Assignment 2

Question 1

Biological Monitoring involves the use of biomarkers (biological molecule) to determine

exposure. It involves examining a sample of an organism’s blood, tissue, excretions and/or
expired air to identify and assess any chemical or biological agents that the organism may have
been exposed to. (Holstege and Hardison 2014).
The Advantages of this type of monitoring is that assessments can be done for an extended
period on various routes of exposures that is through inhalation, ingestion, and dermal exposures.
Monitoring can be done from more than one pollution source, and it allows for assessment of the
amount of substance absorbed which is dependent on the organism’s traits and degree of
exposure. However, it provides an assessment for small amounts of substances that can be
metabolized rapidly, and the results may not always be accurate due to inferences or external
factors influencing the samples.

Chemical specific monitoring involves the examination of chemical pollutants in the

environment to determine the concentration, its source and to ensure that the chemical stays
within permissible levels. The advantage is that that a wide range of chemicals can be analyzed
and measured from different pollution sources. However, it does not provide a direct indicator to
health risks as it only measures the concentration in the environment.

Question 2

The water quality index is a value used to indicate the overall health of a water body at a certain
time. It is based on different water quality parameters and their concentrations such as dissolved
oxygen, percentage hydrogen, dissolved solids, and biological and chemical oxygen demand. It
simplifies large amounts of water quality data into a simpler form that can be understood by
anyone. (Abbasi and Abbasi 2012). It is calculated using the formula below:
Where Qi is the sub index for the ith water quality parameter, Wi is the mass associated with the ith
water quality parameter and n is the number of parameters.

This value can tell us how polluted a water source is based on a criterion. A water quality index
between 0-20 indicates that the water status is excellent (no pollution) while an index of 21-40
gives a good water quality with little pollution. An index between 41-60 has moderate quality
where 61-80 is low quality. This means that there is a great deal of pollution occurring in the
water source. A WQI between 81 to 100 tells us that the water source is heavily polluted, and the
quality is bad. (Wu et al 2017).

The diversity indices are a quantitative measure that tells us about the properties of an ecological
systems and its composition of plant and animal life. That is the abundance of species in a
community (richness) and how they are distributed (evenness). Diversity indices are important in
pollution assessment as they give an indication of changes in species number and distribution
due to the present of one or more pollutant in the environment. (Morries et al 2014).

There are several diversity indices used:

-Shannon wiener index – this tell us how diverse a species is in an ecological system by
accounting for species richness and evenness. This can be determined using the formula:

Where H’ is the diversity index, s is the species number, pi is the proportion of individuals in one
species of the entire population. (Nolan and Callahan 2006)

This index is used in pollution assessment to determine the health of an environmental system.
For example, in a river system the index can be used to determine if the water source is
contaminated or healthy by comparing it to the criteria values. An index value of more than three
indicates that the water system is clean while a value of less than one tells us that the water
system is heavily polluted and species richness and evenness is low. A value between one and
three indicates moderate contamination. (Jhingran et al 1989).
-Simpson’s diversity index – this is the possibility that if two organisms are randomly sampled
from the same system will represent two different species and considers both species richness
and evenness. This can be determined using the formula:
D = Σn (n-1) / N(N-1)

Were n being the number of individuals in one species and N is the number of all the species
combined. This diversity value usually ranges between zero and one and indicates how diverse
the species are in a system. Low diversity will have a value close to zero while high diversity
will be closer to the 1. (Pappas 2020)

-Hilsenhoff index – this is a measure of how tolerant a species will be to a high degree of
pollution. It is used in pollution assessment to determine which species in a community is
sensitive to contaminants and those that are tolerant. Values of the Hilsenhoff index ranges
between zero and ten where values close to zero would tell us that there is little to no pollution
containing sensitive species and a value of 10 would indicate that the system is heavily
contaminated containing tolerant species. (McGauley et al 2018). This can be calculated using
the formula:

HBI = Σ (ni x ai) / N

Where ni is the number of species in a particular group, ai is the tolerance of that group and N is
the number of organisms from all species being sampled.

-Jaccard’s similarity index – this is used to identify the number of shared to distinct species in
two communities, in which values can range from zero to one. The closer to one the value is the
more species is shared. It can be calculated using the formula:

Jaccard Index = (number of species in both communities / number of species in one community)
Question 3

Integrated monitoring is a systematic process that analyzes complexed health issues in an

environment by determining its state and potential factors that may cause stress. It also involves
an evaluation of the impacts on health when sudden changes in the environment occurs. It
simultaneously measures and provides accurate data of the physical, chemical, and biological
aspects overtime. (Lui et al 2012). For example, studies of the physical environment (plant and
bird communities) in the Tokalt Basin, Denali Mountain Alaska was done using integrated
monitoring. This involved the development of a sampling plan in which data of permafrost, plant
cover, and songbirds were oberved and recorded on two hundred plots of land within a period of
two years. (Roland and McIntyre 2015).

Question 4

Environmental standards are limits placed on certain environmental conditions and pollutants
that can cause harm to the environmental health while environmental objectives are set of plans
that aims to achieve and improved state of the environment and reduce pollution. Environmental
indicators are quantitative measurements of parameters to determine the state of the
environment. These conditions include the physical, chemical, and biological aspects of the
environment.

The role of objectives in environmental monitoring allows to identify the physical, chemical, and
biological factors and provides a quantitative measure. Monitoring ensures that these objectives
are accomplished. Environmental standards are set in monitoring to comply with laws and
regulations and reduces the risk to impacts on environmental health. Monitoring provides
information that determines whether the standards are being complied to, for example
monitoring the effluent release in a water body from an industrial plant. (Beijen 2009).
Environmental indicators are used in monitoring by providing statistics and measurements that
can be compared with the standards to provide information about the state of an area of interest.
Question 5

a. Mercury has many uses: for medicine by making thermometers and dental fillings, gold
extraction through mining and is also used in industries for making paints and batteries. It
also dates to the 16th century when mercury was used for cosmetics. However, this metal
has brought severe health effects to humans when exposed overtime There were many
instances where mercury affected the health of humans, such as mining for gold, where
the miners were exposed to lethal concentrations of mercury vapor caused neurotoxicity
which affects the brain and nervous system. This can cause psychological problems and
decreased coordination as well as kidney damage in which it tends to accumulate. (Park
and Zheng 2012). The release of mercury from industrial activities into water ways is
also harmful to the environment as mercury can be converted into methylmercury which
is the deadliest form as it can persist for longer in the environment and accumulate in fish
tissues which can be passed from one organism to another in the food chain
(biomagnification). (Parsons and Percival 2005). The effects of this were evident from
the Minamata incident that occurred in Japan where methylmercury contamination in the
Bay led to nearby residents suffering from severe neurological problems, where effects
were more severe in children. (Eto 2002). As result of these health effects led to mercury
being considered a pollutant.
b. There are characteristics of mercury that does/does not allow it to enter the body by the
following routes of exposure:
 -Inhalation – for absorption of mercury by inhalation, mercury must exist in its elemental
form which is a liquid at room temperature. However due to the high vaporing pressure,
it is easily vaporized which makes it easy to be inhaled. (Park and Zheng 2012).

- Ingestion – for mercury to enter the body via ingestion, it must exist in its organic form.
Mercury is released in the inorganic state to the environment which can react with salts
and carbon by the action of bacteria in soil and water to form methylmercury. This
organic form of mercury easily accumulates in plants which is passed on to fish when
they consume those plants resulting in bioaccumulation and biomagnification through
food chains. Ingestion of contaminated fish will introduce methylmercury into the human
body, which is easily absorbed and lipid soluble, meaning that it can easily be stored in
tissues. Mercury in its elemental liquid state and inorganic state cannot be absorbed by
the body when ingested. (Hong et al 2012).

-Dermal – Mercury can be absorbed by the skin in its organic methylmercury form and
inorganic form of mercury salts of chlorides and oxides. These are highly toxic and can
be absorbed by the skin due to the enhancement of liquid solubility with other chemicals.
(Chan 2011).

c. To determine mercury content in air, water, and sediment sources, it involves a process of
distillation where components are separated from a liquid by boiling, acidified, and then
ethylated to separate the mercury which is then subjected to detection by Cold Vapor
Atomic Fluorescence Spectroscopy. (EPA 1998). Gas chromatography can be used to
analyze mercury in tissues and in air. The sample is separated after inserting it into the
chromatogram in the mobile phase. It then passes through a column which the mercury
will then be detected.

Question 6

Two methods that are used to measure and analyze mercury levels include:
-Atomic Fluorescence Spectrometry: this involves the absorption of wavelengths of mercury
vapor. A sample is collected containing mercury vapor is inserted into the spectrometer where
the contents are moved from the reaction vessel to the optical beam using argon gas. At this stage
the mercury atoms present are excited using a mercury discharge lamp and is then deactivated
which releases a photon of light. Mercury absorbs light at 254nm and emits light at the same
wavelength. The detector then measures this emission process to produce an output which can be
used to determine the concentration of mercury present using a calibration curve. (Rodas et al
2010).

Another method that can be used to measure atmospheric mercury is the use of a portable
mercury vapor device that is based on cold vapor atomic absorption spectrometry (CVAAS).
This method involves extracting mercury vapor from the sample using a gas such as nitrogen or
argon. After the sample has passed through the gas/liquid separator it is brought to the optical
path of the spectrometer. In this path, a light source of wavelength of 254nm is passed through
the air sample and excites the mercury electrons. The detector then measures the energy this
electron emits to determine the mercury content. (Kopysc et al 2000)

Question 7

Mercury is introduced into the atmosphere due to two factors:

-Naturally - elemental mercury is released from volcanic activities, soil degassing and
weathering of the earth's crust.
-Anthropogenic activities from fossil fuel combustion, waste incineration, mercury mining and
production of cement and iron releases high concentrations of elemental mercury in its metallic
and oxidative state (Hg2+).
Elemental mercury can persist for a longer time in the atmosphere (between six months and two
years) than its oxidative state (a few days) as it is inert and has a very low solubility. This allows
it to mix vertically in the troposphere when emitted from its source and is cycled globally by
long range transport. This is dependent on how high the emission source releases it into the
atmosphere which will allow for short range transport or long-range transport, globally. (Siddiqi
2018).
Question 8

Inorganic mercury present in the environment is easily deposited into air soil, and water and
easily combines with carbon present in soil and water to form organic mercury by the action of
specific microorganisms and photolysis reactions. This form of mercury is known to be very
toxic to aquatic life as it easily accumulates in the tissues of fish by intake of mercury from water
through their gills and biomagnifies (accumulates in higher concentrations as fish size increases)
in food chains. Due to these factors, it is important to monitor the concentrations of mercury in
these organisms as it is neurotoxic to aquatic life and humans who consume fish by ensuring that
levels do not exceed the standards. (Kim and Zoh 2012).
To assess mercury levels in fish tissue, a sampling plan must be developed. A description of the
target location must be determined, together with what species of fish are to be sampled, how
many sampling sites will be selected and how often sampling will be done. Sampling is based on
factors such as the season and reproductive period of each fish species. During dry seasons
mercury concentrations are usually higher than the wet seasons.

Sample collection -This should be done by trained personnel. The site selected should be an area
where fishing regularly occurs during low tides and the fish that is subjected to analysis must be
one that is regularly consumed. General characteristics of the fish must be collected such as the
species, general length, and weight. When collecting, more than one sample from each species
must be collected to allow for representativeness and accuracy.

Sample preservation - fishes to be sampled must be secured in bags and should always be kept in
ice so that the integrity of the sample does not diminish. This must be maintained during
transportation back to the laboratory and should be done in less than a day.

Laboratory analysis - the biological total mercury in fish tissues can be analyzed by using the
appropriate methods which is usually by atomic absorption spectroscopy or thermal
decomposition. Samples are thawed and weighed to suitable mass before analysis. These
methods should be followed according to the standards and should be done by certified chemists.
Equipment used must be properly maintained and calibrated as well as detection limits and
sample blanks must also be included. (Herger 2016)
The sampling and analysis should include measures of quality control and assurance. That is
taking into consideration the sampling areas, the equipment used, and the techniques used in
sampling. Analysis of these samples must include steps to ensure that data is not biased and is
representative. This involves the use of statistics such as calculating the mean and then
comparing it with the standard criteria for mercury levels in each species to determine if the data
exceeded the criteria. (Mebane 2016)

Question 9

Two methods can be used to assess mercury levels in humans:

1. Gas chromatography - this is used to detect methylmercury mostly in blood samples.

Samples are prepared by adding HCl to the blood followed by a buffer to balance the pH.
The HCl allows the mercury to be extracted into toluene. A Grignard reagent is then
added that allows the mercury to form butyl derivatives. (Bulska 1992). It is then
subjected to gas chromatography analysis where the sample is injected into the inlet
where the sample will be vaporized and is moved to the analytical column using a carrier
gas such as helium. The sample is then separated into its components where the detector
in this case a microwave induced plasma emission detector is used to identify the
mercury analyte that produces a signal on a chromatogram. This can be used to determine
the mercury concentration. (Chemistry LibreTexts 2020).
2. Atomic Fluorescence Spectroscopy - This can be used to analyze mercury levels in urine.
The sample is prepared by adding hydrochloric acid followed by a bromide solution and
the sample was allowed to equilibrate. Bromide is then removed by adding acid to allow
for decomposition. The sample is then injected into the spectrometer where it is carried to
the gas/liquid separator using a carrier gas. Nitrogen or argon gas extracts the mercury
 vapor and goes to the optical path that passes a light source through the sample and
excites the mercury electrons. The detector measures this energy to produce an output
that will allow mercury concentration to be determined. (Corns et al 1994).

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