesis
o PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS (Unit 2.7)
o Paragraph structure
▪ Problem
▪ Solution A
▪ Arguments against solution A
▪ Conclusion in favour of solutions B and C
o Alternative structure
▪ Problem
▪ Solution A
▪ Arguments against solution A
▪ Solutions B and C and arguments against
▪ Conclusion in favour of solution A
o Vocabulary (synonyms for problem and solution) (p. 249)
▪ Problems ➔ Difficulties, challenge, concerns, questions, issues, worry, dilemma
▪ Solutions ➔ Remedy, answers, suggestions, proposals, rectified, solved, avenue
o VISUAL INFORMATION (Unit 2.8)
o Types of visuals (often combined) (Type ➔ Use)
▪ Diagram ➔ Structure (p. 261)
▪ Table ➔ Statistical display (p. 257)
▪ Map ➔ Location (small scale) (p. 623)
▪ Pie chart ➔ Proportion (p. 259)
▪ Flow chart ➔ Sequence of process (p. 260)
▪ Line graph ➔ Changes in time (p. 256)
▪ Bar chart ➔ Comparison (p. 258)
▪ Plan ➔ Location (large scale) (p. 262)
▪ Scatter graph/plot ➔ Relation between two sets of variables (p. 264)
o Language of change

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Frédéric Kröger Academic Writing - Summary

o Describing visuals (p. 266)

o Labelling
▪ Figures and tables should be numbered and given a title. Titles of tables are written above,
while titles of figures are written below the data
▪ As with other data, sources must be given for all visual information
▪ If writing a lengthy work you will need to provide lists of tables and figures, showing numbers,
titles and pages after the contents page

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Frédéric Kröger Academic Writing - Summary

❖ Language Issues (Part 3)

o COHESION (Unit 3.1)
o Reference words (used to avoid repetition)
▪ Pronouns → he/she/it/they
▪ Possessive pronouns → his/her/hers/its/their/theirs
▪ Object pronouns → her/him/them
▪ Demonstrative pronouns → this/that/these/those
▪ Other phrases → the former/the latter/the first/the second/the last
o Preventing confusion
o Implied language (p. 280)
▪ Sometimes words may be omitted for convenience
o DEFINITE ARTICLES (Unit 3.2)
o Use of articles (p. 284)
▪ Unless they are uncountable, all nouns need an article when singular
o Using definite articles
▪ In general, the is used with :
• Superlatives (fastest)
• Time periods (eighteenth century/1990s)
• Unique things (government, world)
• Specified things (French Revolution)
• Regular publications (New Scientist)
• Regions and rivers (southern/River Seine)
• Very well-know people and things (Spanish artist)
• Institutions and bodies (United Nations)
• Positions (middle)
• Currencies (euro)
▪ It is not used with :
• Things in general (E.g. bad harvests)
• Names of countries (E.g. Except for the UK, the US, and a few others)
• Abstract nouns (E.g. poverty, love)
• Companies/things names after people/places (E.g. Sainsbury’s, Heathrow Airport)
o NUMBERS (Unit 3.3)
o Language of numbers
▪ Figures/Numbers ➔ Both used to talk about statistical data (number is used more widely)
▪ Digits ➔ Individual numbers
▪ Fractions
▪ Decimals
▪ No ‘s’ at end of hundred/thousand/million used with whole numbers (E.g. six million people)
▪ Currency ➔ Symbol comes first (E.g. $400 m)
▪ Rates ➔ Expressed as percentage or per thousand
o Percentages (p. 292)
▪ 5-20% ➔ A small minority
▪ 21-39% ➔ A minority
▪ 40-49% ➔ A substantial/significant minority
▪ 51-55% ➔ A small majority
▪ 56-79% ➔ A majority
▪ 80% + ➔ A large majority
o Simplification
▪ A couple ➔ 2
▪ Few ➔ Small number, less than expected
▪ A few ➔ Approximately 3-6 depending on context
▪ Several ➔ Approximately 3-4
▪ Various ➔ Approximately 4-6
▪ Dozens of ➔ Approximately 30-60
▪ Scores of ➔ Approximately 60-100

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Frédéric Kröger Academic Writing - Summary

o Further numerical phrases

▪ Expressions :
• One in three
• Twice/three times as many
• A five/tenfold increase
• To double/halve
• The highest/lowest
• A quarter/fifth
• The majority/minority
• On average, the average
• A small/large proportion
o PASSIVE AND ACTIVE (Unit 3.4)
o Active and passive
▪ The passive is used when the writer wants to focus on the result, not on the cause or agent
Jupiter’s moons were discovered in 1610. (passive)
Galileo discovered Jupiter’s moons in 1610. (active)
▪ The passive can also be used in written work to provide a more impersonal style
o Structure (p. 299)
o Use of the passive (tends to be commonly employed in certain situations) :
▪ Describing process
▪ Describing a piece of research
o Adverbs with passives
o PUNCTUATION (Unit 3.5)
o Capital letters (used when) :
▪ First word in a sentence
▪ Days and months
▪ Nationality words
▪ Languages
▪ Names of people/places
▪ Book titles (main words only)
▪ Historical periods
▪ Name of organisations
▪ The first-person pronoun
o Full stop (.) (used when) :
▪ End of sentence
▪ Certain abbreviations formed from first part of word (/!\ not with acronyms (E.g. UN/BBC/VIP))
o Commas (,) (p. 308) (used when) :
▪ After introductory words or phrases
▪ Around examples or comments
▪ Before some conjunctions
▪ In lists of 3 or more items
▪ Finishing direct speech
▪ To show contrasting elements
▪ With a group of adjectives
o Apostrophes (used when) :
▪ To show contractions
▪ With possessives
o Semicolons (;) (used when) :
▪ To show the link between two connected clauses, when a comma would be too weak and a full
stop too strong
▪ Also used to divide up items in a list when they have complex structure
o Colons (:) (used when) :
▪ To introduce explanations
▪ To start a list
▪ To introduce a quotation

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Frédéric Kröger Academic Writing - Summary

o Quotations marks/inverted commas (“ ”/‘ ’)

• Single quotation marks
▪ Show quotations from other writers
▪ To emphasise a word or phrase
▪ To show direct speech
• Double quotation marks are used to show quotations inside quotations (nested
quotations)
• Longer quotations are usually indented (have a wider margin) and/or set-in smaller
type
• In references, quotation marks are used for names of articles and chapters, but
book or journal titles normally use italics
o Others (p. 313)
▪ Hyphens (-)
• Used with certain words, such as compound nouns, and in some structures
• But use of hyphens generally declining
▪ Exclamation marks (!) and question marks (?)
▪ Brackets or parentheses () (used when) :
• To give additional detail without interfering with the flow of the main idea
o SINGULAR OR PLURAL (Unit 3.6)
o 5 Difficult areas
▪ Nouns should agree with verbs, and pronouns with nouns
There are many arguments in favour.
Those problems are unique.
▪ Uncountable nouns and irregular plurals usually have no final ‘s’
Most students receive free tuition.
The main export is tropical fruit.
▪ General statements normally use the plural
State universities have lower fees.
▪ ‘Each/every’ are followed by singular noun and verb forms
Every student gets financial support.
▪ Two linked nouns should agree
Both similarities and differences are important.
o Group phrases (p. 318)
▪ If verb has more than 1 subject it must be plural
▪ Certain ‘group’ nouns (E.g. team/army/government) can be followed by either singular or
plural verb
▪ Not always clear, in sentences with 2 nouns, which one the verb agrees with
The quality of candidates was improving.
The majority of candidates were French.
o Uncountable nouns (p. 319)
▪ Most nouns are countable, but following are generally uncountable
→ Not usually used with numbers or the plural ‘s’

▪ Many of these can be ‘counted’ by using an extra noun

• A piece of advice
• Three patterns of behaviour
• An item of equipment
• Six members of staff
▪ Another group of uncountable nouns consists of materials (E.g. wood/rubber/iron)
▪ Most difficult group can be used either as countable or uncountable nouns, often ≠ meanings
She developed an interest in genetics. (countable)
The bank is paying 4% interest. (uncountable)
▪ Other nouns with similar pattern are used for general concepts (E.g. love/fear/hope)

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Frédéric Kröger Academic Writing - Summary

o STYLE (Unit 3.7)

o Developing an academic style (p. 325)
▪ Problems with poor style :

o Guidelines (that should help develop a style of your own) :

▪ Do not use idiomatic or colloquial vocabulary, use standard English
Kids → Children
Boss → Manager
▪ Use vocabulary accurately
Weather vs Climate
▪ Be as precise as possible when dealing with facts or figures
▪ Conclusions should use tentative language, use cautious phrases, avoid absolute statements
▪ Avoid adverbs that show your personal attitude (E.g. luckily, remarkably, surprisingly)
▪ Do not contract auxiliary verb forms
Don’t → Do not
▪ Avoid complicated expressions of gender
His or her presentation → Their presentations
▪ Avoid the following :
• Like (use such as/for instance)
• Thing/nothing/something (use factor/issue/topic)
• Lots of (use significant/considerable number)
• Little/big (use small/large)
• Get better/worse (use improve/deteriorate)
• Good/bad (use positive/negative)
▪ Do not use rhetorical question forms
▪ Avoid numbering sections of your text, except in reports and long essays
→ Conjunctions and signposting expressions to introduce new sections
▪ When writing lists, avoid using etc./and so on
▪ Avoid using two-word verbs
go on/bring up → continue/raise
o Avoiding repetition and redundancy (p. 330)
o Varying sentence length (p. 332)
▪ Effective writing uses mixture of long and short sentences, often using short sentence to
introduce topic
o The use of caution (areas where caution is particularly important include) :
▪ Outlining a hypothesis which needs to be tested (E.g. in an introduction)
▪ Discussing the results of a study, which may not be conclusive
▪ Commenting on the work of other writers
▪ Making predictions (normally with may or might)
o Using modifiers
▪ Another way to use caution is to use quite, rather or fairly before an adjective

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Frédéric Kröger Academic Writing - Summary

o TIME MARKERS (Unit 3.8)

o How time makers are used

o Tenses

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Frédéric Kröger Academic Writing - Summary

❖ Vocabulary for Writing (Part 4)

o APPROACHES TO VOCABULARY (Unit 4.1)
o Vocabulary issues (p. 347)
o Dealing with new vocabulary

o Language features
▪ Ambiguity ➔ Where more than one interpretation is possible; lack of clarity
▪ Anecdote ➔ A story told to illustrate a situation or idea
▪ Cliché ➔ An overused idea or phrase; lacking in freshness
▪ Euphemism ➔ A word or phrase used to avoid naming something unpleasant directly
▪ Idiom ➔ A phrase used in colloquial speech, the meaning of which is not obvious
▪ Metaphor ➔ A word used to refer to something but that literally means something else
▪ Paradox ➔ An idea that seems wrong but yet may be true
▪ Proverb ➔ A traditional statement or rhyme containing advice or a moral
▪ Saying ➔ An often-repeated comment that seems to contain some truth
▪ Simile ➔ A comparison of two things, using ‘like’ or ‘as’
▪ Slogan ➔ A frequently repeated phrase used in advertising or politics
▪ Statement ➔ A rather formal comment on a situation
▪ Synopsis ➔ A summary of something
o Confusing pairs (p. 352)
o Words and phrases from other languages
▪ Latin
• Ad hoc ➔ Unplanned
• De facto ➔ As it really is
• De jure ➔ According to law
• Inter alia ➔ Among others
• In vitro ➔ Studies conducted on isolated organs (in Biology)
• Pro rate ➔ Proportional
▪ French
• À propos de ➔ On the subject of
• Ancien régime ➔ Old ruling system
• Coup d’état ➔ Military takeover
• Déjà vu ➔ Sensation of having seen something before
• Fait accompli ➔ Accomplished fact
• Raison d’être ➔ Reason for living
▪ German
• Bildungsroman ➔ A story of growing-up
• Mitteleuropa ➔ Central Europe
• Realpolitik ➔ Political reality
• Schadenfreude ➔ Pleasure from another’s misfortune
• Zeitgeist ➔ Spirit of the times
o ABBREVIATIONS (Unit 4.2)
o Types of abbreviation
▪ Shortened words (E.g. lab, memo, vet)
▪ Acronyms (E.g. AIDS = Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome)
▪ Other abbreviations (E.g. DNA, DVD, US)
o Common abbreviations (p. 357)
o Abbreviations in writing (p. 361)

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Frédéric Kröger Academic Writing - Summary

o NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES (Unit 4.3)

o Nouns (p. 366)*
o Related adjectives to nouns (p. 368)
o Confusing nouns and adjectives

o Academic adjectives (p. 372)*

o VERBS AND ADVERBS (Unit 4.4)
o Understand main verbs (p. 376)*
o Using verbs of reference
▪ Referring verbs are used to summarise another writer’s ideas
• Mean the writer is presenting a case :
Argue, claim, consider, hypothesise, suggest, believe, think, state
• Describe a reaction to a previously stated position :
Accept, admit, agree with, deny, doubt
• Others include :
Assume, conclude, discover, explain, imply, maintain, presume, reveal, show
o Further verbs of reference
▪ Small group of verbs is followed by pattern (somebody/thing + for + noun/gerund)
Blame, censure, commend, condemn, criticise
Lee (1998) blamed the media for creating uncertainty
▪ Another group is followed by (somebody/thing + as + noun/gerund)
Assess, characterise, classify, define, describe, evaluate, identify, interpret, portray, present
Terry interprets rising oil prices as a result of the Asian recovery
o Using adverbs (p. 382)
▪ Most important use of adverbs :
• To provide more detail, with verbs and adjectives
• Individually, often at the beginning of sentences, to introduce new points or link
sentences together
▪ Adverbs linked to verbs and adjectives usually fall into 3 groups :
• Time (when?)
• Degree (how much?)
• Manner (in what way?)

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Frédéric Kröger Academic Writing - Summary

o CONJUNCTIONS (Unit 4.5)

o 6 types of conjunctions
▪ Addition → Furthermore, plus, moreover, as well as, and, also, in addition
▪ Result → Thus, therefore, consequently, so, that is why
▪ Reason → Since, because, owing to, as a result of, as, due to
▪ Opposition → However, but, yet, while, nevertheless, whereas, albeit, although, despite
▪ Example → For instance, such as, e.g. in particular
▪ Time → Then, after, while, next, subsequently
o PREFICES AND SUFFIXES (Unit 4.6)
o How prefixes and suffixes work
▪ Prefixes ➔ Change or give the meaning
▪ Suffixes ➔ Show the meaning or the word class
o Prefixes (p. 399)*
o Suffixes (p. 402)*
o PREPOSITIONS (Unit 4.7)
o Using prepositions (main ways) :
▪ Noun + preposition → Purpose of, development of, relationship between, decline in, supply of
▪ Verb + preposition → Contributed to
▪ Adjective + preposition → Valuable for
▪ Preposition of place → In Catalonia, in the factory context
▪ Preposition of time → In the period
▪ Phrase → In conclusion
o Prepositions and nouns (p. 411)
o Prepositions of place and time (p 413)
o Verbs and prepositions (following verbs generally used with these prepositions) :

o SYNONYMS (Unit 4.8)

o How synonyms work
▪ Not always exactly the same in meaning, so have to be cautious
▪ Many common words have no effective synonyms

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