Unit 4 Surveying

Subject:- Surveying
Topic:-Tacheometric Surveying
Contents
Topics Slides
1. Tacheometric survey(intro)……….....05
2.Fixed hair method…………………..…06 3.
Stadia constant…………………....……30
4. Movable hair method…………….........34
5.Tangential method……………………..39 6.
Anallatic lens……………………….…...50 7.
Subtense bar…………………………....53
8. Field work in tacheometric survey…57
Tacheometric survey
 Tachometry is a method of measuring both
horizontal distance and vertical elevation of
a point in the distance, without the use of
sophisticated technology, such as electronic
distance measurement (EDM) or satellite
transmissions.
Fixed hair method
Fixed hair method
•This is a method of finding the
distance and elevation of staff from the
theodolite (Tachometer).
•Differentformulas are used in finding

distance for different cases.
•Some cases are discussed as follows:-

Case 1 : When line of sight is
horizontal and staff is held
vertically.
Where,
A,B =Point on staff cut but upper and lower hair
a,b=upper and lower cross hair
ab=i=Stadia interval
AB=S= staff intercept
D=distance from axis of tachometer to staff
D=distance between optical center and axis of tachometer.
Proof:
 From Similar triangle ABf and a’b’f
we get,
( f0=f ; AB=S;
a’b’=i)
Now total distance(D)=fC+f+d
+f+d
 Now as i ,f and d are constants we
can write that the total horizontal
distance
i.e. D= K.S + C
where ,
K= =Multiplying
constant
C=f+d= Additive
constant
Here, vertical distance is zero.
Case 2: When line of sight is
inclined but staff is held
vertically.
(a) Angle of elevation {+}
A` A
B S
C h
C`
α V
α P
O’ Ө Line of axis
P’
O
D
Formula for horizontal
distance
Horizontal distance (D)= L.cos 
D  (K.s cos   C) cos 
D  K.s cos2   C cos
Formula for vertical distance
Vertical distance (V)=L.sin
V  ( K . s cos   C ) s i n 
S i n 2
V  K.s  C sin
2
Formula for elevation of staff
station
Reduced level of Q = Reduced level of
H.I. + V -h
(b) Angle of Depression {-}
O’ D P’
θ Line of
Axis V
A
O B
h
C’
C P
distance
Horizontal distance (D)= L .
D  ( KS cos  C ) cos
D  K S c os 2   C c o s 
Vertical distance (V)= L .
V  K. S s i n  c o s   C s i n 
Sin 2 
V  K. S  C sin 
2
station
Reduced level of P = Reduced level of
H.I. -V -h
Case 3: When line of sight is
inclined but staff is held normal
to the line of sight.
(a) Angle of elevation {+}
A` A
S
B
h cos θ
C h
C`
α V
α P
O’ Ө Line of axis
P’
h sin θ
L cos θ
O
D
distance
Horizontal distance (D) L.cos  hsin
 (K.s  C) cos  hsin
 K.s cos  C cos  hsin

Vertical distance (V)Lsin
 (K.s  C) sin
 K.ssin  C sin
station
H.I.+ V -hcos
(b) Angle of Depression {-}

L
O’
θ Line of
Axis V
A
O B
C h cosθ
D P P1
L cos θ
h
sinθ
distance
Horizontal distance (D) L.cos hsin
 (K.s  C) cos  hsin
 K.s cos  C cos  hsin
Vertical distance (V)Lsin
 (K.s  C) sin
 K.ssin  C sin
station
H.I.- V- hcosθ
STADIA CONSTANTS
STADIA CONSTANTS
 Stadia or tacheometric constants are:-
1. Multiplying constant
f
A where,
i
f =focal length of the
lens
i =stadia intercept
The value of multiplying constant is
generally 100.
2. Additive constant
B=(f+d)
where,
f=focal length of the
lens
d= horizontal distance
between instrument axis to optical
centre of a lens
The value of additive constant. varies
from 0.15 m to 0.60 m.
 In tachometric surveying, instrument used is
known as a tachometer.
 With the help of a tachometer observations

(stadia readings and vertical angles) are taken
and horizontal and vertical distances are
determined by using formulae.
 Before doing calculations we should known

the values of two constants for a tachometer
to be used for survey work.
 Generally their values are mentioned in the

catalogue supplied by the manufacturer.
 Also the constants may be determined by:

1. Laboratory measurement
2. Field measurement
MOVABLE HAIR
METHOD
MOVABLE HAIR METHOD
 In this method the staff intercept is kept
constant, but the distance between the stadia
hairs is variable.
 This of theodolite is known type as substense
theodolite.
 The diaphragm consists of a central wire
fixed with the axis of the telescope.
 The upper and lower stadia wires can be
moved by micrometer screws in a vertical
plane.
 The distance by which the stadia wires are
moved is measured according to the number
of turns of the micrometer screws.
Fig. A special type diaphragm of
a moving hair theodolite
 The full turns are read on the graduated scale
seen in the filed of view and the fractional part of
a turn is of the read on the graduated drum
micrometer screw placed one above and one
below the eye piece.
 The total distance through which stadia is the

sum wires move, equal to of the micrometer
readings.
 If the distance between the instrument station

and staff position is within 200 m, an ordinary
leveling staff may be used and a full meter
reading used for the purpose of observing a
constant intercept.
 In such cases two vanes or targets fixed at a
known distance apart on a staff, are observed.
 A third target is fixed at the mid-point of the

two targets.
 For taking the observation, the middle target is

first bisected by the central wire.
 Then the micrometer screws are

simultaneously turned to move the stadia
wires until the upper and lower targets are
bisected.
 The readings are then noted.

Tangential Method
Tangential Method
 No stadia hairs
 Levelling staff with vanes or targets
at known distance
 Horizontal and vertical distances are
measured by measuring the angles of
elevation or depression.
 Some cases are discussed as
follows:-
Case 1 : Both Angles of target are
Angles of elevation.
A
B
S
h
C1
V
O’ θ1 θ2
C2
O D
O’ -Instrument axis
O – Instrument station
C1 – Staff station
V – vertical distance between lower vane and axis of instrument
S – distance between the targets
θ1 - vertical angle by upper targets
θ2 - vertical angle lower targets
h – height of lower vane above the staff station
Formula
From figure we can say that,
V  S  D tan1
V  D tan2
S  D(tan1  tan2 )
S
D 
tan1  tan2
S tan2
V 
tan1  tan2
RL of station C1 = RL of instrument axis + V - h
Case 2 : Both angles of target are
Angles of Depression
O’ C2
θ1 θ2
V
A
O S
B
h
C1
D
Formula
V  D tan2
V  S  D tan1
S  D(tan2  tan1 )
S
D 
tan2  tan1
S tan2
V 
tan2  tan1
RL of station A = RL of instrument axis - V - h

Case 3 : One angle is angle of
elevation and the other is angle of
depression.
O’ θ1 C2
θ2 S
V
h
O
C1
D
Formula
V  D tan2
S  V  D tan1
S
D 
tan1  tan2
S tan2
V 
tan1  tan2
RL of station A = RL of instrument axis - V - h
FIELD WORK IN
TACHEOMETRY
1. Suitability:- A tacheometric survey is
conducted mainly for preparing a contour
map of a reservoir site, alignment of
highways or railways, canals etc. It is also
suitable for carrying out traverses and
filling in detail in rough and rugged terrain
where direct chaining is very difficult. By
means of a tacheometer the relative
distances and RLs of different points can
be computed from the instrument station
by taking observations (vertical angles and
staff readings).
2. Reconnaissance:- Before starting the
survey work the area to be surveyed is
thoroughly inspected examined) and
the instrument stations are selected
according to the nature of the area. If
the survey is conducted along a
narrow belt. the stations are selected
along the centre line of the belt fie.
alignments of highways,railways,
canals, etc)
Procedure:-
 The tacheometric survey should be
conducted in the following steps:-
1. The tacheometer is set at station. It is
centred up the starting and levelled with
respect to the plat bubble and altitude
bubble.The height of the instrument (HI)
is measured by leveling staff or stadia
rod or tape. (i.e. height from ground to
centre of the trunnion axis).
2. Set-up horizontal and vertical vernier to
zero. Sight the staff held on the nearby
bench mark and observe the vertical angle
(for inclined sight, and the readings of the
three hairs on staff held vertically bench
mark. If there is no bench mark nearby, fly
levelling may be done from any nearby
BM. To establish another one near the site
area to know the RL of the starting station.
3. The instrument is oriented with reference
to any pre-determined station by taking its
magnetic bearing and consider it as first
ray at 0.
4. To cover the area (details) from the station, rays at 15 or
30 intervals are extended from the station The overlap
of the rays from nearby stations should be 10 to
15.Also the extension of rays depends on the
topography of the area of the station. Staff positions on
these rays depend on the slope of the ground. Sight all
the representive points from the starting station and
first must be extended up to the whole length of the ray
traverse leg (1e, A to E) to know the length of the line.
Observe the vertical angle and the staff readings at the
three hairs at each staff position. This way take
observations all rays and complete the station. Take
fare sight the traverse a station and observe the
vertical angle and the staff readings the three wires.
Also measure the horizontal angle between the two
traverse legs . Close the work the BM. before shining
the instrument on second station get the check.
5.Shifting the instrument and set up at the second station.
it is centered and leveled. Measure the height of
instrument. Take the first reading from the BM and then
orient the telescope the first ray.First ray must be extended
to its fun length from B to A Sight all the representative
points on the rays observe vertical angles and staff
readings, and complete the station. Take a for sight on the
third station and observe vertical angle and staff readings.
Also measure horizontal angle between the two traverse
legs. Same way close the the work on the BM. to get the
check. All readings are recorded in the tachometric book.
6.Proceed similarly at each of the successive stations and

all the traverse stations are connected and the necessary
observations for all the points are taken from each station
and recorded clearly in the book.
7. From the metric book, the distances of the points from
the instrument stations and their respective RLs are
calculated by using tachometric table.
8. Since each station is sighted twice, the two values for

the length and elevation are obtained. If they are within
the limits of accuracy, the average of the two values
may be taken and if not work should be repeated.
9. The traverse is plotted to any suitable scale. Rays are

drawn from each station. The points are marked on
these rays considering their horizontal distances from
the station and RLs of the respective written. Then lines
may points are the contour be drawn by the method of
interpolation or by approximate method. North-line is
plotted considering the magnetic bearing of the first
traverse line. This way field work is carried out and
contour map is prepared.
CURVES
AN EDUSAT LECTURE ON
56
CURVES
Curves are regular bends provided in the lines
of communication like roads, railways and
canals etc. to bring about gradual change of
direction.
57
CURVES B
They enable the

vehicle to pass from
T2
one path on to another T1
when the two paths A C

meet at an angle. They
are also used in the
vertical plane at all
changes of grade to O
Fig 1. A CURVE
avoid the abrupt
change of grade at the
apex.
58
HORIZONTAL CURVES
Curves provided in the horizontal plane to have
the gradual change in direction are known as
horizontal curves.
VERTICAL CURVES
Curves provided in the vertical plane to obtain
the gradual change in grade are called as
vertical curves.
59
60
61
NEED OF PROVIDING CURVES
Curves are needed on Highways, railways
and canals for bringing about gradual change
of direction of motion. They are provided for
following reasons:-
i) To bring about gradual change in
direction of motion.
ii) To bring about gradual change in grade
and for good visibility.
62
NEED OF PROVIDING CURVES
iii) To alert the driver so that he may not fall
asleep.
iv) To layout Canal alignment.
v)To control erosion of canal banks by the

thrust of flowing water in a canal.
63
CLASSIFICATION OF CIRCULAR CURVES
Circular curves are classified as :
(i) Simple Curves.
(ii) Compound Curves.
(iii) Reverse Curves.
64
i) Simple Curve:
T2
A simple curve
Consists of a
single arc of R R
circle connecting
two straights. It
has radius of the
same magnitude Fig. 2. A SIMPLE CURVE
throughout.
65
ii) COMPOUND CURVE
M P N
T1
R1
O1
R2
Fig.3 Compound Curve
A
C
O2
A compound Curve consists of two or

more simple curves having different radii
bending in the same direction and lying on
the same side of the common tangent. Their
centres lie on the same side of the curve.
66
iii) REVERSE CURVE
A reverse curve is made up of two
arcs having equal or different B
radii bending in opposite direction O2 R2
with a common tangent at their T2
R
junction . 2
Their centres lie on M p N
opposite sides of the curve. T1

Reverse curves are used R 1
when the straights are A R 1
parallel or intersect at a O1
very small angle. Fig. 4. A Reverse Curve.
67
REVERSE CURVE
They are commonly used
B
in railway sidings and
O2
sometimes on railway T2
tracks and roads meant

for low speeds. They P
M N
should be avoided as far
as possible on main lines
T1
and highways where
speeds are necessarily A
O1
high.
Fig.5 A Reverse Curve.
68
B’
B φ
I
F
T1 E T2
A C
R φ/2
φ
SIMPLE CIRCULAR CURVE

69
NAMES OF VARIOUS PARTS OF CURVE
(i) The two straight lines AB and BC which are

connected by the curve are called the
tangents or straights to the curve.
(ii) The point of intersection of the two
straights (B) is called the intersection point
or the vertex.
(iii)When the curve deflects to the right side of
the progress of survey ,it is termed as right
handed curve and when to the left , it is
termed as left handed curve.
70
(iv) The lines AB and BC are tangents to the
curve. AB is called the first tangent or the
rear tangent . BC is called the second
tangent or the forward tangent.
(v) The points ( T1 and T2 ) at which the
curve touches the tangents are called
the tangent points. The beginning of
the curve ( T1) is called the tangent
curve point and the end of the curve
(T2) is called the curve tangent point.
71
(vi) The angle between the lines AB and BC
(└ABC) is called the angle of intersection
(I).
(vii) The angle by which the forward tangent
deflects from the rear tangent (└B’BC) is
called the deflection angle (φ) of the curve.
(viii) The distance from the point of intersection
to the tangent point is called tangent length
( BT1 and BT2).
(ix)The line joining the two tangent points (T1
and T2) is known as the long chord.
72
(x) The arc T1FT2 is called the length of curve.
(xi) The mid point(F) of the arc (T1FT2) is called
the summit or apex of the curve.
(xii) The distance from the point of intersection
to the apex of the curve BF is called the
apex distance.
(xiii) The distance between the apex of the curve
and the mid point of the long chord (EF) is
called versed sine of the curve.
(xiv) The angle subtended at the centre of the
curve by the arc T1FT2 is known as
central angle and is equal to the deflection
angle (φ) .
73
B’
B φ
I
F
T1 E T2
A C
R φ/2
φ
SIMPLE CIRCULAR CURVE

74
ELEMENTS of a Simple Circular
Curve
(i) Angle of intersection +Deflection angle = 1800.
or I + φ = 1800
(ii) └ T1OT2 = 1800 - I = φ

i.e the central angle = deflection angle.
(iii)Tangent length = BT1 =BT2= OT1 tan φ/2
= R tan φ/2
75
ELEMENTS of a Simple Circular Curve
(iv) Length of long chord =2T1E
=2R sin φ/2
(v) Length of curve = Length of arc T1FT2
= R X φ (in radians)
= πR φ/1800
(vi) Apex distance = BF = BO – OF
= R sec. φ/2 - R
= R (1 – cos φ/2 )=R versine φ/2

76
DESIGNATION OF CURVE
A curve may be designated either by
the radius or by the angle subtended at the
centre by a chord of particular length.
a curve is designated by the angle (in
degrees) subtended at the centre by a chord of
30 metres (100 ft.) length. This angle is called
the degree of curve (D).
The degree of the curve indicates the
sharpness of the curve.
77
DESIGNATION OF CURVES.
In English practice , a curve is defined

by the radius of the curve in terms of chains,
such as a six chain curve means a curve having
radius equal to six full chains, chain being 30
metres unless otherwise specified.
In America,Canada,India and some
other countries a curve is designated by the
degree of the curve
78
RELATION between the Radius of curve and
Degree of Curve.
The relation between the radius M P N
and the degree of the curve may
be determined as follows:-
D
R R
Let R = the radius of the curve in metres. D/2
D= the degree of the curve.
MN = the chord, 30m long.
P= the mid-point of the chord. O
Degree of Curve
In OMP,OM=R,
MP= ½ MN =15m
MOP=D/2
Then, sin D/2=MP/OM= 15/R
PTO
79
RELATION between the Radius of curve
and
Degree of Curve.
Then,sin D/2=MP/OM= 15/R M P N
Or R = 15 (Exact)
sin D/2
But when D is small, sin D/2 may be D
R R
assumed approximately equal to D/2
D/2 in radians.
Therefore:
R = 15 X 360 O
πD Degree of Curve
= 1718.87
D
Or say , R = 1719  This relation holds good up to 50
D curves.For higher degree curves the
(Approximate) exact relation should be used.
80
METHODS OF CURVE RANGING
A curve may be set out
(1) By linear Methods, where chain and tape
are used or
(2) By Angular or instrumental methods,
where a theodolite with or without a chain is
used.
Before starting setting out a curve by any
method, the exact positions of the tangents
points between which the curve lies ,must be
determined. Following procedure is adopted:-
81
METHODS OF SETTING OUT ACURVE
Procedure :-
i) After fixing the directions of the straights,
produce them to meet in point (B)
ii) Set up the Theodolite at the intersection
point (B) and measure the angle of
intersection (I) .Then find the deflection
angle ( φ ) by subtracting (I) from 1800 i.e
φ=1800 – I.
iii) Calculate the tangent length from the
following equation
Tangent length = R tanφ/2
82
METHODS OF SETTING OUT A CURVE
Procedure :-
iv) Measure the tangent length (BT1)

backward along the rear tangent BA from
the intersection point B, thus locating the
position of T1.
vi) Similarly, locate the position of T2 by

measuring the same distance forward
along the forward tangent BC from B.
83
Procedure (contd…) :-
After locating the positions of the tangent
points T1 and T2 ,their chainages may be
determined. The chainage of T1 is obtained by
subtracting the tangent length from the known
chainage of the intersection point B. And the
chainage of T2 is found by adding the length of
curve to the chainage of T1.
Then the pegs are fixed at equal intervals
on the curve.The interval between pegs is
usually 30m or one chain length.
84
This distance should actually be measured along
the arc ,but in practice it is measured along
the chord ,as the difference between the chord
and the corresponding arc is small and hence
negligible. In order that this difference is
always small and negligible ,the length of the
chord should not be more than 1/20th of the
radius of the curve. The curve is then obtained
by joining all these pegs.
85
The distances along the centre line of the
curve are continuously measured from the
point of beginning of the line up to the end .i.e
the pegs along the centre line of the work
should be at equal interval from the beginning
of the line up to the end. There should be no
break in the regularity of their spacing in
passing from a tangent to a curve or from a
curve to the tangent. For this reason ,the first
peg on the curve is fixed
86
at such a distance from the first tangent point (T1)
that its chainage becomes the whole number of
chains i.e the whole number of peg interval. The
length of the first sub chord is thus less than the
peg interval and it is called a sub-chord. Similarly
there will be a sub-chord at the end of the curve.
Thus a curve usually consists of two sub-chords
and a no. of full chords.
87
LINEAR METHODS of setting out Curves
The following are the methods of setting out

simple circular curves by the use of chain
and tape :-
(i) By offsets from the tangents.
(ii) By successive bisection of arcs.
(iii) By offsets from chords produced.
88
1. By offsets from the tangents. When the
deflection angle and the radius of the curve
both are small, the curves are set out by
offsets from the tangents.
Offsets are set out either
(i) radially or
(ii) perpendicular to the tangents
according as the centre of the curve is
accessible or inaccessible
89
LINEAR METHODS of
setting out Curves
B φ B’
P Ox
x
P1
T2
T1 900
A C
Fig. By Radial Offsets

90
LINEAR METHODS of
setting out Curves
Offsets is given by :
Ox = R2 +x2 – R …….. (Exact relation.)

When the radius is large ,the offsets may be
calculated by the approximate formula
which is as under
Ox = x 2 ……… (Approximate )
2R
By Radial Offsets
91
LINEAR METHODS of
setting out Curves
B
B’
P
Ox
x
P1
T1 T2
A
P2
B
(ii) By offsets perpendicular to the Tangents

92
1. (ii) By offsets perpendicular to the Tangents
Ox= R – R2 – x2 …………… (Exact)
Ox = x2 ……… (Approximate )
2R
93
By offsets from the tangents: Procedure
(i) Locate the tangent points T1 and T2.

(ii) Measure equal distances , say 15 or 30 m
along the tangent fro T1.
(iii) Set out the offsets calculated by any of

the above methods at each distance ,thus
obtaining the required points on the
curve.
94
By offsets from the tangents: Procedure….
(iv) Continue the process until the apex of
the curve is reached.
(v) Set out the other half of the curve from
second tangent.
(vi) This method is suitable for setting out
sharp curves where the ground outside
the curve is favourable for chaining.
95
TOTAL STATION
CONTENTS
• ELECTRONIC DISTANCE
MEASUREMENT
• PARTS OF A TOTAL STATION
• ACCESSORIES
• ADVANTAGES AND APPLICATIONS
• INTRODUCTION TO ASTRONOMICAL
TERMS
• FIELD PROCEDURE FOR TOTAL
STATION SURVEY
ELECTRONIC DISTANCE
MEASUREMENT
• Method of measuring distance between points
electronically by using electro magnetic waves
(Infra red, Micro waves etc…)
• Microwave requires transmitters/receivers at both ends
• Infra red use a transmitter at one end and a reflecting
prism at the other end (Most commonly used)
• EDM devices are typically mounted on top of a
theodolite, but can directly mounted on to a
tribrach
For Eg. Total Station is a combination of theodolite
with built in EDM and Microprocessor
• WORKING PRINCIPLE
• EDM is very useful in measuring distances that are
difficult to access and are long distances.
• It measures the time required by a wave to be
sent to a target and reflect back
Measurement of distance
• Two Methods
1. Pulsed laser system
2. Phase shift Method (Most commonly used)
• Pulsed Laser System
• Make uses pulses derived from an infra red/ visible laser
diode
• Distance is obtained by measuring transit time and velocity
of pulsed electro magnetic signal in travelling between TS
& target and back
• Velocity V of pulses gets determined
• Transit time t is measured using electronic signal
processing technique
• Distance, D = 0.5 * V * t
• Large no. of pulses gets analyzed during measurements
PHASE SHIFT METHOD
• Measures length by indirectly determining the
number of full and partial cycles of transmitted E M
between the two ends of a line
• EDMI (Electronic Distance Measuring Instrument)
consisting of an electro wave generator, an oscillator , a
modulator, a transmitter, and a receiver etc..
• Modulated EM Wave is transmitted to the target , Placed
at the other end of the line. The target, acting as a
reflector, reflects the light beam back to the receiver ,
where the incoming light is converted to an electrical
signal. A phase comparison is made between the
projected and reflected signals. Then the amount by
which the transmitted and received signals are out of
phase gets measured electronically and get registered in
a meter by getting converted to an equivalent distance.
PHASE SHIFT METHOD
• If the received signal is out of phase by a
measure of  , Then the equivalent distance, d is
• d =   
  Wavelength of the E M wave
• The distance is calculated as
D = 1 *[ n +    
2 360
n : integral no . of wave length,  in the double

path
( see next figure)
TOTAL STATION
TOTAL STATION
• An electronic / Optical Instrument
• An electronic theodolite having optical telescope
integrated with EDM (Electronic Distance Meter)
and Microprocessor with memory unit and other
accessories
• Accessories consists of Keyboard , Display ,
Power Supply , data collectors, field
computers, memory card etc…
• Provides (By measuring or estimating)all
parameters (Distances&Angles) & derived values
(corrections & cordinates) of surveying
simultaneously
• Values of parameters can get displayed in viewing
panel
• Precision may vary from 0.1” to 20”
TOTAL STATION TYPES
• Based on minimum circle reading accuracy :
0.1” to 20” (For eg: 1” total station, 2” total
station, 5”, 15” , 20” etc..)
• Based on Control
• Manual
• Robotic : (Operator controls from distance
via remote)
PARTS OF A TOTAL STATION
SCREEN AND KEYS
WORKING OF SALIENT PARTS
• Handle : To carry the Instrument physically
• Bluetooth antenna : To communicate via
Bluetooth wireless technology
• External interface hatch : To connect to external
devices
• Instrument height mark : To measure height of
Instrument
• Luminance sensor : Adjusts the brightness of screen
automatically
• Guide light : To carry out setting out measurement
effectively
• Objective lens :
• Laser pointer function : To sight a target in
dark location
• Vertical clamp screw
• Vertical fine motion screw
• Trigger key: To carry out operation
indicated by the soft key in bold type on
the screen
• Horizontal clamp screw:
• Horizontal fine motion screw:
• Tribrach clamp: clamp the upper part of the
instrument with lower part
• Telescope eyepiece screw:
• Telescope focusing ring:
• Sighting collimator : To aim in the direction
of measurement point
• Instrument centre mark
• A Total Station primarily consist of an electronic
theodolite, an EDM, Microprocessor and many other
accessories
• Body of a theodolite is divided into two broad parts,

upper part -The Alidade & lower part – The
Tribrach
• Alidade includes standards, telescope,EDM,

Circles (horizontal & vertical) and other elements
for measuring angles and distance
• Tribrach contains foot screws, circular level,

clamping devise and treads
• TELESCOPE
• Objective lens : focus on the object to form image at
the plane of reticle
• Eyepiece lens : focus on the plane of reticle
• Axis or line of sight : Line joining the objective
lens and the eyepiece lens
• Parallax : If there is relative motion between
Image formed & reticle, parallax is present which
should be avoided
• Lock & tangent screws for revolutions & rotations
• AUTOFOCUS
• It makes the telescope focus automatically to
target. After aiming the telescope to the target,
autofocus button gets pressed
• ANGLE MEASUREMENT SYSTEM
• For horizontal angle measurement, two glass

circles within the alidade are mounted parallel
one on the top of other , with a slight spacing
between them. In a levelled TS (Total Station)
horizontal angle circles should be in horizontal
plane
• For vertical angle measurement, two more glass

circles are mounted in parallel with slight spacing
between them but aligned in a vertical plane
automatically in a levelled TS
• MICROPROCESSOR
• Controls , measures , computes , Reduces
observations/ data by providing commands through
keyboard.
• Some salient functions
• To observe angles by method of reiteration in either
direction
• To observe angles by method of repetition
• Averaging multiple distances and angle observations
• Reducing slope distances into horizontal & vertical
distances
• Computation of elevation from vertical distance
components
• Computation of coordinates from horizontal
angle and horizontal distance components
• AUTOMATIC COMPENSATOR
• To get TS precisely indexed with the direction of
gravity
• Automatically align vertical circles having zero
degree oriented precisely upward towards the
zenith.
• PLUMMET
• Build into either alidade or tribrach
• Provides a line of sight that is directed downwards
, collinear with the vertical axis after leveling
• For accurate centering
• Laser variety provides a beam of collimated light
• OPTICAL GUIDANCE SYSTEM
• One or two above or below the telescope tube at the
end of the objective lens. These are light emitting
diodes and emit a visible light pattern which enables a
detail pole to be set directly on the line of sight and at
the correct distance without the need for hand signals
from the total stations
• In some instruments , OGS is represented as Guide Light
. It is composed of lights that is divided into Green and
Red sections. A poleman can ascertain the present
position by checking the Guide light color as follows
LIGHT STATUS MEANING
Increased flashing speed Move towards TS
Decreased flashing speed Move away from TS
Fast Flashing Target at the correct distance
Red Move target left

Green Move target right
Red & Green Target at correct horizontal
position
ACCESSORIES
• INTRODUCTION
Apart from salient components, some accessories are
required for working with TS. Some of the
Accessories are present as integral part of the TS –
Control Panel , Data Collector , Memory Etc…
Some others totally independent – Reflectors
These are the Major accessories

• CONTROL PANEL
• DATA COLLECTORS
• MEMORIES
• REFLECTORS
• SOFTWARE
ACCESSORIES - CONTROL PANEL
• Control panel of a total station consist of a keyboard
& multiple line LCD ( liquid Crystal Display)
• The keyboard enables the user to select & implement
different measurement modes, enable instrument
parameters to be changed and allow special software
functions to be accessed. Multifunction keys in the
keyboard carry out specific tasks and some other keys
activate& display menu systems which enable the TS
to be used as computer
• Keyboard is also used to code data generated by the
instrument for mapping. If a code is entered from the
keyboard to define the feature being observed, the data
can be processed much more rapidly when it is
downloaded into and processed by an offline based
computer plotter.
• The keyboard and display can be detached from the
instrument and interchanged with other total stations
and with GPS receiver. This enables data to be shared
between different instruments and systems using
single interface
• Thus combination of keyboard and display unit not
only controls the operations of total station but also
stores measurements and data
KEYBOARD
• Keyboard contains different types of keys to provide
different commands to its micro processor which
subsequently gets works carried out by its different
parts. It contains different alpha numeric keys , option
selection keys, switching keys, Power key , lighting
keys etc..
Salient Keys
• Power Key : To switch between ON & OFF
• Illuminator Key : For lighting the reticle/keys and to
select screen backlight brightness . To turn laser-
pointer/guide light ON /OFF
• Star Key : To jump from each mode
screen to the screen of
checking/changing the various settings
directly
• ESC Key : To cancel the input data/to return to previous
screen
• TAB Key : To shift to next item
• B.S Key : Delete a character on the left
• S.P Key : Input a blank space
• FUNC Key : To toggle between observation mode screen
pages
• ENT Key : Select/Accept input word/Value
• Numeric – Alpha Keys : To input numerals and alphabetic
characters
• α key : Input Mode Key (To switch between numeric
and alphabetic characters)
• SHIFT Key : To switch between lower case and uppercase
characters
• Target Keys : To switch between target types (Reflector &
Non Reflector)
• PRG Key : To switch between program mode and basic
ACCESSORIES - DATA COLLECTOR
• Automatically receives and stores field
notes in computer compatible files
• Control of the measurement and
storage operations is maintained
through data collector’s keyboard
• Point identifiers and other descriptive
information with measurements may
be recorded
• Preliminary information required to be entered
manually before the collection of
measurements
• For a given type of survey, data collector is
programmed to follow specific steps
• Data storage and entry are carried out through
a series of step by step instructions displayed
by the data collector
• Enable operator to scroll through stored data,

display for review and editing in real time
• Data collectors are developed instrument

specific, however there are some which
are flexible
• Data collectors are of two types , External and

Internal
EXTERNAL DATA COLLECTOR
• Can be interfaced with various instruments
• Has Windows CE OS , thus can run variety of

windows software programs
• Can do variety of calculations directly in the field
• Has Bluetooth technology to communicate with other

instruments and WiFi capabilities for connecting to
internet
INTERNAL DATA COLLECTOR
• Data collection system as internal components

directly into the equipment
• Incorporates all features of external data collectors
• Use Windows CE OS
• Pen & Pad arrangement /Key board is used to point

on menus and options to run software
ACCESSORIES –DATA COLLECTOR…
• ADVANTAGES
• Mistakes in reading and manually recording observations are
precluded
• Time to process , display and archive the field notes in
office reduced significantly
• Execute program in field and in real time
• Most useful when large quantities of information is involved
• DISADVANTAGES
• Field data may be erased due to carelessness or malfunction of
instruments
• All information can not be entered/stored in digital form
• Varied data structures from different manufacturers
• Need to be compatible to the computer/software in which
data need to be considered further.
ACCESSORIES - MEMORIES
• Total station makes use of internal memories or
memory cards for processing and storing
information
• Internal memory on board storage capacity of
about 5000 to 10000 coded survey points
• Data can also be stored on memory cards which are
plugged into Total Station
• All memory cards should satisfy PCMCIA standards
• Data may get exchanged to/from PC from/to through
card reader
ACCESSORIES - REFLECTORS
• TS Use return or reflected signals for measurements.
This is obtained by using a specific reflector
• TS reflectors consist of special reflecting prism
constructed from glass cubes or blocks
• Return waves or pulses along a path exactly parallel
to the incident path but within a range of angles of
incidence of about 20 degree
• A wide range of reflecting prisms are available to suit
short as well as long range measurements
• Single & Triple prism sets for fixing on tripod stand
,mini-prism for pole mounting or 360 degree prism
for robotic TS are being used
• Reflecting prisms are associated with a prism
constant (distance between effective centre of the
ACCESSORIES - SOFTWARE
• Operating System generally used is Windows CE
• Field Software or the measurement software .
Field softwares are manufacturer dependent
• Processing softwares : These are which is made use
to arrive at the final product of the data collected.
Eg : Carlson , AUTOCAD, etc…
ADVANTAGES OF TOTAL STATION
• Quick setting of the instrument on the tripod using laser
plummet
• On-board area computation program to compute the
area of the filed
• Local language support
• Full GIS creation
• Automation of old maps
• Greater accuracy in area computation
• Graphical view of plots and land for quick visualization
• Integration of data base
• The area computation at any user required scale
• Once the field jobs are finished , the
map of the area with dimensions is
ready instantly after data transfer
• It reduces the time taken for the survey
considerably and it also able to measure up to
3 to 5 km distances.
• Comparatively easy to work with
• High precision
APPLICATIONS OF TOTAL STATION
• To measure horizontal and vertical angles
• To obtain the horizontal distance, inclined
distance and vertical distance between points.
• To get the three-dimensional co-ordinates
i.e.[x,y,z] of a point in space.
• To find the length of a missing the line
• To find the elevation of the remote object.
• To find the distance to a remote object
• To locate the points at a predetermined distance
along gridlines.
• Calculation of Area of a closed figure.
• Total station is extensively used in Mine Survey,
Cadastral Survey, Engineering Survey, Large
scale Survey, Road / rail/ canal Survey
• Some total stations also have a GNSS (Global
Navigation satellite System) interface which
combines the advantages of these two
technologies (GNSS – line of sight not required
between measured points; Total Station – high
precision measurement especially in the vertical
axis compared with GNSS) and reduce the
consequences of each technology’s disadvantages
(GNSS – poor accuracy in the vertical axis and
lower accuracy without long occupation periods;
Total Station – requires line of sight observations
and must be set up over a known point or with line
of sight to 2 or more points with known location).
DISADVANTAGES OF TOTAL
STATION
• It may be difficult for the surveyor to look
over and check the work while surveying.
• The instrument is costly. And for conducting
surveys using Total station, Skilled personnel
are required.
• For an over all check of the survey, It will be
necessary to return to the office and prepare
the drawings using appropriate software
• The instrument contains sensitive electronic
assemblies which have to be well protected
against dust and moisture
PRECAUTIONS TO BE TAKEN
• Use both hands to hold the total station handle
• Set up the tripod as stable as possible
• Do not move or carry a tripod with the Total
Station fixed on it , except for centering
• Store the battery pack with the battery
discharged
• Do not over tighten any of the clamp screws
• Take maximum care when the tribrach is
removed from the Total Station
FIELD PROCEDURE FOR TOTAL
STATION SURVEY
• Leveling the Total Station
• Leveling the Total Station must be accomplished to

sufficient accuracy otherwise the instrument will not
report results
• Leveling the instrument takes 30 to 45 minutes –

make sure you can see all targets from the
instrument station before going through the
process
• STEP 1 : TRIPOD
SETUP
• Tripod legs should

be equally spaced
• Tripod head
should be
approximatel
y level
• Head should be
directly over
survey point
STEP 2: MOUNT INSTRUMENT
ON TRIPOD
• Place Instrument on
Tripod
• Secure with
centering screw
while bracing the
instrument with the
other hand
• Insert battery in
instrument before
leveling
STEP 3: FOCUS ON
SURVEY POINT
• Focus the optical
plummet on the
survey point
STEP 4: LEVELING THE
INSTRUMENT
•Adjust the leveling foot
screws to center the
survey point in the
optical plummet reticle
•Center the bubble in the
circular level by
adjusting the tripod legs
STEP 4: LEVELING...
• Loosen the horizontal clamp and turn
instrument until plate level is parallel to 2 of the
leveling foot screws
• Center the bubble using the leveling screws- the
bubble moves toward the screw that is turned
clockwise
• Rotate the instrument 90 degrees and level using the
3rd leveling screw
STEP 4: LEVELING…
• Observe the survey point in the optical
plummet and center the point by loosening
the centering screw and sliding the entire
instrument
• After re-tightening the centering screw check
to make sure the plate level bubble is level in
several directions
STEP 5 : ELECTRONICALLY VERIFY
LEVELING
• Turn on the instrument by pressing and
holding the “on” button (you should hear
an audible beep)
• The opening screen will be the
“MEAS” screen. Select the [Tilt]
function
• Adjust the foot
level screws to
exactly center
the electronic
“bubble”
• Rotate the instrument 90 degrees and
STEP 6: ADJUST IMAGE & RETICLE
FOCUS
Release the horizontal & vertical clamps and point
telescope to a featureless light background
• Adjust the reticle (i.e. cross-hair) focus adjustment until
reticle image is sharply focused
• Point telescope to target and adjust
the focus ring Until target is focused
• Move your head from side-to-side to test for image
shift (i.e. parallax). Repeat the reticle
focus step if parallax is significant
•NOTE: When the instrument operator
changes the reticle focus may need to
be adjusted
MEASURING THE HEIGHT OF
AN OBJECT
• Level the instrument at a site where the target can be viewed
through the telescope and the mirror target can be setup
directly below the target
• After powering on the instrument select “REM” from “MEAS”
> “Menu”
• Ht = h1 + h2
• h2 = S (sin θz1) (cot θz2 ) – S (cos θz1)
TARGET HEIGHT MEASUREMENT
• Set the Target Height from “MEAS” > “Menu” > “Coordinate” > “Station
Orientation” > “Station Coordinate”
• Set the target height to the measured height of the mirror target. Make sure
you use the metric side of the tape measure if working with metric units. You
do not have to fill out the other fields for a REM measurement, however, it is
good practice to measure and enter the instrument height. After entering the
TH and IH make sure you press “OK” (F4) to accept new values.
• Press “ESC” to return to the “MEAS” menu
• Select the “MEAS” > “Menu” > “REM”, sight
the mirror target, press [OBS] to measure “S”,
then [STOP]
• Sight the object above the target for height measurement
• Select [REM] after sighting the top of
the height target, and then [STOP] to
stop the calculations
REM SCREEN RESULTS
• To re-shoot the mirror target
use the [OBS] on the REM
screen.
• Note that after selecting REM
the instrument continues to

make calculations in case you
need to adjust the vertical angle
on the height target.
• Select “STOP” to terminate
calculations on the REM
command.
Trouble-Shooting the REM Measurement
• The only numerical input is the target height so make
sure that is entered correctly. When TH is changed
make sure you hit the “OK” function key.
• If the instrument is reset (zeroed) TH will be 0.0 so if

you make a REM measurement with TH=0 the
answer will be underestimated by the actual TH.
• A quick check can be made by using REM on the

mirror target – the answer should be the TH.
CALIBRATING THE INSTRUMENT
• Calibration must be completed before coordinates

can be obtained
• 3 possible calibrations:
• Backsight by angle: must know instrument
coordinates and have a landmark/target at a
known azimuth
• Backsight by coordinate: must know instrument
coordinates and have mirror target set on a
position of known coordinates
• Resection (triangulation): must have 3 or
more mirror targets established at known 3D
coordinates
3D COORDINATES
• Coordinates may be absolute or relative
depending on survey requirements
• Surveying the area of a mining site would require

relative coordinates, therefore, the initial instrument
X,Y,Z coordinates may be 5000, 5000, 100
• Surveys that have to match a downloaded aerial photo

from the USGS would have to match UTM NAD83
coordinates so the starting point would have to be
determined by an accurate GPS receiver
Calibrate by Backsight by Angle
• Remember that when the instrument is powered on it
has a random X,Y coordinate system: you must
align the instrument with your working coordinate
system.
• Level the instrument on the desired starting survey
marker. Make sure that on the last leveling step the
optical plummet is centered on the survey point
• Measure the target height and instrument height
• Select [COORD] from the MEAS menu
• Select “Stn. Orientation” and then “Stn. Coordinate”
• Edit the “N0”, “E0”, and “Z0” fields to appropriate
values (i.e. northing, easting, elevation of
instrument)
Backsight by Angle continued..
• Enter the instrument and target
height if necessary
• Select [OK] when done
Backsight by Angle continued…
• Select “Backsight” and then “Angle”
from the menu
• Sight the landmark/target of known azimuth
relative to instrument with telescope
• Select “Angle” from menu. Note that the menu
displays the zenith angle (ZA) and current horizontal
angle (HAR) and is waiting for you to enter the known
angle with [EDIT]
• Note: if you enter an azimuth angle as “85.4514” this
will be interpreted as 85 degrees, 45 minutes, 14 seconds
• IMPORTANT! You must select [OK] to accept the angle.
• Never use <Esc> to leave this screen
Backsight by Angle Continued…
• NOTE: because the backsight by angle simply sets the
instrument horizontal angle encoder to match your desired
coordinate system the mirror target is never “shot” by the
beam. If you can accurately sight on an object or landmark
such as a building corner the mirror target is not needed.
Make sure the instrument is “locked” and accurately sighted
with telescope before entering the backsight angle.
• Because there is no internal statistical measure of how
well the backsight angle has been set it is imperative to
check the backsight independently:
• Known point: shoot the target at a position of known
X,Y,Z such as a GPS point. The result should be
within the resolution of the GPS.
• Known angle: shoot to a landmark at a known
azimuth from the instrument location- the angle
should be within the resolution of the instrument
Backsight by Coordinate
Use this method when you have 2 known survey points with the
instrument established on one and the mirror target on the other su
point
• From the “MEAS” menu select [COORD] and then “Stn.
Orientation”. Set the instrument coordinates with “Stn.
Coordinate” and then select [OK] and return to “Backsight”
• Select “Coord” and then enter the
backsight target coordinates (NBS,
EBS, ZBS) and select [OK]
• Sight in the target and inspect the “Azmth” (it should
be reasonable for your coordinate system).
•Select [YES] to calibrate. If you don’t
select [YES] the coordinate system is
still random
Backsight by
coordinate …
• Always check the calibration of the instrument by
shooting the target used for the back sight.
• The resulting X,Y,Z should be within the several cm
resolution typical for a TS instrument.
• It is a very good idea to shoot other benchmarks
within range to make sure accuracy is within
acceptable limits
RESECTION
• Resection uses 3 or more known target survey
points to automatically determine the X,Y,Z
coordinates of the instrument
• This has the significant advantage of not requiring the
instrument to be leveled exactly on a survey point-
any convenient location where you can sight the
targets is OK
• The ideal
geometry is
displayed to
the right
Resection continued…
Prior to resection enter survey markers as known points through the
“MEM” menu
• From the “MEAS” menu select “[MENU]” > [RESEC]
• The resection procedure requires that the known
coordinates be defined first, and
in the order that they will be shot
• In the top right screen the 1st point has
been defined and the 2nd point is
being entered. You can use
[READ] to read in previously entered or measured points
• Press the “>” or “<“ arrow to move to
next or previous point
• When all points are entered select [MEAS]
•The [MEAS] screen (right)
displays the point being shot –
in this example the 1st point
• Choose [DIST] if you are
shooting to a mirror target,

[ANGLE] if not
• Select [YES] to accept
measurement, [NO] to re-shoot,

[EDIT] to change target height
• The [CALC] option will be displayed
when
the standard deviation of northing and
easting can be displayed
• Press [CALC] or [YES] on last point to display the calculated
instrument coordinates and the standard deviation of easting
(σE) and northing (σN). Press [OK] to finish Resection,
and then [YES] to set the backsight azimuth to the 1st
shot point
• Press [RESULT] to display the
residuals of each shot point- large

deviations identify “bad” points
• If there are no problems press
{Esc} to return to main resection

screen
• The standard deviations are a measure of the accuracy.
They should be in the range of
several cm’s for most surveys
Resection Notes
• Resection initializes the X,Y,Z coordinates of the instrument.
Save this as a point (ex. G1S02 for group 2, instrument
station #2) since it represents a surveyed coordinate
• Once the instrument is calibrated the mirror targets can be

taken down and used elsewhere
• The instrument height should be entered before resection is

calculated
• You can only begin shooting resection point 1 from the

resection point #3 or higher coordinate entry screen
Resection
Notes
• Certain
Geometries
should be
avoided:
Targets
and
Instrument
should not
be
arranged
on a circle
Coordinate Measurement
• Used to determine XYZ
coordinates of target point.
• Make sure the instrument height
and target height are already set.
• Make sure backsight/resection
have
already “locked” the instrument
into a mapping coordinate
system
• From MEAS select
Menu > Coord > Observation
Offset: Single Distance
• Single distance offset – used to measure
points that cannot be “occupied” by the
target.
• Examples:
• center of a large tree,
• center of a fountain
• center of a building
• Offset point can be right or left of the target, but must be
the same distance from the instrument.
• Offset point can be in front or behind target, but must

be on the same azimuth line.
• In any case the person/team holding the target must have a

tape to measure the exact distance (to cm accuracy at
least) of the offset.
• The instrument will request an observation to the target first,

and then request the offset distance and where the target
point is relative to the point of interest (left, right, front, back).
•Note the arrow that
indicates that the target is
to the left of the survey
point by 2 meters.
ERRORS IN TOTAL STATION
Following are different types of total station errors:

1. Horizontal Collimation or Line of Sight Error
• Horizontal collimation or line of sight error is when the
line of sight is not perpendicular to the tilting axis of the
instrument. Line of sight error effects the horizontal
angle readings and increases with steep sightings. The
error can be overcome or eliminated by observing on
two faces.
• For single face measurements, an on-board calibration
function is used to determine the deviation (c)of actual
line of sight and deviated line of sight. The on-board
software then apply a correction for each measured
horizontal angles reading automatically.
2. Tilting Axis Error or Tilt Error
• Tilting axis or tilt error is the error when the axis to the
total station is not perpendicular to the vertical axis or
plumb line. The error effect on horizontal readings when
the instrument is tilted (steep sightings) but have no effect
on sightings taken when the instrument is horizontal.
• Like horizontal collimation error the tilting error can be
eliminated by two face measurement. Another method is
to apply the measured tilting error at the time of calibration
process for all readings.
3. Vertical Collimation Error or Vertical Index Error
• If the horizontal base line of angle from 0° to 180° in the
vertical circle does not coincide with the vertical axis of
instrument. This zero point error is present in all vertical
circle readings and like the horizontal collimation error,
it is eliminated by taking FL and FR readings or by
determining i.
4. Compensator Index Error
• This error is caused by not leveling the total station
correctly and carefully. This error can’t be eliminated by
taking two face (face left and face right) readings unlike
the horizontal collimation error.
• If the instrument is fitted with a compensator it will
measure residual tilts of the instrument and will apply
corrections to the horizontal and vertical angles for
these.
• However all compensators will have a
longitudinal error l and traverse error t known as
zero point errors. These are averaged using
face left and face right readings but for single
face readings must be determined by the
calibration function of the total station.

Unit 4 Surveying

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Subject:- Surveying

•Differentformulas are used in finding

•Some cases are discussed as follows:-

 K.s cos  C cos  hsin

 With the help of a tachometer observations

 Before doing calculations we should known

 Generally their values are mentioned in the

 Also the constants may be determined by:

 The total distance through which stadia is the

 If the distance between the instrument station

 A third target is fixed at the mid-point of the

 For taking the observation, the middle target is

 Then the micrometer screws are

 The readings are then noted.

RL of station A = RL of instrument axis - V - h

6.Proceed similarly at each of the successive stations and

8. Since each station is sighted twice, the two values for

9. The traverse is plotted to any suitable scale. Rays are

They enable the

when the two paths A C

iv) To layout Canal alignment.

v)To control erosion of canal banks by the

(i) Simple Curves.

(ii) Compound Curves.

(iii) Reverse Curves.

A compound Curve consists of two or

Their centres lie on M p N

opposite sides of the curve. T1

when the straights are A R 1

tracks and roads meant

SIMPLE CIRCULAR CURVE

(i) The two straight lines AB and BC which are

SIMPLE CIRCULAR CURVE

(ii) └ T1OT2 = 1800 - I = φ

(iii)Tangent length = BT1 =BT2= OT1 tan φ/2

= R (1 – cos φ/2 )=R versine φ/2

In English practice , a curve is defined

iv) Measure the tangent length (BT1)

vi) Similarly, locate the position of T2 by

The following are the methods of setting out

Fig. By Radial Offsets

Ox = R2 +x2 – R …….. (Exact relation.)

(ii) By offsets perpendicular to the Tangents

Ox= R – R2 – x2 …………… (Exact)

(i) Locate the tangent points T1 and T2.

(iii) Set out the offsets calculated by any of

• The distance is calculated as

n : integral no . of wave length,  in the double

• Body of a theodolite is divided into two broad parts,

• Alidade includes standards, telescope,EDM,

• Tribrach contains foot screws, circular level,

• For horizontal angle measurement, two glass

• For vertical angle measurement, two more glass

Fast Flashing Target at the correct distance

Red Move target left

These are the Major accessories

• Enable operator to scroll through stored data,

• Data collectors are developed instrument

• Data collectors are of two types , External and

• Can be interfaced with various instruments

• Has Windows CE OS , thus can run variety of

• Can do variety of calculations directly in the field

• Has Bluetooth technology to communicate with other

• Data collection system as internal components