THESIS ON CIVIL ENGINEERING F36

Investigation of Energy Efficiency in

Buildings and HVAC Systems

ALLAN HANI

PRESS
 TALLINN UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY
Faculty of Civil Engineering
Department of Environmental Engineering

The dissertation was accepted for the defense of the degree of Doctor of
Philosophy on September 03, 2012.

Supervisor: Professor Teet-Andrus Kõiv, Faculty of Civil Engineering,

Tallinn University of Technology

Opponents: Professor Emeritus Enno Abel, Chalmers University of

Technology, Sweden

Associate Professor Anatolijs Borodinecs, Riga Technical

University, Latvia

Reviewer: PhD Vitalis Pavlovas, Peab AS, Oslo, Norway

Defense of the thesis: October 30, 2012.

Declaration:
Hereby I declare that this doctoral thesis, my original investigation and
achievement, submitted for the doctoral degree at Tallinn University of
Technology has not been submitted for any academic degree.

/Allan Hani /

F36

Copyright: Allan Hani, 2012

ISSN 1406-4766
ISBN 978-9949-23-349-6 (publication)
ISBN 978-9949-23-350-2 (PDF)
 EHITUS F36

Hoonete ja nende tehnosüsteemide

energeetilise efektiivsuse uurimine

ALLAN HANI
Hani A. (2012) Investigation of energy efficiency in buildings and HVAC systems.
Dissertation, Tallinn University of Technology

ABSTRACT
In the present dissertation energy calculation methods for buildings are researched.
Detailed analysis of energy consumption for residential, educational and public
buildings is also carried out.
The literature review includes scientific research of the last 10 years on:
- the possibilities of reducing energy consumption;
- the utilization of simulation-optimization tools for energy calculations;
- indoor climate analysis for school buildings;
- sea water heat pump solutions for district heating and cooling.
The first part of the dissertation includes energy estimation methods, such as
degree-day calculations, dynamic simulations and simulation-optimization
combination.
Based on the research simple degree-day calculations can be used where the effect
of solar heat gain is relatively low (small window sizes in typical Soviet apartment
buildings). Validated with real measured energy consumption data, dynamic
simulation tools are a powerful tool for creating different energy saving scenarios.
Nevertheless, the parameters must be manually altered. The manual alteration
process of parameters can be automated with the optimization process. During this
process advanced understanding of dynamic simulation files is necessary. The
advantages of this principle are maximizing the usage of computational power and
minimizing manual interaction in the calculation process.
The second part of the thesis contains an analysis of energy consumption in
residential, educational and public buildings. In addition, it includes research on
indoor climate in educational buildings and the possibilities of sea water district
heating and cooling for the coastal area of Tallinn.
The analysis of energy consumption in residential buildings is based on 40
apartment buildings. Detailed energy balances for thermal and electrical energy
were researched for 14 apartment buildings. Based on the results energy
consumption has decreased in the recent years due to renovation processes and the
constantly rising energy prices. There is more need for ventilation reconstruction
work due to tighter building envelopes.
Energy consumption in school buildings is relatively low but it often leads to poor
indoor climate conditions. Usually natural in older buildings and centralized
mechanical ventilation (new constructions or reconstructions) with heat recovery
are existing. Real indoor climate measurements in one school are included.
Different ventilation systems, such as natural, centralized mechanical, and room
unit based ones, were studied. The room unit based ventilation system was analyzed
more deeply. The results show the possibility of using the system in school
buildings, but the system is preferable for apartment buildings and old people’s
homes.

5
44 public buildings are included in the current dissertation. The average share of
thermal energy consumption was 60%, and of electrical energy 40%. Based on the
results of this work (quite wide range of energy consumption results) it is
recommended that all energy research on public buildings be carried out case by
case. The measured energy balance of a modern ten-storey building is presented. In
conclusion the share of thermal energy consumption was only 30%. Based on that
attention should be paid to electrical energy consumption in new public buildings
(the energy consumption of cooling, server rooms and ventilation is a concern).
In Appendix A an analysis of sea water district heating and cooling is presented for
the coastal area of Tallinn. It is suggested that 21 buildings be connected to the
network. The open loop system is presented although it is problematic in the Gulf of
Finland due to the relatively conservative depth of the sea. The temperatures vary
remarkably during the year in the depth of 25m, which means that sea water district
heating and cooling is feasible near the coast (ca 500m). Nevertheless, the
possibilities of using sea water as a renewable energy source should be researched
further.

Keywords: the degree-day method, dynamic simulations, building optimization,

residential buildings, educational buildings, public buildings

6
Hani A. (2012) Hoonete ja nende tehnosüsteemide energeetilise efektiivsuse
uurimine. Doktoritöö, Tallinna Tehnikaülikool

KOKKUVÕTE
Käeolevas töös on uuritud meetodeid hoonete energiaarvutuste koostamiseks.
Samuti on välja toodud elamute, haridusasutuste ja ühiskondlike hoonete
energiatarbe analüüs.
Kirjandusülevaade annab ülevaate viimase 10a teadusuuringutest alljärgnevatel
teemadel:
- Energiatõhususe valdkond;
- simulatsiooni ja optimeerimise kombineerimine hoone energiaarvutusteks;
- koolihoonete sisekliima analüüs;
- merevee kasutusvõimalused sooljuspumbal põhinevale kaugküttele ja
–jahutusele.
Esimene osa tööst hõlmab endas energiaarvutuste meetodeid: kraadpäevadega
arvutused, dünaamilised simulatsioonid ning simulatsiooni-optimeerimise
kombinatsioon.
Käesoleva töö analüüsi põhjal võib väita, et kraadpäevadega energiaarvutused
sobivad hästi hoonetele, kus päikese vabasoojuse mõju on väike (tüüpilised väikeste
akendega nõukogudeaegsed korruselamud). Reaalsete energiatarbimisandetega
valideeritud dünaamilise simulatsiooni mudel võimaldab läbi mängida erinevaid
hoone energiatarbimise stsenaariumeid lähtuvalt füüsikaliste parameetrite
muutmisest. Sealjuures on just töömahukas parameetrite muutmine. Käsitsi pidevat
parameetrite muutmise protsessi saab lihtsustada optimeerimistarkvara abiga. Selle
protsessi eelduseks on detailne simulatsioonitarkvara failide tundmine. Antud
lähenemise eeliseks on maksimaalne arvutijõudlise ärakasutamine minimaalse
inimsekkumisega.
Teine osa käseolevast uuringust kästileb erinevate hoonetüüpide: elamud,
haridusasutused ning ühiskondlikud hooned, energiatarbe analüüsi. Lisaks on
uuritud sisekliima probleeme koolihoonetes ning merevee kasutusvõimalusi
kaugkütteks ning –jahutuseks.
Elamute energiatarbe analüüs põhineb 40 korruselamul. Detailsed soojuse– ja
elektrienergia bilansid koos keskmiste väärtustega on välja toodud 14 hoone puhul.
Uuringutulemused näitavad energiatarbe vähenemist elamute sektoris, mis tuleneb
rekonstrueerimistest ning pidevalt kasvavatest energihindadest. Kuna hooned on
parema õhupidavusega, tuleb rõhku panna ventilatsiooni süsteemide
rekonstrueerimisele.
Koolide energiatarbimine on suhteliselt madal, mis on sageli tingitud
ebarahuldavast sisekliimast. Tavajuhtudel on kasutusel loomulik ventilatsioon
(vanemad hooned) ning mehaaniline tsentraalne soojustagastusega ventilatsioon
(uued või rekonstrueeritud hooned). Ühe kooli puhul on välja toodud sisekliima
mõõtmistulemused. Samuti on käsitletud kolme ventilatsioonisüsteemi tüüpi:
loomulik, mehaaniline ning soojustagastusega ruumiagregaatidel põhinev.

7
Ruumiagregaatidel põhinevat süsteemi on käsitletud põhjalikumalt. Analüüsi põhjal
võib öelda, et see süsteem on koolihoonetes kasutatav, kuid paremini sobib
ruumiagregaatidega lahendus elamutele ning vanadekodudele.
Uuring käsitleb ka 44 ühiskondlikku hoonet. Keskmine soojuseenergia osakaal
analüüsi tulemusel on 60% ning elektrienergiale 40%. Eraldi on välja toodud
kaasaegse kümnekorruselise büroohoone detailne mõõdetud energiabilanss.
Kokkuvõtteks oli soojuse osakaal energiabilansist ainult 30%. Erilist tähelepanu
tuleb uute büroohoonete puhul elektrienergiatarbimisele (eriti jahutusele,
serveriruumidele ning ventilatsioonile kuluv elekter).
Lisas A on esitatud mereveel põhinev soojuspumpade lahendus kaugkütteks ja –
jahutuseks Tallinna ranniku alale. 21 hoonet on arvestatud liituma võrguga. Esitatud
on merevee kasutamiseks avatud lahendus, samas tuleb kaaluda edaspidi ka suletud
ringiga süsteemi, kuna Soome lahe sügavus on tagasihoidlik. Merevee temperatuuri
amplituud on lai, sügavuses -25m, mis mõistlikus kauguses rannast (ca 500m).
Merevee temperatuur ärakasutamine, taastuva energiaallikana vajab kindlasti ka
edaspidist uurimist.

Märksõnad: kraadpäevade meetod, dünaamiline simulatsioon, hoonete

optimeerimine, elamud, õppeasutused, avalik-ühiskondlikud hooned

8
Table of Contents
LIST OF TABLES .............................................................................................................. 10
LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................ 11
INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................. 14
1. LITERATURE REVIEW .......................................................................................... 16
1.1 ENERGY CONSUMPTION OF BUILDINGS ................................................................. 16
1.2 OPTIMIZATION OF BUILDING VARIABLES .............................................................. 17
1.3 INDOOR CLIMATE IN SCHOOL BUILDINGS .............................................................. 18
1.4 HEAT PUMPS FOR DISTRICT HEATING AND COOLING ............................................. 20
2. THE CALCULATION METHODS OF ENERGY CONSUMPTION ................. 22
2.1 DEGREE DAY CALCULATIONS ............................................................................... 22
2.1.1 Comparison of degree day calculation and dynamic simulations................... 25
2.2 DYNAMIC SIMULATIONS ....................................................................................... 26
2.2.1 Energy performance requirements for apartment buildings ........................... 29
2.3 COMBINATION OF DYNAMIC SIMULATIONS AND OPTIMIZATION ........................... 30
2.3.1 Optimization of office building façades .......................................................... 31
3. INVESTIGATION OF ENERGY CONSUMPTION AND BUILDING
SERVICES .......................................................................................................................... 39
3.1 RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS ...................................................................................... 39
3.1.1 Energy consumption in apartment buildings .................................................. 39
3.2 EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS ............................................................................... 43
3.2.1 Energy consumption in school buildings ........................................................ 43
3.2.2 Indoor climate in school buildings .................................................................. 44
3.3 PUBLIC BUILDINGS ............................................................................................... 54
3.3.1 Energy consumption in public buildings ......................................................... 54
4. SUMMARY, FINAL CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR
FURTHER RESEARCH .................................................................................................... 59
4.1 SUMMARY ............................................................................................................ 59
4.2 FINAL CONCLUSIONS ............................................................................................ 60
4.3 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER WORK ........................................................... 60
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .................................................................................................. 63
BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................................................................... 64
PAPERS PRESENTED BY THE CANDIDATE ........................................................................... 64
PAPERS IN WHICH THE CANDIDATE WAS INVOLVED ........................................................... 65
INVENTIONS ...................................................................................................................... 65
LIST OF REFERENCES ................................................................................................... 66
CURRICULUM VITAE..................................................................................................... 73
ELULOOKIRJELDUS....................................................................................................... 75
APPENDIX A: SEA WATER DISTRICT HEATING AND COOLING ...................... 77

9
List of Tables
TABLE 1. DUTCH STUDIES: CO2 LEVELS ................................................................................ 18
TABLE 2. UK STUDIES: CO2 LEVELS ...................................................................................... 18
TABLE 3. NATURAL VENTILATION: CO2 LEVELS DURING 8:40-15:00 .................................... 19
TABLE 4. CO2 LEVELS FOR DIFFERENT TYPES OF VENTILATION ............................................. 19
TABLE 5. BUILDING STRUCTURES AND SYSTEMS ................................................................... 28
TABLE 6. TEST REFERENCE YEAR PARAMETERS ..................................................................... 34
TABLE 7. INDOOR CLIMATE CRITERIA .................................................................................... 34
TABLE 8. BUILDING ENVELOPE AND HVAC SYSTEMS PARAMETERS ..................................... 35
TABLE 9. OPTIMIZATION PARAMETERS .................................................................................. 36
TABLE 10. MAIN INFORMATION ABOUT RESEARCHED BUILDINGS.......................................... 39
TABLE 11. RESULTS OF THE ANALYSIS OF ENERGY CONSUMPTION IN PUBLIC BUILDINGS ...... 56
TABLE 12. AVERAGE DEPTH PROFILE OF THE GULF OF FINLAND ........................................... 77
TABLE 13. HEATING AND COOLING LOAD CALCULATION....................................................... 79

10
List of Figures
FIG. 1. DURATION DIAGRAM OF EXTERNAL AIR TEMPERATURE IN TALLINN AND DIFFERENT
BALANCE TEMPERATURES: 1-TB=17°C; 2- TB=14°C..................................................... 24
FIG. 2. CALCULATED AND MEASURED HEATING ENERGY CONSUMPTION ............................... 26
FIG. 3. RESULTS OF THE EP-VALUE FOR APARTMENT BUILDINGS (HORIZONTAL LINES
REPRESENT EP-REQUIREMENTS FOR NEW AND EXISTING BUILDINGS 150 AND 200
[KWH/(M2 YEAR)]) ........................................................................................................ 29
FIG. 4. SHAPE OF THE THEORETICAL CALCULATION MODEL ................................................... 31
FIG. 5. IDA ICE AND GENOPT SIMULATION-OPTIMIZATION PROCESS.................................... 32
FIG. 6. INTERNAL HEAT GAINS OF A TYPICAL OFFICE AREA .................................................... 35
FIG. 7. OPTIMIZATION RESULTS OF THE NORTHERN FAÇADE .................................................. 36
FIG. 8. OPTIMIZATION RESULTS OF THE EASTERN FAÇADE ..................................................... 37
FIG. 9. OPTIMIZATION RESULTS OF THE SOUTHERN FAÇADE .................................................. 37
FIG. 10. OPTIMIZATION RESULTS OF THE WESTERN FAÇADE .................................................. 38
FIG. 11. DYNAMICS OF ENERGY BALANCE AND SPECIFIC ENERGY CONSUMPTION IN THE
ANALYZED BUILDINGS (DHW HEATED IN SUBSTATION) ............................................... 41
FIG. 12. DYNAMICS OF ENERGY BALANCE AND SPECIFIC ENERGY CONSUMPTION IN THE
ANALYZED BUILDINGS (DHW HEATED WITH ELECTRICAL HEATERS IN APARTMENTS) . 41
FIG. 13. DISPERSION OF SPECIFIC ENERGY CONSUMPTION OF APARTMENT BUILDINGS ........... 42
FIG. 14. SPECIFIC ENERGY CONSUMPTION IN THE ANALYZED EDUCATIONAL BUILDINGS ....... 43
FIG. 15. CALCULATED CHANGE IN CO2 CONCENTRATION IN A TYPICAL ESTONIAN CLASSROOM
(NATURAL VENTILATION).............................................................................................. 45
FIG. 16. LOGGER POSITION IN THE CLASSROOM ..................................................................... 46
FIG. 17. MEASURED CO2 CONCENTRATION CHANGE IN A CLASSROOM (NATURAL
VENTILATION) ............................................................................................................... 47
FIG. 18. MEASURED CO2 CONCENTRATION CHANGE IN A CLASSROOM (NATURAL
VENTILATION) ............................................................................................................... 47
FIG. 19. MEASURED CHANGE IN CO2 CONCENTRATION IN A CLASSROOM WITH MECHANICAL
CENTRALIZED VENTILATION ......................................................................................... 48
FIG. 20. MEASURED CHANGE IN CO2 CONCENTRATION IN A CLASSROOM WITH MECHANICAL
CENTRALIZED VENTILATION ......................................................................................... 49
FIG. 21. LOCATIONS OF ROOM UNITS ..................................................................................... 50
FIG. 22. MEASURED CHANGE IN CO2 CONCENTRATION IN A CLASSROOM (VENTILATION WITH
ROOM UNITS) ................................................................................................................ 50
FIG. 23. MEASURED CHANGE IN CO2 CONCENTRATION IN A CLASSROOM (VENTILATION WITH
ROOM UNITS) ................................................................................................................ 51
FIG. 24. MEASURED CHANGE IN CO2 CONCENTRATION IN A CLASSROOM (VENTILATION WITH
ROOM UNITS) ................................................................................................................ 51
FIG. 25. MEASURED CHANGE IN CO2 CONCENTRATION IN A CLASSROOM (VENTILATION WITH
ROOM UNITS) ................................................................................................................ 52
FIG. 26. INDOOR AIR CO2 CONCENTRATION IN THE OBSERVED VENTILATION SYSTEMS ......... 53
FIG. 27. DURATION GRAPH OF INDOOR AIR CO2 CONCENTRATION (ROOM BASED UNITS) ...... 53
FIG. 28. SPECIFIC ENERGY CONSUMPTION OF OFFICE BUILDINGS ........................................... 54
FIG. 29. SPECIFIC ENERGY CONSUMPTION OF COURT HOUSES ................................................ 55
FIG. 30. SPECIFIC ENERGY CONSMUPTION OF POLICE DEPARTMENTS ..................................... 55
FIG. 31. DISPERSION OF SPECIFIC ENERGY CONSUMPTION OF PUBLIC BUILDINGS ................... 56
FIG. 32. MEASURED ENERGY BALANCE OF A TEN-STOREY OFFICE BUILDING ......................... 57

11
FIG. 33. MEASUREMENT RESULTS OF THE MONITORING STATION F3 ..................................... 78
FIG. 34. SEA WATER PROFILE OF THE COASTAL AREA OF TALLINN ........................................ 80
FIG. 35. THE PRINCIPLE SCHEME OF THE SEA WATER DISTRICT HEATING AND COOLING PLANT
..................................................................................................................................... 81

12
Preface

The dissertation is a conclusion of my research work conducted in 2008-2012 in the

Chair of Heating and Ventilation, in the Institute of Environmental Engineering of
Tallinn University of Technology.

Special gratitude is expressed to my supervisor prof. Teet-Andrus Kõiv. Without his

constant motivation and support the studies would definitely not have been
successful. Especially the first years of my Ph.D. studies were strongly promoted by
him and it gave both courage and strength to continue as an independent young
researcher. Furthermore, by the period of dissertation writing his help was
irreplaceable.

In addition, I would like to thank Targo Kalamees for his comments and hospitality
during the years. The research that guided me to my best article started from our
visit to Aalto University. Kaido Hääl is the person who linked my studies to the
Chair of Heating and Ventilation after several years of my Barchelor’s degree in
Thermal Engineering. Ala Hasan, Mohammed Hamdy from Aalto University and
Mika Vuolle from Equa Simulations have helped me a lot with optimization
problems. Also the consultation and help from Hendrik Voll has helped me out in
several occasions. I thank you all.

Different research projects and development work has been carried out in
cooperation with Endrik Arumägi, Alo Mikola, Mikk Maivel, Kalle Kuusk, Martin
Thalfeld and Simo Ilomets. Lately also with Aivar Uutar. I wish you all the best
with your Ph.D. studies.

Even more I would like to thank all of my family members for supporting me in joy
and sadness. You have been patient and understanding and I love you all. There will
be enough time for you as well.

During my studies I have worked in engineering and development companies. I

believe this keeps the head clear and fully focussed on real problems faced in
everyday design, construction and real estate development business. The applied
science will touch their limits only in cooperation between companies and
universities.

Allan Hani

13
Introduction
In the dissertation the issues of energy efficiency and building services for different
types of buildings are analysed. During the last twenty years in Eastern Europe
special attention has been paid to reducing energy consumption and creating
comfortable indoor environment in buildings. Global warming is an issue in the
whole world. Scientists argue whether it is directly caused by carbon dioxide
emission or not. Actually it is not so important. It is more important that Kyoto
protocol has been signed by most countries to fight global warming by lowering
greenhouse gas emissions into the atmosphere and reducing waste of energy. The
European Union (EU) member states have defined a challenging 20-20-20 target
among themselves:
A reduction in EU greenhouse gas emissions of at least 20% below 1990 levels;
20% of EU energy consumption to come from renewable resources;
A 20% reduction in primary energy use compared with projected levels, to be
achieved by improving energy efficiency.
In buildings all these targets have to be achieved without lowering the quality of
indoor climate. Due to relatively low energy prices during the Soviet period, the
energy efficiency of the existing Eastern Europe building stock is low.
Reconstruction has been started but a long way is still ahead. In Estonia the
majority of building reconstruction is carried out in Tallinn. The contribution of
other bigger towns is still modest. Attention has to be paid to both old and new
buildings, therefore the minimum requirements for the energy efficiency of
buildings have been defined by Estonian Government. These requirements are valid
for both reconstruction and new buildings. Recently a new term Nearly Zero Energy
Buildings (NZEB) was introduced, which will lead to local energy production. In
case local energy production exceeds local energy consumption, the surplus can be
sold to the network. This is the aim of the process, but legal and technical problems
will be overcome by 31 December 2018 when all new public buildings in Estonia
must meet NZEB requirements. At the beginning of 2020 all new buildings will be
NZEB.

The literature review of the current dissertation is divided into four major sections,
which give an overview of earlier research done on the energy efficiency of the
building sector.
- energy consumption of buildings;
- optimization of building variables;
- indoor climate in school buildings;
- heat pumps for dictrict heating and cooling.

14
The first part of the current dissertation comprises energy calculation principles.
Degree day calculations, dynamic simulations and the combination of dynamic
simulation-optimization principles are presented.
The degree day calculation method for apartment buildings is analyzed. The
comparison of degree day calculations and dynamic simulations is presented. The
indicated degree day calculations can be used with sufficient accuracy only for
typical Soviet apartment buildings. Very conservative variation of window sizes is
allowed – change in the solar free heat gain spoils the accuracy of calculations.
A variety of dynamic simulation tools is available. Hourly basis calculations can be
done with typical local climate data (Test Reference Year), indoor climate
conditions, different structures and building systems. Validation of dynamic
simulation tools as well as human errors affect the accuracy of calculations. In
addition, the calculations of energy performance value of different energy sources
are presented for apartment buildings.
In the past ten years a combination of simulation and optimization software has
been developed. The combination of dynamic simulation tools and optimization
solvers requires large computational power, but nowadays it is no longer a problem.
An enormous amount of simulations can be done to find a solution to the objective
function (minimum or maximum). Also constraints can be applied to the functions.
The calculations and results can present economically feasible solutions of
structural and building services with certain defined indoor climate conditions.
Validation of the simulation model and human programming errors can lower the
accuracy of these combined calculations. As a practical approach the demand for
heating and cooling energy for different facades of office buildings is presented in
relation with different window parameters.

The second part of the disseration includes an investigation and analysis of energy
efficiency and building services for residential, educational and public buildings.
The energy consumption of apartment buildings is analyzed. The results are
presented in figures to give a quick overview. Only the measured data (thermal
energy and electrical energy) are presented in the main figures.
An untraditional ventilation solution for school buildings - decentralized ventilation
with room units - is investigated. Carbon dioxide measurement results are presented
together with more traditional centralized and natural ventilation. In addition, data
on thermal energy and electrical energy consumption are presented.
In addition to apartment and school buildings energy consumption figures are
presented for public buildings. Also the energy balance of a high rise office
building is analyzed and presented. The information can be applied as one piece of
puzzle to renew the energy performance calculation requirements for office
buildings. However, other similar buildings have to be analyzed to have reliable
data. A preliminary investigation of the heat pump solution for office buildings for
the coastal area of central Tallinn has been carried out, in which both heating and
cooling opportunities are analyzed.

15
 1. Literature Review

1.1 Energy consumption of buildings

Energy prices are rising continuously in most countries in the world. Currently the
targets are to consume less energy and produce more green energy. The building
sector is responsible for approximately 40% of the consumption from the total
energy balances of countries in the EU and USA. In developing countries the value
is around 20%. A comprehensive research conclusion was presented in 2007 [1] by
Luis Pérez-Lombard, José Ortiz and Christine Pout. The biggest consumers of the
non-domestic building sector are supermarkets, hospitals, restaurants and SPAs.
Research on the distribution of urban energy consumption in the USA [2] shows a
variety of energy consumption of residential, public and industrial buildings. Also
energy balances for residential and public buildings are presented. Electrical energy
consumption in public buildings is a concern. Public buildings in London have been
researched by [3,4] M. Kolokotroni, X. Ren, M. Davies, A. Mavrogianni and Ruchi
Choudhary. In conclusion, the range of specific energy consumption values of
office buildings is very wide. In addition, a scenario of energy consumption in
London until 2050 is presented. Similar scenarios could also be suggested for other
countries. Statistical analysis of Chinese buildings has been carried out to some
extent [5, 6]. Dispersion diagrams are presented (offices, hotels, governmental
buildings). Malaysian office buildings are compared with other countries [7]. Also
economic calculations of variable speed drives of electrical motors were carried out
and this solution can be suggested. The calculated energy consumption and real
measurement results differ 1.2-1.5 times in many cases [8,9]. The calculation
methods should be revised. In order to have more precise calculation results the
iterative calibration process for dynamic simulations has been prepared [10].
Already in 2002 strategies based on envelope shape and other building parameters
were suggested for designing low energy office buildings [11]. This information is
valuable and can be used by architects, engineers and design companies. In China
the trends for heating and cooling energy consumption in different climate areas
have been researched. The scenario for the period of 2009-2100 has been presented
by [12] Kevin K.W. Wan, Danny H.W. Li, Dalong Liu and Joseph C. Lam. To
lower the cooling load and glaring of light in buildings windows can be coated with
protective films [13]. The solution suits well for older buildings. A very interesting
research on LEED certification effects on energy consumption has been done in
North America [14]. On average, LEED buildings consume 18-39% less energy per
floor area than others. However, 28-35% of LEED buildings consume more energy
per floor area than others. Lowering the air change rates of ventilation reduces
energy consumption. A good solution is to use 8 l/s per person and lower the
ventilation rate when unoccupied [15]. There are no certain saving measures that
are applicable to all buildings. Energy saving measures for public buildings can

16
only be selected case by case. To some extent certain energy saving packages can
be created for residential buildings.

1.2 Optimization of building variables

Building optimization has recently been used in a number of countries to perform
an enormous number of iteration calculations to find cost optimal solutions for
buildings. Daniel Tuhus-Dubrow, Moncef Krarti have used DOE-2, Perl application
and Matlab for optimizing the shape of a residential building envelope [16] [17].
TRNSYS and Matlab calculations have been done for the optimization of the
cooling system by K.F. Fong, V.I. Hanby, T.T. Chow [18]. Hanna Jedrzejuk,
Wojciech Marks have used a tailor-made solution for the optimization of the walls
and heat source of a building [19]. Gianluca Rapone, Onorio Saro researched
solutions for office building shading with the combination of Energy Plus and
GenOpt in 2011 [20]. Energy Plus and GenOpt have been combined for indoor
comfort and hydronic heating optimization by Natasa Djuric, Vojislav Novakovic,
Johnny Holst, Zoran Mitrovic [21]. Multi-layered walls have been optimized with
genetic algorithms by V. Sambou, B. Lartigue, F. Monchoux, M. Adj [22]. Energy
Plus and Matlab have been used by Jingran Ma, JoeQin, TimothySalsbury, PengXu
to show the economic efficiency of demand controlled ventilation systems in [23].
Weimin Wang, Radu Zmeureanu, Hugues Rivard have described the concept of
green building optimization with multi-objective genetic algorithms [24]. M.
Mossolly, K.Ghali, N.Ghaddar have used Matlab to optimize control strategy for an
air-conditioning system [25]. HVAC system optimization results have been
published by Lu Lu, Wenjian Cai, Lihua Xie, Shujiang Li, Yeng Chai Soh [26].
TRNSYS and GenOpt thermal comfort has been optimized by Laurent Magnier,
Fariborz Haghighat [27]. Research on the optimal supply air temperature of VAV
systems has been published by Fredrik Engdahl, Dennis Johansson [28]. The
combination of Excel and Matlab for calculating building retrofit strategies has
been suggested by Ehsan Asadi, Manuel Gameiro da Silva, Carlos Henggeler
Antunes, Luķs Dias [29]. Single and multi-objective approaches for the overall
energy efficiency of the building façade have been demonstrated by Giovanni
Zemella, Davide De March, Matteo Borrotti, Irene Poli [30]. Possibilities of energy
conservation in buildings have been studied by V. Siddharth, P.V. Ramakrishna, T.
Geetha, Anand Sivasubramaniam with DOE-2.2 and genetic algorithms [31]. Multi-
parameter thermal optimization (APACHE software) has been done by A. Saporito,
A.R. Day, T.G. Karayiannis, F. Parand [32]. A comprehensive study of the energy
consumption of a building and indoor environment optimization has been done by
Mohamed Hamdy, Ala Hasan, Kai Siren (Matlab + IDA ICE combination) [33]. In
2004 Micheal Wetter stated the following: "discussions with IDA ICE developer
showed that IDA-ICE might indeed be a promising tool for use with our
optimization algorithms (GenOpt). However, without extensive numerical
experiments and code analysis, it is not possible to conclude that IDA-ICE satisfies
our requirements" [34]. In the current dissertation a combination of IDA ICE and

17
GenOpt is presented. This combination has already been used by Ala Hasan, Mika
Vuolle and Kai Siren [35], but here a façade optimization has been carried out.

1.3 Indoor climate in school buildings

According to previous regulations in Estonia, which were enforced by the Ministry
of Social Affairs, the maximum allowed CO2 concentration in schools was 1000
ppm [36]. It is still commonly known as good construction practice. In most cases
this figure is not achievable without bigger investments into and higher life cycle
costs on ventilation systems.
Investigations have discovered diseases, headache and lethargy in patients in case
CO2 concentrations exceed 10 000 ppm [37].
Studies in Europe also refer to problems related to CO2 concentrations in schools.
The studies carried out in Dutch schools show that in some cases the CO2 level is
more than 5000 ppm at the back of a classroom. 7 schools had CO2 levels between
1500 – 3700 ppm [38]. A comprehensive study of 141 schools [39] done by Wim
Zeiler, Gert Boxem gives the following results, Table 1:

Table 1. Dutch studies: CO2 levels

Study No. schools CO2 levels [ppm]
Average Range
1984 11 1000 500-1500
1990 6 1290 950-1950
1995 6 1320 700-2700
1997 96 990 425-2800
2004 5 1220 480-2400
2004 11 1580 450-4700
2005 6 1355 550-3000

A study in the United Kingdom (UK) in 2 different classrooms shows the average
CO2 concentration of 1638 ppm and 2086 ppm by the outdoor concentration of 593-
709 ppm [40]. Table 2 presents the weekly average results of the study in primary
schools in the UK in 2001.

Table 2. UK studies: CO2 levels

School CO2 levels [ppm]
Range
1 200-1300
2 300-2000
3 300-3500

18
 School CO2 levels [ppm]
Range
4 310-2830
In the UK studies in most cases the CO2 range during the occupation of the
classrooms was above 1000 ppm.
The overall air quality in educational buildings is usually worse than the normative
allows. A similar situation can also be found in Estonian schools.
In Estonia the internal climate in educational buildings has been studied and
analyzed in different investigations [41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49].
A comprehensive theoretical analysis of the air change rate and CO2 levels
generated by occupants and level prediction possibilities with simulation
calculations has been carried out [50] by T. Lu, A. Knuutila, M. Viljanen, X. Lu.
An interesting study of natural ventilation possibilities in schools has been
conducted in the UK [51]. The results are in Table 3.

Table 3. Natural ventilation: CO2 levels during 8:40-15:00

Weekday CO2 levels [ppm]
Average Range
Monday 1504 601-2804
Tuesday 1303 489-2718
Wednesday 735 296-1770
Thursday 691 341-1940
Friday 1208 345-2608

The figures are promising but in reality they are achieved by opening the windows.
There are also several other parameters of indoor climate that affect the indoor air
quality and thermal comfort negatively. Therefore this solution should not be
recommended for educational buildings. It is also necessary to carry out a study
throughout a year. Furthermore, the Sick Building Syndrome (SBS) caused by
insufficient air change is very dangerous in children’s institutions [52, 53, 54].
It is commonly known that the indoor climate and the CO2 levels depend on the
type of ventilation and its functioning [55], Table 4.

Table 4. CO2 levels for different types of ventilation

Room CO2 levels, [ppm] Ventilation type
No Average Max
1.1 960 1857 Natural
1.2 1054 1725 Natural
2.1 789 1047 Mechanical
2.2 733 880 Mechanical
3.1 853 1472 Hybrid
3.2 1100 1615 Mechanical

19
 Room CO2 levels, [ppm] Ventilation type
No Average Max
4.1 1801 4016 Natural
4.2 1255 2676 Natural
5.1 1536 3181 Natural
5.2 2636 5567 Natural
6.1 1185 2570 Natural
6.2 1391 2585 Natural
7.1 1972 2530 Natural
7.2 1778 3109 Natural
8.1 932 2578 Natural
8.2 1031 2488 Natural
9.1 1695 3359 Natural
9.2 1199 2590 Natural

1.4 Heat pumps for district heating and cooling

The European Union 20-20-20 targets emphasize the implementation of renewable
energy sources in the energy balances of the member states. Sea water is a large
renewable energy source, which can be combined with reversible heat pump
technology to produce both thermal and cooling energy. The working principle is
similar to geothermal energy production, but sea water allows better utilization of
free cooling during the spring and autumn periods. The heat pump technology is
studied widely around the world. A comprehensive review of the implementation
possibilities of heat pump systems in different fields and also recent improvement
with the coefficient of performance (COP) has been presented [56] by K.J. Chua,
S.K. Chou and W.M.Yang. The rapid growth of heat pump technology in 2005-
2010 has been documented [57, 58]. The feasibility of the technology of the sea
water heat pump is compared with conventional district heating, in case the network
radius is less than 5 km [59]. The calculation includes the losses of electricity
production in coal-fired plants and the pumping costs. When electricity is produced
from natural gas, the radius decreases. The feasibility of different production
options of district heating and cooling has been studied [60] by Haiwen Shu, Lin
Duanmu, Chaohui Zhang and Yingxin Zhu. The life cycle costs are included
(installation, system operating, maintenance costs). Sea water district heating and
cooling is 1.5 times more expensive in China, due to the relatively low price of
coal-produced electrical energy. All economic calculations should be carried out
separately for each project. Indirect sea water cooling for Japanese commercial
buildings has been researched [61] by Young-hak Song, Yasunori Akashi and
Jurng-Jae Yee. A thermal storage tank of 4500 m3 is used. The storage tank covers
32% of the peak load of cooling. The difference of water temperature utilized is 7K
(5-12 oC). The cooling capacity of chillers is 2.3 MW. Bigger benefit was received
by reducing maintenance costs (not suggestable) and slight saving was achieved by

20
lowering the initial cost. The boiler plant and heat pump technologies were
compared using the quasi-dynamic energy-saving calculation [62]. The static
calculations that the authors presented earlier the same year (2010) underestimated
the feasibility of sea water district heating and cooling by 20%. A similar study has
been carried out in Japan [63]. Compared to conventional systems (the cooling
tower and heating boiler plant) a saving of 29% was achieved for district cooling
and 5% for district heating. In Sweden the short and long term impacts of heat
pump technology have been compared with district heating systems [64]. In total 6
TWh of thermal energy was produced in Sweden in 2007. The energy optimization
tool MODEST was used for systems modelling. In the total thermal energy balance
of Sweden, although heat pump systems for district heating will be developed on a
small scale, combined heat and power from renewable energy resources (CHP) is
preferred. Nevertheless, in the case of Estonia the share of cooling energy of the
selected buildings is higher than that of thermal energy. Therefore in certain coastal
areas free cooling from sea water could be feasible and ecologically friendly. In
Germany de-nuclearization as a process has been started [65]. Storage and
transportation possibilities of renewable energy have been presented in the article.
The problems have been laid on the table, but solutions are still fully open. In
Greece the demand for cooling largely dominates over the heating demand [66].
The proposed systems are the opposite of our solutions – extra cooling towers are
used to cover peak cooling loads. Heat pumps have been suggested to meet the
average demand for heating and cooling buildings. Groundwater open loop heat
pump systems have been researched [67]. The water storage tank is used either on
the side of chilled water or groundwater. On the side of chilled water a 10% saving
was achieved due to a better COP. A study of environmental impacts of different
heat sources (the coal boiler, gas boiler and heat pump with different COP) has been
presented [68]. All the heat pumps with the COP > 2.5 are more environmentally
friendly to install than gas boilers. Coal boilers should be avoided. Low temperature
heating will give a better COP [69]. In our case of sea water district heating and
cooling new buildings will have low temperature heating and in the existing
buildings high temperature district heating will be combined with the heat pump
system. Different connection possibilities have been presented in the research on
combining the existing district heating and the new heat pump technology [70]. The
optimization study of heat pump heat exchangers [71] gives a comprehensive
overview of the selection principles of the heat exchanger. Different new
implementation options and heat pump refrigerants have been presented in
exhaustive articles [72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78]. The feasibility and technical
possibilities are closely related to different boundary parameters: - the temperature
profile and salinity of sea water; - outdoor climatic conditions;
- the geology of the coastal area;
- the possibilities of constructing sea water and district network pipelines;
- the heating and cooling loads of the connectable buildings;
- the temperature regimes of the pipelines;
- secure energy supply.

21
 2. The calculation methods of energy consumption

2.1 Degree day calculations

The current method for the energy auditing of typical residential buildings belongs
to the field of thermal engineering and construction [79]. The method is mainly
used as a simplified way of calculating energy consumption. Variable degree-days
and specific heat losses are used to determine the energy consumption for heating.
The balance temperature is determined by a package of measures. The free heat
load of a residential building is determined by the factor of free heat utilization,
which depends on the control level of the heating system. The method suits well for
typical apartment buildings. Due to different window areas in other types of
residential buildings the proportion of free heat from solar radiation varies,
therefore template calculations cannot be applied.

Determination of free heat in a residential building

The sources of free heat in the building are people, electric devices, electric lighting
and solar radiation.
The main components of the free heat load are calculated using the formula (1).

Φ AFH = Φ PEOP + Φ LIGHT + Φ EQUIP + Φ SOLAR , (1)

where ΦAFH is the average free heat load, [kW]; ΦPEOP is the average effective free
heat load from people, [kW]; ΦLIGHT is the average effective free heat load from
electric lighting, [kW]; ΦEQUIP is the average effective free heat load from
equipment, [kW]; ΦSOLAR is the average effective free heat load from solar radiation,
[kW].

The respective free heat loads Φfree are determined by the amounts of free heat
energy Qfree
and the duration of the respective period τ (2)

Φfree = 1000·Qfree/τ (2)

where Qfree is the free heat energy of the building, [MWh]; τ is the duration of the
period, [h].

22
Determination of the balance temperature on the basis of free heat

On the basis of degree days it is possible to calculate the heat requirements for
heating a building using the formula (3)

Qk = H⋅S⋅24⋅10-3 (3)

where S is the number of degree-days corresponding to the balance temperature of

the building; 24 is the number of hours in a day; H is the specific heat losses,
[kW/K], determined by the formula (4).

Specific heat losses of the building

n
H =  U i ⋅ Ai + L ⋅ c ⋅ ρ (4)
i =1

where Ui is the U-value of envelope element i, [W/(m2⋅K)]; Ai is the area of

envelope element i, [m2]; n is the number of different envelope elements; L is the air
change, [m3/s]; c is the specific heat of the air, [J/(kg⋅K)]; ρ is the density of the air,
[kg/m3].

To show the heat conservation obtained by renovation more precisely, it is

expedient to use the degree days with a variable balance temperature.
In renovating a building (e.g. insulating the envelope elements) the specific heat
losses decrease and thus affect the balance temperature.
The internal air temperature of a building is made up of the heat provided by the
heating system and free heat (5)
tint = text + Δtheat + Δtfh (5)

Balance temperatures can be calculated using the formula (6)

tB = tint - Δtfh (6)

where tint is the internal air temperature; text is the external air temperature; tB is the
balance temperature; Δtfh is the rise in the temperature due to free heat playing a
role in the heat balance of the building.

The rise in the temperature due to free heat can be calculated applying the formula
(7)

Δtfh = 1000⋅Φfree / H (7)

23
The useful free heat load needed to determine the balance temperature is
determined by the formula (8)

Φfree=Φdfree*η (8)

where Φdfree is the design free heat load, [W]; Η is the utilization factor.
The value of the utilization factor depends on the control level of the heating
system. (e.g. if the temperature of the flow water of the heating systems is
controlled by the external air temperature and the heat output of the radiators is
controlled, we can make more use of free heat than if we control only the
temperature of the flow water).
Calculations show that following complex renovation of apartment buildings the
use of the balance temperature makes it possible to specify the saving calculations
considerably well. This can be seen in the duration graph of the external air
temperature Fig. 1.

Fig. 1. Duration diagram of external air temperature in Tallinn and different balance
temperatures: 1-tb=17°C; 2- tb=14°C

24
The diagram in Fig. 1 shows that a decrease in the balance temperature brings about
a decrease in the area between the balance temperature and the external air
temperature, which is proportional with the heat requirements of a building.
The analysis carried out showed that the calculation method based on free heat is
more precise than the graphic one [80].
It is simple to consider the joint effect of the saving measures and to assess the
amount of minimum investment of the saving package necessary from the
standpoint of the construction of the building and indoor climate in typical
apartment buildings.

2.1.1 Comparison of degree day calculation and dynamic

simulations

The following presents a comparison of two different calculation methodologies:

the degree-day method and calculation of energy demand with dynamic simulation
tools for apartment buildings.
In 2009 research on energy consumption was conducted for apartment buildings in
the major cities of Estonia. Real measuring of energy consumption has been
compared with the calculation methods. As calculation methods both degree-day
and dynamic simulations were carried out. In total 12 apartment buildings in the
towns of Tallinn, Tartu and Narva were studied. Energy consumption of real
measurements and dynamic simulations was compared.
Theoretical original condition and two renovation packages were calculated with
both calculation methods. Dynamic simulations were carried out using software
BV2.
- Package 0 contains an original typical Soviet apartment building. The
thermal conductivities of the envelope have not been changed. The air
change rate is 0.45 [1/h] in theoretical calculations.
- Package A contains the following renovations – the heating system has
been replaced and equipped with thermostatic valves. The side walls and
roof of the building have additional thermal insulation. The windows and
doors have been replaced with modern ones. The calculated air change rate
is 0.6 [1/h].
- Package B includes all package A renovations. In addition, the front walls
have additional thermal insulation.
The calculation results can be seen in Fig. 2. The results do not include the energy
consumption of domestic hot water heating.

25
Fig. 2. Calculated and measured heating energy consumption

The results show sufficient accuracy between degree day and dynamic simulation
calculations, but there are some major issues to be kept in mind with using the
degree-day method:
- the selection of buildings was among typical Soviet prefabricated panel
apartment buildings;
- only a few different window sizes were included in the calculations, so the
degree-day method cannot be applied for different window areas (e.g. for
new apartment buildings);
- the degree-day method cannot be applied to detached houses either due to
different window areas and internal heat gains compared to the researched
buildings;
- the degree-day method is well applicable for retrofit estimations of old
apartment buildings;
- if the solar heat gain and window relation can be presented in more detail,
the degree-day calculations can also be well fitted for new apartment
buildings and detached houses. Currently the effect of solar heat gain is
under research.

2.2 Dynamic simulations

The calculation method to verify the conformity of buildings to energy performance
requirements in Estonia is the dynamic simulation. The regulation on the minimum
energy performance requirements of buildings came into effect in Estonia in 2007

26
(EGo ordinance no. 258, 2007). It applies to new buildings as well as significantly
reconstructed existing buildings. Compliance with the requirements for a building is
checked when the building permit is issued by the local government. The minimum
energy performance requirements are expressed as an energy performance value:
the EP-value, [kWh/(m2 year)]. Besides the energy performance value, summer
indoor temperatures should be checked to see if they fulfil the requirements. The
EP-value is calculated applying the formula (9):

1000
EP-value= ⋅ (QH ⋅ C H + QC ⋅ C C + QV ⋅ CV + QHW ⋅ C HW + QEL ⋅ C EL ) ,
AH
kWh/(m2 year) (9)

where QH and QC are annual energy consumption for heating and cooling, QV is
annual energy consumption for ventilation, QHW is annual energy consumption for
hot water, QEL is annual electricity consumption (lighting, equipment, ventilators,
pumps, etc.) and C H , C C , CV , C HW , and C EL are coefficients which take into
account the effectiveness of primary energy production and the impact of a
particular source on the environment (e.g. wood-based fuels 0.75, district heating
0.9, natural gas 1, electricity 1.5). In Estonia these factors have been determined by
political, economic and technical aspects. AH is the size of the heated floor space.

The energy performance value is calculated for buildings in standardized use

(certain indoor temperatures, internal heat gains and their profiles, ventilation, etc.).
Calculations for EP-values should be done using dynamic simulation software.
Dynamic simulation tools have to allow including data on outdoor weather, indoor
temperatures, building envelope, different building systems, building utilization
profiles, etc. to make it possible to carry out the annual calculation.

According to the previous regulation on the minimum energy performance

requirements of buildings, the EP-values in apartment buildings should not exceed
150 [kWh/(m2 year)] for new buildings and 200 [kWh/(m2 year)] for significantly
reconstructed buildings. During the summer period the upper limit for the duration
of 27ºC is 150 degree-hours [ºCh]. In this study energy performance is analyzed for
typical apartment buildings to determine a possible change in the EP-values in
Estonia.

The analysis of energy performance requirements for apartment buildings

Hereby, the simulation results of significantly reconstructed five-storey apartment

buildings are presented. Dynamic simulations have been done with IDA Indoor
Climate and Energy 4,0 software. Estonian Test Reference Year [81] is used for

27
outdoor climate. The simulation model is validated with the energy consumption
figures of the last three years and the data on indoor climate measurements. The
measured weather dependent energy consumption is corrected with the simple
degree-day’s method (balance temperature t bal = 17 ºC).

Dynamic simulation cases

Solutions of different structure and building systems are calculated to find out the
reliability of energy performance values for apartment buildings (Table 5.):
Version A. An existing validated building (envelope not corresponding to
contemporary requirements – poorly insulated walls, roof; un-insulated
basement floor; windows, balcony doors partly replaced; external doors
replaced; no thermostatic valves installed to heating radiators; natural
ventilation);
Version B. A partly renovated building in standard-use conditions (insulated side
walls, roof; windows, balcony doors replaced; thermostatic valves
installed to heating radiators; mechanical exhaust ventilation);
Version C. A fully renovated building in standard-use conditions (insulated walls,
roof; windows, balcony doors replaced; thermostatic valves installed to
heating radiators; de-centralized mechanical ventilation with heat
recovery of exhaust air);
Version D. Building structures meet the requirements according to Estonian
standard EVS 837-1:2003.
Version E. A low energy consuming building in standard-use conditions.

Table 5. Building structures and systems

Version
A B C D E
Thermal conductivity U, [W/(m2⋅K)]
External wall 1.0 0.3 0.3 0.24 0.1
Roof 0.8 0.27 0.27 0.19 0.08
Floor 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.31 0.13
Windows 2.5 1.7 1.7 1.2 0.6
Exterior doors 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.6 0.4
Balcony doors 1.7 1.7 1.7 1.7 0.6
Air tightness of building envelope q50,
4 3 3 3 0.6
[m3/(h⋅m2)]
Ventilation air change rate, [l/(s m2)] 0.3 0.42 0.42 0.42 0.42
Heat recovery temperature efficiency, [%] 0 0 60 60 85
Exhaust air min temperature, [ºC] - - 5 °C 5 °C 0 °C

28
 2.2.1 Energy performance requirements for apartment buildings

Annual specific energy consumption was simulated for each version. The
calculations of the EP-values were based on the efficiency of heating systems and
coefficients for primary energy consumption, see Fig. 3.

Fig. 3. Results of the EP-value for apartment buildings (horizontal lines represent EP-
requirements for new and existing buildings 150 and 200 [kWh/(m2 year)])

The results of dynamic simulation show that in Estonia the limits of the EP-values
for new and significantly renovated buildings are achievable, but a little challenging
for the existing apartment buildings.
For new apartment buildings whose building envelope (U-values) meets the
requirements according to the Estonian standard EVS 837-1:2003 and the heating
energy of which is provided by a district heating network, the EP-value is very
close to the requirement value (157 and 150 [kWh/(m2 year)] respectively). Supply
and exhaust ventilation with heat recovery is necessary for new apartment buildings
to fulfil the limit of the EP-values. Heat recovery efficiency of 0.6 was used in these
simulations. As the EP-value was very close to the requirement value, a more
efficient ventilation system could be used.
For significantly reconstructed apartment buildings a ventilation system with heat
recovery is technically possible. Decentralized ventilation systems and heat pump
solutions are available nowadays.

29
There is a great difference in the EP-values between heat pumps and other heating
systems. It is caused by the low weighting factor for electricity. Therefore the factor
1.5 will be changed to 2.0.

2.3 Combination of dynamic simulations and optimization

In this section the dynamic of the window area, the solar factor versus cooling and
heating energy consumption in different cardinal directions are described. Due to
the fact that the energy consumption of the façade is evaluated, other building
envelope parameters and internal heat gains are handled as constants.
Hendrik Voll and Teet-Andrus Kõiv have published an article about the principles
of estimating the demand for cooling power and the relations between different
parameters for commercial buildings [82], but energy consumption has not been
researched earlier.
Many researchers describe building simulation software as a tool for the calculation
process. IDA Indoor Climate and Energy, TRNSYS, Energy Plus, eQuest, DOE-2,
etc. are well-known software used to create building models and to perform the
necessary simulations of energy consumption and indoor climate condition. These
tools have been tested and validated through real experimental cases. The
simulation tools are usually used to perform limited numbers of single runs to give
an overview and conclusions of a defined task. As these kinds of software are used
to conduct hourly based calculations throughout a whole year, sufficiently accurate
results of energy consumption are achieved. The probability for these results to run
across the optimum solutions of Pareto frontier is actually very low. One possibility
to find an optimal solution is to use a ‘brute force’ search. This method needs huge
calculation resource due to the fact that all possible combinations are evaluated
[82].
A reasonable approach to achieving an optimal solution is to combine building
simulation tools and optimization software. Optimization software can be
customized for a particular research. Another possibility is to use an existing
solution such as Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory branded GenOpt or
Matlab’s Optimization Toolbox.
Different optimization algorithms are implemented in the optimization software.
Generally the algorithms are divided into single and multi-objective. The selection
of the algorithm depends on the constraints and/or the number of functions to be
optimized. Multi-objective functions can be solved, for example, with the Matlab
Optimization Toolbox, single objective functions with GenOpt.
Technically it is most challenging to combine simulation and optimization tools. All
earlier studies indicate problems with computational hardware power – the
calculation time is related to the number of variables and functions.
Our research is focused on the strategies of heating and cooling energy
consumption for office buildings. Early stages of design affect future energy
consumption for the building most. The objective of this research is to develop

30
quick selection charts for different cardinal directions in relation to the window area
and other envelope parameters.

2.3.1 Optimization of office building façades

A theoretical office building model with conventional use and contemporary

building systems has been developed for façade optimization in continental climate.
Wall, glazing area and window parameters were taken as the main variables. The
objective function of the optimization task described in this dissertation is the
minimization of cooling and heating energy consumption. Optimization of office
building façades was carried out using the combination of IDA Indoor Climate and
Energy 4.5 and GenOpt. The process is described in detail so that the approach may
be emulated. A hybrid multidimensional optimization algorithm GPSPSOCCHJ
was used in the calculation process. The optimization results are presented in four
quick selection charts to assist architects, designers and real estate developers in
making suitable early stage decisions on façade selection.

The building model

An approach for the building shape was created in the IDA Indoor Climate and
Energy 4.5 environment. A square shaped three floor model (floor height 3.0m) is
shown in Fig. 4.

Fig. 4. Shape of the theoretical calculation model

A typical office building is very often a multi-storey compact structure. Therefore,

calculations were done in this case for the first floor to eliminate the physical
effects of the ground and roof. The outdoor climate is based on the data of Table 6,
but with an accuracy of one hour. Indoor climate requirements and conventional use
of office buildings are shown in Table 7, Fig. 6.
Table 8 includes the data on the main envelope and HVAC systems for the model.

IDA ICE 4.5 and GenOpt combination

As the first step, the IDA ICE mathematical model run creates a substantial
ida_lisp.ida file with all defined data and relations between the parameters. The

31
main structure of ida_lisp.ida consists of files, constants, tables, modules,
connections, boundaries, start values, integration and log. To understand the
relationships between the different parameters is technically challenging. The whole
logic has to be understood and tested. For example, an increase in the window area
must decrease the same face wall area and vice versa in the optimization
calculations. The solar factor and shading coefficients also have mathematical
correlation. To create the base IDA ICE model file for optimization calculations we
renamed the ida_lisp.ida file as templ.ida and modified the envelope parameters
mostly in the modules section. The basic scheme of optimization is shown in Fig.
5.

Fig. 5. IDA ICE and GenOpt simulation-optimization process

Convenient search and study of certain parameters in the ida_lisp.ida file can be
achieved by giving clearly identified parameter values in the IDA ICE model to a
particular module (glass, wall, etc.). Understanding of the total ida file puzzle is
time-consuming, but unavoidable for the optimization of IDA ICE calculation
results with optimization tools.
The second step is to create a command.txt file and define variables for the
optimization process. GenOpt can handle discrete and continuous variables [83].
Preprocessing relations between different building parameters are also described in
the command.txt file. For the current paper the correlations between the wall-
window and solar factor-shading coefficients were defined (see the following code).

Vary { Parameter { Name = A1win; Min = 1.2; Ini = 1.2; Max = 10.8; Step = 1.2; }
Function { Name = A1wall; Function = "subtract (12.0, %A1win%)";}
Function { Name = A2wall; Function = "subtract (11.124, %A1win%)"; }
Parameter { Name = sfGl; Min = 0.2; Ini = 0.2; Max = 0.8; Step = 0.2; }
Function { Name = tGl; Function = "multiply (0.87, %sfGl%)"; }}

32
Furthermore, the command.txt file must also contain information about the
optimization algorithm.
The actual optimization process was carried out with the GPSPSOCCHJ algorithm
[85]. GPSPSOCCHJ is a hybrid multidimensional optimization algorithm, which
uses generalized pattern search (GPS) for the first stage search and particle swarm
optimization (PSO) Hooke Jeeves algorithm as a fine search for the solution of a
defined discrete and continuous variable function.
The configuration file idarun.cfg is written only once and it describes the IDA ICE
simulation run parameters.
The third essential file idarun.ini contains information about the locations of the
template, input, log, output, configuration and optimization files. The most
important idarun.ini information is the objective function (in our case the
minimization function) definition. Constraints can be set to the optimization
function, if necessary. The first stage of postprocessing is also done here. For the
different cardinal directions, our study uses the following IDA ICE templ.ida
related code:

Name1 = Energ_kWh; Function1 = "add(%Cool_kWh%, %Heat_kWh%)";

Name2 = negCool_kWh; Delimiter2 = "Emeterloccool.Totenergy";
Name3 = Cool_kWh; Function3 = "multiply(%negCool_kWh%, -1)";
Name4 = Heat_kWh; Delimiter4 = "Emeterlocheat.Totenergy";
Name5 = WinN_SF; Function5 = %sfGl% ;
Name6 = Win_m2; Function6 = %A1win% ;
Name7 = Wall_m2; Function7 = %A1wall% .

Our minimization leading function min f(x) is the minimization sum of cooling and
heating energy related to external wall-glass parameters. Delimited energy
information is recorded separately; therefore we can also present the balance
between cooling and heating separately.

Outdoor climate

Test reference years are widely used for energy performance calculations and
indoor climate analysis. Hourly based outdoor climate data (dry-bulb air
temperature, relative humidity, wind speed, direct solar radiation and diffuse
radiation on horizontal surfaces for 12 months) were used to create the
mathematical model for IDA ICE 4.5 calculations. Comparison of the current study
results for other climatic areas can be done through average monthly and yearly
parameters, which are indicated in Table 6.

33
Table 6. Test reference year parameters
Month Air Relative Wind speed Direct solar Diffuse radiation
tempera- humidity radiation on horizontal
ture [%] [m/s] [MJ/m2] surface
[°C] [MJ/m2]
Jan -3.0 90 5 35.0 39.2
Feb -5.2 89 4 93.4 82.0
Mar -0.1 76 4 308.1 144.2
Apr 4.0 77 4 254.4 190.2
May 11.2 70 4 493.3 269.6
Jun 14.1 73 3 497.8 306.1
Jul 17.2 77 3 606.1 290.8
Aug 15.7 81 3 453.6 229.7
Sep 10.8 82 4 259.0 161.3
Oct 5.8 87 4 143.8 82.9
Nov -0.1 91 4 68.2 37.0
Dec -2.5 86 5 49.7 20.8
Avg. 5.7 81 4 271.9 154.5

Indoor environment and comfort

Category II requirements of EN 15251:2007 were taken as the basis for defining

indoor climate in the simulation-optimization models. This category is considered
as the normal expectation for new buildings and renovations according to
reasonable indoor climate and energy efficiency levels [84].
Table 7 includes the indoor climate parameters used for the calculations.

Table 7. Indoor climate criteria

Indoor environment parameters Constraints

Thermal conditions in winter for energy calculations 20-24 °C [21 °C]

Thermal conditions in summer for energy calculations 23-26 °C [25 °C]
Personnel insulative clothing ~0.5 [clo] summer
~1.0 [clo] winter
Personnel activity level ~1,2 met
Airflow to zones 7 l/s person [1.4 l/s m2]
CO2 level (outdoor 350 ppm) < 850 [ppm]
Relative humidity 25 – 60 [%]
Allowed parameter deviation (working hours) 3[%]

Conventional use of an office-building

Internal heat gains in an average office area are presented in Fig. 6 [85]. The profile
and detailed loads for occupants, equipment and lights were used for calculations in
the IDA ICE 4.5 mathematical model. The profile is used from Monday to Friday –

34
in the theoretical calculations internal heat gains were not estimated for the
weekend.

Fig. 6. Internal heat gains of a typical office area

Building envelope and technical services

The U-values of the building enclosure were selected to be challenging but possible
to achieve in the construction practice for a “low energy building” [86]. Typical
thermal bridge values have been used in the calculations (the effect of thermal
bridges on the heat loss achieves more importance in case superb heat transfer
coefficients are utilized). HVAC systems and other IDA ICE 4.5 simulation input
parameters are indicated in Table 8.

Table 8. Building envelope and HVAC systems parameters

Heat transfer coefficient of the external wall Uw 0.14 [W/(m2 K)]
Heat transfer coefficient of window glass Uwg 0.8 [W/(m2 K)]
Heat transfer coefficient of the window frame Uwf 2.0 [W/(m2 K)]
External wall/ external wall thermal bridge 0.08 [W/K/(m joint)]
External window or door perimeter thermal bridge 0.03 [W/K/(m perimeter)]
Infiltration q50 1.0 [m3/(h m2)]
Building wind exposure Semi-exposed (pressure coefficients)

Heat recovery of the air handling unit (AHU) 80 [%]

AHU SFP 1.7 [kW/(m3/s)]
AHU tsupply to zone (tAHU supply = 16°C) 18 [°C]

35
Optimization of the case and results

In Table 9 below the optimization parameters are defined.

Table 9. Optimization parameters

Variable Type Value

Window area Continuous 10-90%, step 10%

Glass solar factor Continuous 0.2-0.8, step 0.2
Cardinal directions - North, East,
South, West

Four optimization runs were carried out.

GenOpt optimization solver calculated a total of 658 iterations during four

optimization runs for different façade directions. The calculation and post-
processing results are presented in the following 4 figures (Fig. 7, Fig. 8, Fig. 9,
Fig. 10).

Total energy consumption is found from the graphs as the average net energy
demand of the four selected façades [kWh/(m2 year)].

Fig. 7. Optimization results of the northern façade

36
Fig. 8. Optimization results of the eastern façade

Fig. 9. Optimization results of the southern façade

37
Fig. 10. Optimization results of the western façade

The window/wall area ratio (indicated in the secondary axis) will be the primary
directive selection parameter. Energy consumption is directly related to the
window/wall ratio and window glass parameters.
In continental climate conditions with warm summers the solar factor of 0.4 can be
suggested for northern and eastern façades due to higher heat energy demand.
Southern and western façades must have as good a solar factor as possible (in our
case 0.2). High solar factor values must be prevented for all cardinal directions of
the façade even in a cold climate.
These quick selection figures (Fig. 7, Fig. 8, Fig. 9, Fig. 10) can be used by building
architects and developers to make the first quick-selection of the energy
consumption of the building façades. According to the Energy Performance of
Buildings Directive (EPBD) the EU member states must define nearly zero energy
building levels. For new buildings it will be a challenging task to achieve these
levels by 2020, therefore, the current selection charts provide additional information
for early stage estimation of the energy consumption of buildings. .
To study the sensitivity of the above results some single runs for a double skin
façade were carried out. The same principles are applicable for different cardinal
directions. The internal envelope must be thermally well insulated for current
climate conditions. The total solar factor (for both internal and external glazing)
will also have the suggested values. For double skin façades the U-value of
windows has a direct effect on the energy consumption for windows.

38
Furthermore, Tobias Rosencrantz [87] has published the calculation results of
heating net energy for façades in different cardinal directions for similar climatic
conditions in Sweden and there is only slight deviation from our results.
Several IDA ICE single runs showed acceptable indoor climate with the solar
factors of 0.2 and 0.4.

3. Investigation of energy consumption and building

services
3.1 Residential buildings
3.1.1 Energy consumption in apartment buildings

In total thermal and electrical energy consumption of 40 buildings (2006-2010) was

collected and analyzed. Detailed analysis of energy balance was carried out for 14
buildings. Information about reconstruction, heating source, internal air
temperature, air change rate and domestic hot water production is presented in
Table 10.
The following abbreviations are used: DH - district heating; WB - wood fired
boiler; GB - gas fired boiler; DHW - domestic hot water; ACH - air change rate; HS
- heating substation; EL - electrical heaters; win – windows (shows the percentage
of replaced windows); bal - balancing work; full - full reconstruction.

Table 10. Main information about researched buildings

Bld. County Reconstruction Heating Tint avg ACH DHW
source
Envelope Heating [oC] [1/h]
system
A1 Pärnu - - DH 20.0 0.40 HS
A2 Harju 2010 roof 2007 HS, DH 20.0 0.40 HS
300mm, 2008 bal
<2010 win
86%
A3 Saare 2006 roof 2000 HS DH 22.5 0.27 HS
400mm,
2007 win
66%
A4 Tartu 2001 win 2001 HS DH 23.0 0.25 HS
100%
A5 Harju <2010 win - GB 20.0 0.30 HS
85%
A6 Ida- <2010 win 2003 HS, DH 20.5 0.20 HS
Viru 54%, walls 2007 bal
100mm 36%

39
Bld. County Reconstruction Heating Tint avg ACH DHW
source
Envelope Heating [oC] [1/h]
system
A7 Harju 2009 roof 1997 HS, DH 21.0 0.40 HS
200mm, bal
<2010 win
93%
A8 Viljandi <2009 win 2008 full DH 21.0 0.33 HS
89%
A9 Jõgeva - - DH 19.0 0.35 EL
A10 Põlva - - DH 23.0 0.24 EL
A11 Ida- <2008 win - DH 19.0 0.31 EL
Viru 47%
A12 Valga <2008 win - DH 22.0 0.30 EL
63%, doors
A13 Harju <2009 <2009 HS DH 21.0 0.20 HS
win85%
A14 Tartu <2009 win - DH 19.5 0.20 EL
77%
During the actual research, energy audits prepared by professional auditors were
evaluated. In numerous cases systematic errors were found. DHW is prepared with
decentralized electrical heaters, but the auditors have calculated once again the
DHW energy consumption in the heating energy balance, which is not correct. In
the current energy balance calculations all the mistakes have been corrected.
Furthermore, the packages of saving measures did not include ventilation
reconstruction measures. This leads to the fact that in the studied audits no
ventilation improvement was done (2006-2010). The problems of ventilation
reconstruction should be discussed at future auditor training sessions. Solutions
with heat recovery (decentralized room or apartment based ventilation, and exhaust
air heat pump) are available for use in reconstruction projects. In the following Fig.
11 and Fig. 12 the energy balances, specific gross consumption and average specific
consumption of 14 apartment buildings are presented.

40
Fig. 11. Dynamics of energy balance and specific energy consumption in the analyzed
buildings (DHW heated in substation)

Fig. 12. Dynamics of energy balance and specific energy consumption in the analyzed
buildings (DHW heated with electrical heaters in apartments)

41
Fig. 11 and Fig. 12 average specific energy consumption:
- heating 120-140, kWh/(m2heated year);
- air change and infiltration 20-30, kWh/(m2heated year);
- domestic hot water 30, kWh/(m2 heated year);
- electricity 30 without electrical heaters, kWh/(m2 heated year);
- electricity 50 with electrical heaters, kWh/(m2 heated year);
- TOTAL 200 – 250, kWh/(m2 heated year).
The heated area m2 is the basis for specific energy consumption values.
Earlier studies [88] have indicated average specific heating energy consumption of
185 kWh/(m2 year). The results of the current analysis gave 180 – 185 kWh/(m2
year) without electrical energy consumption.
Fig. 13 presents the dispersion of specific thermal and electrical energy
consumption for the analyzed 40 apartment buildings.
Thermal + electrical energy
14

12

10
Number of buildings

0
160-179 180-199 200-219 220-239 240-259 260-279 280-299 300-319
Specific energy consumption, [kWh/(m2 a)]

Fig. 13. Dispersion of specific energy consumption of apartment buildings

The energy consumption of the majority of apartment buildings varies between 180-
220 kWh/(m2 year)

The following observations can be made about residential buildings:

- Reconstruction has usually been carried out without ventilation improvement. To
maintain normal energy consumption heat recovery ventilation must be designed;
- energy auditors’ energy balance calculations occasionally include errors in DHW
handling;

42
- energy consumption for DHW heating is lower with electrical heating compared
to district heating. Nevertheless, electrical energy is more expensive;
- in several cases slight under-heating appears (tint=20 oC).
Reconstruction work has decreased energy consumption to 180-220 kWh/(m2 year)
on average.

3.2 Educational institutions

3.2.1 Energy consumption in school buildings

Thermal and electrical energy consumption of a total of 7 school buildings (2009-

2011) was collected and analyzed. Heat energy consumption is normalized with the
reference year. The following Fig. 14 presents the specific energy consumption of
the studied buildings.

Fig. 14. Specific energy consumption in the analyzed educational buildings

The net area m2 is a basis for specific energy consumption values.

- The average specific thermal energy consumption (includes DHW) is 90
[kWh/(m2net year)];
- The average specific electrical energy consumption is 35 [kWh/(m2net year)];
- TOTAL ~ 125 [kWh/(m2net year)].
The specific consumption value is relatively low, but during 3 months of the year
the usage of school buildings is nearly zero. Also, the net area in typical school
buildings is ca 1.5 times bigger than the heated area [89]. Furthermore, the current

43
allocation of resources to schools supports low energy consumption, but the poor
indoor climate aspects should also be considered [90].

The following observations can be made about educational buildings:

- information about the heated area m2 is usually not available. In further research
this information should be collected. Based on the net area the energy
consumption values are relatively low;
- the ventilation systems are not working properly due to the lack of maintenance
knowledge and control possibilities;
- on several occasions the investment model for schools leads to extreme energy
saving. Poor indoor climate or opening the windows, which is energy inefficient
(air change without heat recovery), are the results;
- simple building management systems for heating substations and ventilation
systems are suggested;
- more attention should be paid to the energy efficient use and reconstruction of
educational buildings .

3.2.2 Indoor climate in school buildings

The correlation between carbon dioxide level and room air change

There is a well proven theoretical formula for estimating the CO2 concentration in
indoor conditions [42, 50] with natural ventilation. Suppose that the initial carbon
dioxide concentration in the air of a classroom before the beginning of a class is Co.
As the class starts, carbon dioxide begins to generate intensively. Air change in the
classroom is relatively low. The distribution of temperature in classrooms is
uniform (conditions are isothermal), supply and exhaust airflows are equal. The
carbon dioxide concentration in the inflow air is Cv and in the outflow air C (the
distribution of carbon dioxide in classrooms is uniform). We can write the balance
equation:

m⋅dτ + L⋅Cv⋅ dτ - L⋅C⋅ dτ - V⋅ dC = 0 (10)

From equation (10)

m  (11)
dC = − d  + C v − C 
 L 

By integration of equation (11)

m
+ Cv − C
L
⋅ τ = − ln L
V m
+ Cv − Co
L (12)

44
where
m - carbon dioxide generation in the classroom, L - air change in the classroom, V -
volume of the room, Cv - carbon dioxide concentration in external air (in supply
air), C - carbon dioxide concentration in the classroom air (in exhaust air), Co-
carbon dioxide concentration in the air of the classroom at the beginning of the
class, τ - time.

From equation (12) we can express the basic equation for carbon dioxide
concentration C at the time moment τ
  − ⋅τ 
L
m  m
C = Cv + −  Cv + − Co  ⋅  e V 
L  L    (13)
It is possible to determine the air change in a room applying the formula (12 or 13)
and taking into account the carbon dioxide concentration (in external air, in the
classroom air at the beginning of a class and in the classroom air at the time
moment of τ), the carbon dioxide generation rate in the classroom and the
parameters of the room, .

Fig. 15 presents a theoretical rise in carbon dioxide during a 45 minute class

(outside air 400 ppm) in a normal Estonian school with classroom volume of about
240 m3 and 25 students.

Fig. 15. Calculated change in CO2 concentration in a typical Estonian classroom (natural
ventilation)

45
The normative [91] defined 1000 ppm as a maximum level for CO2 concentration in
classrooms. Unacceptable conditions will be reached during the first 15 minutes of
the class.
Nevertheless, full ventilation renovation programs are not affordable for all
Estonian schools. Furthermore, there are technical difficulties of building balanced
centralized ventilation systems due to lack of space for technical rooms and
especially for ventilation ducts. There is also a problem with the energy
consumption of centralized units as not all classrooms are used simultaneously.

Experimental measurements

A case study was made in three different classrooms in a school located near
Tallinn (Fig. 16).
All classrooms had a physical volume of 240m3.

CO2
logger

Fig. 16. Logger position in the classroom

The results of the measurements in classrooms with natural ventilation are

presented in Fig. 17 and Fig. 18.

46
 Indoor air CO2 concentration, ppm 3000 30
2750
2500 25

Number of students
2250
2000 20
1750
1500 15
1250
1000 10
750
500 5
250
0 0

Time, hh:mm CO2 concentration Number of students

Fig. 17. Measured CO2 concentration change in a classroom (natural ventilation)

3500 30
Indoor air CO2 concentration, ppm

3000 25

Number of students
2500
20
2000
15
1500
10
1000

500 5
Opened window

0 0

Time, hh:mm CO2 concentration Number of students

Fig. 18. Measured CO2 concentration change in a classroom (natural ventilation)

47
The overview of Fig. 17 and Fig. 18 shows rapid rise in CO2 concentration during
the first class and there is a remarkable correlation with Fig. 15 that presents the
calculation results.
Other measurements were carried out in a classroom with a mechanical supply and
exhaust ventilation system. These systems usually give good air change results in
case they are designed, built and balanced properly. In most cases problems appear
with unbalanced systems or not properly completed balancing of the ventilation
system. The CO2 measurement results can be found in figures Fig. 19 (at 12:00-
13:00 the ventilation unit was switched off) and Fig. 20.

2500 30
Indoor air CO2 concentration, ppm

2250
25
2000

Number of students
1750
20
1500
1250 15
1000
10
750
500
5
250
0 0

Time, hh:mm CO2 concentration Number of students

Fig. 19. Measured change in CO2 concentration in a classroom with mechanical centralized
ventilation

48
 Indoor air CO2 concentration, ppm 1500 30

1250 25

Number of people
1000 20

750 15

500 10

250 5

0 0

Time, hh:mm CO2 concentration Number of students

Fig. 20. Measured change in CO2 concentration in a classroom with mechanical centralized
ventilation

Carbon dioxide levels in the previous figures still exceed the normative of 1000
ppm several times during the school day. EN15251:2007 III category can be
achieved on average.

Ventilating with room units

Five M-WRG room units were installed below the windows in one of the
classrooms.
The technical parameters of M-WRG unit installation are:
- Air volumes 15 – 100 m3/h per unit;
- Crossflow plate heat exchanger with
heat recovery ca 75%;
- Optional electrical heating 3.8 – 34 W (not used in the current case);
- Air filtering G4;
- Sound level 15.5 – 46.5 dB(A)
- EC or DC fans;
- Frost protection;
- Condensate removal to outdoors.

Classes start as at 8:00 as in the previous cases. Children usually appear 15 minutes
earlier. Three CO2 data loggers were spread in the classroom as follows:

49
above the board, in front of the external wall (near the windows) and the internal
wall (near the corridor).
In the following Fig. 21 the installation principle of room ventilation units is
presented.

5 pcs M-WRG
units

Fig. 21. Locations of room units

Some deviations in the measurements can appear due to teachers tuning the speeds
of the M-WRG units to a lower level during the class.
Fig. 22, Fig. 23, Fig. 24, Fig. 25 present the measurement results in correlation with
the number of students.
1500 25
Indoor air CO2 concentration, ppm

1250
20 Number of students
1000
Students in classruum 15
750
10
Free lesson Break
500

5
250

0 0

Time, hh:mm CO2 concentration Number of students

Fig. 22. Measured change in CO2 concentration in a classroom (ventilation with room units)

50
 Indoor air CO2 concentration, ppm 2000 25

1750
20
1500

Number of students
1250 15
1000 Students in classruum

750 10
Break

500
5
250

0 0

Time, hh:mm CO2 concentration Number of students

Fig. 23. Measured change in CO2 concentration in a classroom (ventilation with room units)

2000 30
Indoor air CO2 concentration, ppm

1750
25
1500

Number of students
20
1250 Students in classruum

1000 15
Break
750
10
500
5
250

0 0

Time, hh:mm CO2 concentration Number of students

Fig. 24. Measured change in CO2 concentration in a classroom (ventilation with room units)

51
 Indoor air CO2 concentration, ppm 1750 30

1500 25

Number of students
1250
20
1000
15
Students in classruum
750
10
500
Break

250 5

0 0

Time, hh:mm CO2 concentration Number of students

Fig. 25. Measured change in CO2 concentration in a classroom (ventilation with room units)

Indoor climate and different ventilation solutions

Fig. 26 presents a comparison of the changes in the CO2 concentration with

different ventilation systems based on the research.
3000
Indoor air CO2 concentration, ppm

2500

2000

1500

1000

500

Time, hh:mm

Room units M-WRG Regular supply-exhaust ventilation Natural ventilation

52
Fig. 26. Indoor air CO2 concentration in the observed ventilation systems
The cumulative duration figure (Fig. 27) presents indoor carbon dioxide levels with
room unit based ventilation.

Fig. 27. Duration graph of indoor air CO2 concentration (room based units)

On average 80% of the measured period satisfies the 1000 ppm normative. It is
recommendable to add one more room based unit to one classroom to lower carbon
dioxide concentration and the sound level of the units.

Centralized mechanical ventilation generally gives good results to ensure proper

indoor climate, but there can also be problems. Energy consumption will be high if
classroom usage profiles are not taken into consideration. Also the balancing of the
centralized systems has not been done properly in many cases. VAV systems are a
way to solve the problem, but in reality these systems are noisy, more expensive
and hard to maintain.

Ventilation based on room units is flexible and energy efficient. The main
shortcomings are higher noise levels at some speeds (must be taken into account in
the design process) and human interference into the adjustment of fan speeds. The
solution can be used in the renovation of educational buildings, but the control of
the systems should be carefully planned. Centralized control systems that measure
CO2 are suggested to control the units. Still it is preferable to install room unit
ventilation in apartment buildings and old people’s homes.

53
 3.3 Public buildings

3.3.1 Energy consumption in public buildings

Analysis of 44 public buildings

Thermal and electrical energy consumption of a total of 44 public buildings (2009-

2011) was collected and analyzed. In addition, the electrical energy balance of one
typical new ten-storey office building was analyzed in more depth.
It is more complicated to develop energy saving measures for the public building
sector than for residential buildings. The national heritage board has imposed
justified restrictions on the envelope and finishing of public buildings. Internal
insulation cannot be added due to climatic conditions. Change of windows is either
expensive or not allowed. Reconstruction of the heating system is more complicated
as well (employees and equipment have to be moved; valuable finishing materials
can be destroyed; more expensive heating elements are required by the architect,
etc). Usually roof insulation is the easiest saving measure to be applied.
The current analysis is based on the thermal and electrical energy consumption of
44 public buildings. Heat energy consumption is normalized with the reference
year. The net area m2 is a basis for specific energy consumption values.
The following Fig. 28, Fig. 29, Fig. 30 present thermal and electrical energy
consumption of 22 office buildings, 18 court houses and 4 police departments.
The electrically heated buildings are excluded from average calculations.

Fig. 28. Specific energy consumption of office buildings

54
Fig. 29. Specific energy consumption of court houses

Fig. 30. Specific energy consmuption of police departments

In the following Fig. 31 the dispersion of specific energy consumption of the

analysed buildings is presented.

55
 Thermal + electrical energy
10

7
Number of buildings

0
160-179 180-199 200-219 220-239 240-259 260-279 280-299 300-319 320-339 340-359 360-379
Specific energy consumption, [kWh/(m2 a)]

Fig. 31. Dispersion of specific energy consumption of public buildings

Energy consumption of public buildings varies widely and energy saving measures
can only be worked out case by case.

In the following Table 11 the results of the analysis of thermal and electrical
specific energy consumption for office buildings, court houses and police
departments are presented. Furthermore, there are also shares of thermal and
electrical energy consumption.

Table 11. Results of the analysis of energy consumption in public buildings

Type of public Average specific Average specific Total average
building thermal energy electrical energy specific energy
consumption consumption consumption
kWh/(m2 year) kWh/(m2 year) kWh/(m2 year)
Office buildings 137.1 85.5 222.7
Share 61.6% 38.4%

Courthouses 161.3 73.0 234.3

Share 68.8% 31.2%

Police departments 189.5 141.9 331.4

Share 57.2% 42.8%

Office buildings and court houses have ordinary 8:00 – 18:00 use during working
days, while police departments are partly used 24/7.

56
Measured energy balance of an office building

The importance of electrical energy consumption in new office buildings is

frequently underestimated in our climate. The following Fig. 32 represents the
energy balance of a ten-storey office building. The measurements are based on the
energy consumption in 2011.

Fig. 32. Measured energy balance of a ten-storey office building

The division of electrical energy balance (100%):

- Lighting and electrical equipment (10 floors) 42.2%;
- Cooling (chiller unit, pumps, dry-coolers, split-units) 27.6%;
- Servers 8.9%;
- Ventilation (fans, heating pumps, heat recovery wheel) 7.0%;
- External el. heating (ramp heating, rainwater gullies) 4.7%;
- External and parking area lighting 3.3%;
- Technical rooms and video surveillance 2.8%;
- Heating substation (boilers, pumps) 2.2%
- Elevators 1.3%.
- Due to variable balance temperature during the year the degree-day calculation
method cannot be used for energy balance calculations. Dynamic simulation with
validated consumption values is suggested.

57
Variation in the specific energy consumption of public buildings is wide. Therefore
systematic monitoring of energy consumption and an energy saving plan for each
building is suggested.

The following observations can be made about public buildings:

- there are mainly two types of buildings: very old cultural heritage buildings and
new office buildings;
- for old cultural heritage buildings the envelope reconstruction measures can
almost be excluded (in some cases window, door replacement and roof insulation
can be suggested);
- heat recovery ventilation has been installed in most cases;
- in the new office building the electrical energy consumption was 70% of the total
energy consumption. The biggest electrical energy consumers were the cooling
system and server rooms. The set parameters of ramp heating should also be
adjusted. In the design phase the air change rates of ventilation must be selected
conservatively, but the capacity of air handling units and main ducts should be
selected with reservations. Furthermore, the location of meeting rooms should be
well considered and VAV systems designed.
Parameter adjustment of free cooling according to real room temperatures should be
carried out.

In Appendix A sea water district heating and cooling preliminary research is

presented. This approach could be one possibility to serve efficiently Tallinn coastal
area cooling and heating demand for office buildings.

58
 4. Summary, final conclusions and recommendations for
further research
4.1 Summary
The current dissertation gives an overview of calculation methods of energy
consumption for buildings. In addition, energy consumption of different building
types (residential, educational and public) is analyzed.
The literature review covers scientific research of the last 10 years on the following
topics related to building and HVAC systems:
- the possibilities of reducing energy consumption in buildings;
- combining simulation and optimization tools for energy calculations;
- indoor climate conditions in school buildings;
- the possibilities of the sea water based heat pump for district heating and
cooling.
In the first section of the research work the following calculation methods are
described:
- degree-day calculations;
- validated dynamic simulations;
- the combination of dynamic simulation and optmimization.
Firstly, simple degree-day calculations can be used in cases where the balance
temperature of buildings is relatively constant (typical Soviet apartment buildings).
The effect of solar heat gain is low due to small window sizes.
Secondly, the dynamic simulation model must be validated on the basis of real
measured values of energy consumption. After the validation process different
energy saving scenarios can be created by manually altering the parameters of the
model.
Thirdly, the process of altering the parameters manually in dynamic simulation
software can be automated using the optimization process. Nevertheless, advanced
understanding of some dynamic simulation files is necessary. The advantage of this
principle is maximizing the usage of computational power and minimizing manual
interaction in the calculation process.
In the second section of the dissertation the following topics are presented:
- analysis of energy consumption for residential, educational and public
buildings;
- research on the indoor climate in educational buildings;
The analysis of energy consumption in residential buildings is based on 40
apartment buildings. Detailed energy balances for thermal and electrical energy are
presented for 14 apartment buildings. Six of these buildings have DHW heating
with electrical heaters in apartments, therefore also DHW consumption is reduced.
Generally, energy consumption has decreased in the last years. Unfortunately,
ventilation reconstruction has not started with the necessary speed.

59
In general, energy consumption in schools is quite low (divided into net area), but
in addition to this fact, indoor climate is very poor. Natural and centralized
mechanical ventilation with heat recovery are the main system principles used in
existing schools. The current dissertation also includes real indoor climate
measurements in one school. All different ventilation systems (natural, centralized
mechanical and room unit based) were available. The room unit based system was
analyzed in depth. The results show the possibility of using the system in school
buildings, but the system is preferred for apartment buildings and old people’s
homes.
The selection of public buildings included 44 buildings. The average share of
thermal energy consumption was 60%, and of electrical energy 40%. The dispersion
of energy consumption varies widely – therefore it is necessary to do thorough
research on all buildings case by case. In one modern 10-storey building detailed
energy balance was measured. The share of thermal energy consumption was only
30%. Therefore attention should be paid to electrical energy consumption. Cooling,
server rooms and ventilation are the biggest electrical energy consumers, if not to
take into account lighting an office equipment.
As the heat pump technology is increasingly more used as an energy source of
buildings, the current dissertation Appendix A includes research on sea water
district heating and cooling based on heat pumps. The open loop system is
presented although it is problematic in the Gulf of Finland due to the relatively
conservative depth of the sea. The temperatures vary remarkably during the year in
the depth of 20-25m which worsens the conditions for heat pump technology. But
on the other hand the sea water district heating and cooling is economically more
feasible near the coast (ca 500m) in Gulf of Finland.

4.2 Final conclusions

The intention of the author of the dissertation was to find and present possibilities
of ensuring good indoor climate conditions in buildings in an energy efficient way.
The possibilities of using energy calculation tools have been analysed and
optimization results presented. Also various results of monitoring and calculating
energy consumption have been indicated.

4.3 Recommendations for further work

Energy consumption of apartments has been well researched, but the consumption
of educational and public buildings should be analyzed and monitored in further
studies. Also indoor climate conditions in educational buildings would need more
research and constant monitoring due to poor conditions. In a number of cases the
ventilation rates of public buildings exceed the demand. Therefore technical
possibilities of reconstructing centralized ventilation systems to demand based
ventilation systems would be a serious task. In the current dissertation single
objective building optimization has been carried out. The next step would be a
multiobjective approach. Finally, possibilities of using renewable energy sources in
urban areas should be developed further.

60
Kokkuvõte

Käeolev dissertatsioon annab ülevaate meetoditest hoonete energiaarvutuste

koostamiseks. Lisaks on välja toodud erinevate hooneliikide (elamud,
haridusasutused ja ühiskondlikud honed) energiatarbe analüüs.
Kirjandusülevaade annab ülevaate viimase 10 a teadusuuringutest hoonete ning
nende tehonsüsteemide teemadel:
- Energiatarbe vähendamise võimalused;
- simulatsiooni ja optimeerimise kombinatsioonid hoonete
energiaarvutusteks;
- koolihoonete sisekliima uuringud;
- merevee kasutusvõimalused Tallinna rannaalal sooljuspumbal põhineval
kaugküttel ja –jahutusel.
Esimeses töö pooles on kästiletud alljärgnevaid energiaarvutuste meetodeid:
- Kraadpäevadega arvutused;
- valideeritud dünaamilised simulatsioonid;
- simulatsioonide ning optimeerimise tarkvarade kombineerimine.
Esiteks, lihtsad kraadpäevadega energiaarvutused sobivad hästi hoonetele, kus
hoone tasakaalutemperatuur aasta lõike on suhteliselt püsiv (tüüpilised
nõukogudeaegsed korruselamud). Vabasoojuste päikese osakaalu mõju on tänu
tagasihoidlikele aknasuurustele väiksem.
Teiseks, reaalsete energiatarbimisandetega põhjal valideeritakse dünaamilise
simulatsiooni mudel. See mudel võimaldab käsitsi läbi mängida erinevaid hoone
energiatarbimise stsenaariumeid sõltuvalt füüsikaliste parameetrite muutmisest.
Kolmandaks, käsitsi pidevat parameetrite muutmise protsessi saab lihtsustada
optimeerimistarkvara abiga. Detailne simulatsioonitarkvara failide tundmine ning
toimivusloogikast arusaamine on optimieerimisprotsessi aluseks. Antud lähenemise
eeliseks on maksimaalne arvutijõudlise ärakasutamine minimaalse inimese
osalusega.
Teises dissertatsiooni osas kästiletakse järgnevaid teemasid:
- Elamute, haridusasutuste ning ühiskondlikute hoonete energiatarbe analüüs;
- sisekliima probleemid haritusasutustes;

Elamute energiatarbe analüüs põhineb 40 korruselamul. Detailsed soojuse– ja

elektrienergia bilansid on välja toodud 14 hoonele. Viimatimainitute hulgas on kuus
hoonet, kus sooja tarbevee vamistamine toimub korteripõhiste elektriboileritega.
Sellest tulenevalt on sooja tarbevee tarbimine nendes hoonetes väiksem võrreldes
tsenraalse soojavee tootmisega. Uuringutulemused näitavad pidevat energiatarbe
vähenemist elamute sektoris. Kahjuks on vähe rõhku pandud ventilatsiooni
rekonstrueerimisele.
Üldiselt on koolide energiatarbimine suhteliselt madal. See on tihti tingitud
ebarahuldavast õhuvahetusest. Loomulik ventilatsioon ning mehaaniline tsentraalne
soojustagastusega ventilatsioon on põhilisemad lahendused koolides. Antud töös on
ühe kooli jaoks välja toodud sisekliima reaalsed mõõtmistulemused. Selles hoones

61
olid olemas kolm ventilatsioonisüsteemide lahendust (loomulik, mehaaniline ning
soojustagastusega ruumiagregaatidel põhinev ventilatsioonisüsteem).
Ruumiagregaatidel põhinevat süsteemi on käsitletud detailemalt. Tulemuselt
põhinedes võib välja tuua, et süsteem on koolihoonetes kasutatav, kuid paremini
sobib ruumiagregaatidega lahendus elamutele ning vanadekodudele.
Ühiskondlike hoonete valim käsitleb ka 44 hoonet. Soojusenergia osakaal uuritud
hoonetes oli 60%, elektrienergia 40%. Energia eritarbimiste jaostus ühiskondlike
hoonete puhul on väga lai – seetõttu tuleb hooneid detailselt käsitleda üksikult.
Mõõdetud on kaasaegse kümnekorruselise büroohoone detailne energiabilanss.
Soojuse osakaal energiabilansist oli antud hoones ainult 30%. Seetõttu tuleb
tähelepanu pöörata uute büroohoonete puhul elektrienergiatarbimisele. Suurimad
eraldi elektrienergia tarbijad on jahutussüsteem, serveriruumid ning
ventilatsioonisüsteem, kui mitte arvestada korruste valgustuse ja bürooseadmete
elektritarbimisi.
Kuna soojuspumpasid kasutatakse järjest rohkem hoonete energiatarbe katmiseks,
siis antud töö lisas A on käsitletud mereveel põhinevat soojuspumpade lahendust
kaugkütteks ja –jahutuseks. 21 hoonet on arvestatud liituma võrguga. Esitatud on
merevee kasutamiseks avatud lahendus, kuigi uurida tuleks edaspidi ka suletud
ringiga süsteemi lähtuvalt Soome lahe problemaatilisest sügavusest rannikualal.
Merevee temperatuurkõigub sügavuses -25m liiga palju. See on Soome lahes
sügavus, mis asub majanduslikult mõistlikus kauguses rannast (ca 500 m).

Lõppjäreldused

Toodud töö eesmärk oli leida ja esitada võimalusi hea sisekliima tagamiseks
energiaefektiivsete lahendustega. Energiaarvutuste tööriistastade analüüs ning
fassaadide energiatarbe optimeerimine on käsitletud. Lisaks esitati ka erinevate
hoonetüüpide energiatarbimise jälgimise ning arvutuste tulemused.

Soovitused edaspidisteks uuringuteks

Elamute energiatarve ning sisekliima on uuritud pikaajaliselt, kuid haridusasutused

ning teised avalik-ühiskondlikud hooned vajavad edasis monitoorimist ning
analüüsi. Olukorrast tulenevalt peab lasteaedades ning õppeasutustes pidevat
sisekliiima monitooringut läbi viima, analüüsima suuremas mahus. Paljudel
juhtudel uute avalike hoonete ventilatsiooni õhuvooluhulgad on liiga suured
võrreldes vajadusega. Sellest tulenevalt tuleb rõhku panna tarbimisest sõltuva
ventilatsiooni toimivate lahenduste uurimiseks ning väljaehitamiseks. Käesolevas
töö on käsitletud ühe muutujafunktsiooniga energiatarbe minimeerimist. Järgmine
samm oleks kasutada mitme muutujafunktsiooniga energiatarbe ja sisekliima
optimeerimist. Lisaks tuleb linnatingimustesse edasi uurida taastuvenergiaallikate
kasutusvõimalusi.

62
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Estonian Ministry of Education and Research is greatly acknowledged for funding
and supporting my Ph.D. studies. This support has ensured and kept my motivation
during the past four years. Also the contribution of Archimedes Foundation was
excellent during several projects. In addition, some research was financed by
Estonian Ministry of Economic Affairs and Communications. Finally, the European
Social Foundation financing task 1.2.4 Cooperation of Universities and Innovation
Development, Doctoral School project “Civil Engineering and Environmental
Engineering” code 1.2.0401.09-0080 is acknowledged.

63
Bibliography
Papers presented by the candidate

Hani, A.; Koiv, T.-A. (2012). Optimization of office building façades in a warm
summer continental climate. Building Services Engineering Research and
Technology, 3(3), 222 – 230.

Hani, A.; Koiv, T.-A. (2012). Energy consumption monitoring analysis for
residential, educational and public buildings. Smart Grid and Renewable Energy,
3(3), 231 – 238.

Hani, A.; Koiv, T.-A. (2012). The preliminary research of sea water district heating
and cooling for Tallinn coastal area. Smart Grid and Renewable Energy, 3(3) 246 –
252.

Hani, A.; Koiv, T-A.; Mikola, A. (2011). Ventilating with Room Units in
Educational Institutions . International Journal of Energy and Environment, 5, 629 –
636.

Hani, A.; Kõiv, T.-A.; Mikola, A. (2011). Carbon Dioxide Levels in Educational
Institutions. In: Recent Researches in Energy & Environment: 6th IASME /
WSEAS International Conference on Energy & Environment (EE 11). (Eds.)
Brindusa Covaci, Alexandru T. Bogdan, George Lazarolu. Cambridge, UK:
WSEAS, 2011, 359 – 364.

Hani, A.; Britikovski, I.; Voll, H.; Kõiv, T-A. (2010). Sea Water District Cooling
Feasibility Analysis for Tallinn. In: 12th International Symposium on District
Heating and Cooling : September 5th–September 7th, 2010 Tallinn, ESTONIA:
(Eds.) Aadu Paist, Andres Siirde. Tallinn:, 2010.

Hani, A.; Kõiv, T.-A.; Voll, H.;.Tali, M (2009). "Energy efficiency in Residential
Buildings. The Comparison between Degree Day Calculation and Simulations. In:
Proceedings of the 2nd International Scientific "Energy and Climate Change"
Conference: 2nd International Scientific "Energy and Climate Change" Conference,
8,9 October 2009, Athens (Greece). (Eds.) Mavrakis, D.. Athens: Energy Policy and
Development Centre KEPA, 2009, 209 – 213.

Hani, H; Kalamees, T; Kõiv, T-A (2009). Determination of energy performance

requirements for apartment buildings in Estonia. In: Proceedings of Healthy
Buildings 2009: Healthy Buildings 2009, Syracuse, NY, USA, September 13-17.
(Eds.) Santanam, S.; Bogucz, E.A.; Zhang, J.S.; Ezzat Khalifa, H.. Syracuse:, 2009,
Paper 409.

64
Hani, A.; Kõiv, T.-A. (2008). Energy auditing of residential buildings. In: Proc. of
the 2nd Scientific-Technical Conference „Heating and ventilation in agriculture and
industry” in Tlen, Poland:, 2008, 41 – 47.

Papers in which the candidate was involved

Kõiv, T.-A.; Voll, H.; Hani, A. (2010). Domestic hot Water Consumption in
Educational Premises, Apartment and Office Buildings. WSEAS
TRANSACTIONS on ENVIRONMENT and DEVELOPMENT, 6, 54 - 64.

Kõiv, T.-A.; Toode, A.; Hani, A. (2009). The influence of domestic hot water
maximum consumption on the district heating network dimensioning. WSEAS
TRANSACTIONS on ENVIRONMENT and DEVELOPMENT, 5, 104 - 108.

Kõiv, T.-A.; Voll, H.; Hani, A. (2009). Domestic hot water consumption and
consumption profiles in education premises. Proceedings of the 3rd WSEAS Int.
Conf. on Energy Planning, Energy Saving, Environmental Education, Tenerife,
Canary Islands, Spain, July 1-3, 2009 (84 - 88).WSEAS

Toode, A.; Kõiv, T.-A.; Hani, A. (2008). Domestic hot water consumption,
consumption profiles for schools, children's institutions and office buildings. In:
Proc. of the 2nd Scientific-Technical Conference „Heating and ventilation in
agriculture and industry” in Tlen, Poland: (Eds.) Žarski, K.., 2008, 187 - 195.

Inventions

Method for energy auditing of residential buildings; Owner: Tallinn University of

Technology ; Authors: Teet-Andrus Kõiv, Teet Tark, Villu Vares, Allan Hani;
Priority number: P200800058; Priority date: 12.09.2008

Calculation method of district heating network; Owner: Tallinn University of

Technology ; Authors: Teet-Andrus Kõiv, Alvar Toode, Allan Hani; Priority
number: P200800046; Priority date: 10.07.2008

65
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2012, pp. 168–174.
[69] Vittorio Verda, Giorgia Baccino, Adriano Sciacovelli, Stefano Lo Russo,
“Impact of district heating and groundwater heat pump systems on the primary
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26.
[70] Wang Ying, Zhang Yufeng, “Analysis of the dilatancy technology of district
heating system with high-temperature heat pump,” Energy and Buildings, Vol 47,
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[71] Benjamin David, Julien Ramousse, Lingai Luo, “Optimization of
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design,” Energy Conversion and Management, 2012, Article in Press.

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[72] Satoru Okamoto, “A heat pump system with a latent heat storage utilizing
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[73] Kadir Bakirci, Bedri Yuksel, “Experimental thermal performance of a solar
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Adsorption Heat Pump,” Applied Thermal Engineering, Vol 31, 2011, pp. 2115–
2122.
[75] W.E. TeGrotenhuis, P.H. Humble, J.B. Sweeney, “Simulation of a high
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[76] Brian T. Austin, K. Sumathy, “Transcritical carbon dioxide heat pump
systems: A review,” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Vol 15, 2011, pp.
4013–4029.
[77] Kasumi Yasukawa, Shinji Takasugi, “Present status of underground thermal
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[78] Andrew Hall, John Ashley Scott, Helen Shang, “Geothermal energy recovery
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[79] T-A Koiv, “Estonian degree-days,” Tallinn, 2007.
[80] M. Krarti. Energy Audit of Building Systems. An Engineering Approach. Boca
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[82] Hendrik Voll, Teet-Andrus Kõiv, Teet Tark, M. Sergejeva, “Cooling Demand
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72
Curriculum Vitae
1. Personal data
First name, surname: Allan Hani
Date of birth, location: 29 March 1979 Võru
Nationality: Estonian

2. Contact data
Address: Särje 51/ Kanarbiku 1, 10922, Tallinn
Telefon: (+372) 52 62 985
E-mail: allan.hani@rkas.ee

3. Education

Institution Graduation Programme/Degree

Tallinn University of 2008 Environmental Engineering,
Technology Master of Science
Tallinn University of 2001 Thermal Engineering,
Technology Bachelor of Science

4. Language skills

Language Level
Estonian Native language
English Intermediate level
Russian Intermediate level
Finnish Basic level
German Basic level

5. Additional courses
Period
11-13 June 2012
10 January 2012
27-29 May 2009
Educational or other organisation
Tallinn University of Technology, ”Sustainable and
Energy Efficient Building Design and
Refurbishment”
Tallinn University of Technology, ”Simulation and
optimisation of indoor climate and energy use of
buildings II“
Helsinki University of Technology, Ene-58.5151,
Post-graduate seminar on HVAC technology
”Simulation and optimisation of building energy
systems – estimation of primary energy and CO2
emissions”

73
6. Professional employment

Period Organization Position

2011- Riigi Kinnisvara AS Specialist
2005-2010 Pöyry OÜ Head of Department

7. Scientific work

Investigation of energy efficiency in buildings and HVAC systems.

8. Defended theses

Energy auditing of buildings. Degree of Master of Science.

Energy sector in AS Rapla Dairy. Degree of Bachelor of Science.

9. Research topics

Natural Sciences and Engineering, Construction and Municipal Engineering

(Investigation of energy efficiency in buildings and HVAC systems, production of
thermal and cooling energy, simulation and optimization of buildings, the effect of
ventilation on indoor climate).

74
Elulookirjeldus
1. Isikandmed
Ees- ja perekonnanimi: Allan Hani
Sünniaeg ja -koht: 29.03.1979 Võru
Kodakondsus: Eesti

2. Kontaktandmed
Aadress: Särje 51/ Kanarbiku 1, 10922, Tallinn
Telefon: (+372) 52 62 985
E-posti aadress: allan.hani@rkas.ee

3. Hariduskäik

Õppeasutus Lõpetamise aeg Haridus

(nimetus lõpetamise ajal) (eriala/kraad)
Tallinna Tehnikaülikool 2008 Keskkonnatehnika,
Tehnikateaduste magister
Tallinna Tehnikaülikool 2001 Soojustehnika,
Tehnikateaduste bakalaureus
4. Keelteoskus (alg-, kesk- või kõrgtase)

Keel Tase
Eesti keel emakeel
Inglise keel kesktase
Vene keel kesktase
Soome keel algtase
Saksa keel algtase

5. Täiendõpe

Õppimise aeg Õppeasutuse või muu organisatsiooni nimetus

11-13.06.2012 Tallinna Tehnikaülikool, ”Sustainable and Energy
Efficient Building Design and Refurbishment”
10.01.2012 Tallinna Tehnikaülikool, „Simulation and
optimisation of indoor climate and energy use of
buildings II“
27-29.5.2009 Helsingi Tehnikaülikool, Ene-58.5151, ”Simulation
and optimisation of building energy systems –
estimation of primary energy and CO2 emissions”

75
6. Teenistuskäik

Töötamise aeg Tööandja nimetus Ametikoht

2011- Riigi Kinnisvara AS Spetsialist
2005-2010 Pöyry OÜ Osakonnajuhataja

7. Teadustegevus

Hoonete ja nende tehnosüsteemide energeetilise efektiivsuse uurimine.

8. Kaitstud lõputööd

Hoonete energeetiline auditeerimine. Tehnikateaduste magistrikraad.

AS Rapla Dairy energiamajandus. Tehnikateaduste bakalaureuse kraad.

9. Teadustöö põhisuunad

Loodusteadused ja tehnika, Ehitus ja kommunaaltehnika (Hoonete ja nende

tehnosüsteemide energeetilise efektiivsuse uurimine, soojus- ja külmavarustus,
hoonete simulatsioonid ja optimeerimine, hoonete ventilatsioonilahenduste mõju
sisekliimale).

76
Appendix A: Sea water district heating and cooling
The study of sea water district heating and cooling is based on the coastal area of
Tallinn.

The parameters of the Gulf of Finland

The water and thermal processes in the Gulf of Finland are continuously monitored
in the HELCOM project. Scientific articles [92, 93] have been written about the sea
water parameters by Scandinavian and Estonian scientists.
All the measurements reported to HELCOM have to comply with the requirements
of the survey program COMBINE. Information about the requirements is available
at http://www.helcom.fi/groups/monas/CombineManual/en_GB/main/
Due to the salinity of the gulf water ice formation appears < - 0,4 oC.
The average ice thickness is 31 cm, very rare thickness > 50-60 cm (absolute
maximum 1.2 m once in 150 years).
The temperature and profile of the sea water are analysed for the possibility of a sea
water heat pump plant. The average depth profile of the Gulf of Finland is presented
in Table 12.

Table 12. Average depth profile of the Gulf of Finland

Distance from coast, m Depth (sea), m
500 20
1500 25
3200 30
4000 35
5500 40

The depth of the gulf is shallow – on average it increases 5m by an additional

distance of 1 km from the coast. Economically it would be efficient to search for
deeper locations in the costal area (< 500 m).
In the following Fig. 33 the temperature profile of sea water during the year is
presented. The data are based on the information of station F3 monitoring the Gulf
of Finland. The monthly average as well as minimum and maximum temperatures
are presented in correlation with the sea depth.

77
 Sea water temperature [oC]
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
0

-5

-10

-15
Depth [m]

-20

-25

-30

-35

-40
Avg jan Avg feb Avg mar Avg apr Avg may Avg jun Avg jul
Avg aug Avg sep Avg oct Avg nov Avg dec Min Max

Fig. 33. Measurement results of the monitoring station F3

There is a wide variation of temperature during the year in the whole depth profile.
In combination with the distance <500 m and depth -20 m the temperature range is
between -0.31oC in winter and 16.6 oC in summer.

Outdoor climatic conditions

Outdoor climatic conditions and other design information of reference buildings is

taken as a basis for dimensioning the loads of the sea water district heating and
cooling plant. The minimum temperature for calculating the heating load is -22 oC
to assure 21 oC in buildings. The design parameters of the cooling load are +27 oC
and 50% relative humidity to assure +24 oC in buildings.

Case study
Based on the development plan of the local area 21 buildings (see
Table 13) are included in the research from the Port of Tallinn area. There are
existing buildings, but a majority are still to be erected. The total network of heating
and cooling consumption is planned within the radius of <1 km from the coast.
In the preliminary stage 80 W/m2public area for heating load calculations and 100
W/m2public area for cooling calculations were calculated. These values include
transportation losses of 5% for cooling and 10% for thermal energy. 60 W/m2public
area is calculated for the cooling demand of Building no 17.

78
Table 13. Heating and cooling load calculation
Building Building Storeys Public Cooling Heating
no height, m above area, demand, demand,
ground m2 kW kW
1 24 6 8 764 876 701
2 24 6 18 870 1 887 1 510
3 24 6 1 458 146 117
4 24 6 3 564 356 285
5 24 6 5 780 578 462
6 18 5 5 198 520 416
7 11 2 2 340 234 187
8 18 5 8 775 878 702
9 24 6 2 268 227 181
10 24 6 2 430 243 194
11 24 6 10 260 1 026 821
12 24 6 5 049 505 404
13 24 6 4 860 486 389
14 20 5 24 500 2 450 1 960
15 16 4 4 250 425 340
16 19 5 11 200 1 120 896
17 - 4 37 221 2 233 2 978
18 19 5 10 500 1 050 840
19 19 5 2 200 220 176
20 19 5 5 250 525 420
21 22 5 3 700 370 296

A total of 14.3 MW of heating and 16.4 MW of cooling load was calculated. A

simultaneous factor of 0.85 is applied to the calculation results. The maximum
thermal capacity of the plant is 12 MW and the cooling capacity is 14 MW. The
plant will be located at the Gulf of Finland.
The depth profile of the coastal area of Tallinn is presented in the following Fig. 34.
The depth of 25m is located 500m from the area. The flow pipe will be directed
there. The return pipe can be located near the coast.

79
Fig. 34. Sea water profile of the coastal area of Tallinn

Technology

Two industrial heat pumps (e.g. Uniturbo 34FY a´8,0 MW) with high outlet
temperatures of condenser water for heating and cooling are considered to cover the
heating and cooling demand of the buildings. The principle scheme is presented in
Fig. 35.

80
Fig. 35. The principle scheme of the sea water district heating and cooling plant

Heating mode operation:

The temperature of supply water to the district network is 60-90 oC (70 oC).
The temperature of return water from the district network is 50 oC.
The thermal storage tank is to provide temperature stability of the district heating
network and prevent freezing of the evaporator side of return sea water. A 3600m3
tank could provide up to 7 days’ thermal energy (dT=20K).
Sea water dT=2K (0/2 oC).
The new buildings must be designed for low temperature heating (55/40 oC) to
allow the maximum efficiency of the heat pump plant. For the existing buildings
(80/60 or 70/50 oC) a combination of the heat pump plant and district heating will
be considered.
The district heating network will be insulated to provide minimum thermal losses of
the system.
Cooling mode operation:

81
The temperature of the supply water to the district network is 5 oC.
The temperature of the return water from the district network is 15-20 oC.
Sea water temperature < 4 oC. Completely free-cooling;
Sea water temperature 4-10 oC. Pre-cooling with sea water + compressor cooling;
Sea water temperature > 10 oC. Only compressor cooling (free cooling heat
exchangers are equipped with bypasses).
Due to the fact that the soil temperature in summer in the depth of 1.5 m is 10 oC, it
is not necessary to insulate the return pipe of the district cooling network. The
supply pipe is insulated with 10 cm of modern heat insulation material.
The titanium heat exchangers allow using soft water in the distribution network
while the problematic salty sea water flows through the open central circuit.
In summer mode excess heat can be used for DHW heating in the heating district
network.

Comparable research and risk definition

Based on the reference projects studied and referred to in the introduction of the
current study, sea water for district heating and cooling is a favourable renewable
energy source. Still there are several matters to be considered before a real
investment decision could be made.
A study of the environmental impact is required before any projects are executed. In
addition to the evaluation of the deep zone cold water pumping, an analysis of
recycling sea water back to the lower sea water zone with higher and lower
temperatures should be carried out.
The possibilities of using old underground tunnels, etc must be studied to find
economically reasonable solutions for district network construction.
It is necessary to optimize the size of the thermal storage tank as it affects both the
stability of the district heating network and the economic possibilities of continuing
with the design of the plant.
There is a risk to have too low temperatures on the evaporation side during cold
winter periods, which will cause the shut-off of the heat pumps. A storage tank
helps to overcome this, but cannot fully prevent it if the cold period lasts longer
than designed. The design parameters must be carefully considered.
Also minimum altitudes between the heat exchangers and water resource level
should be designed.
A centralized district heating and cooling plant, heat exchangers and a pumping
station together are normally less expensive than decentralised systems. A
centralized system has fewer maintenance problems.
Conventional cooling systems usually use electrical energy, which in Estonia is
produced from oil-shale. Sea water is a huge cold water resource, so free cooling
can be used.
Optimization of systems and an economic feasibility study should be carried out
before continuing with research and real design. Furthermore, it is necessary to
research trigeneration versus sea water district heating and cooling.

82
PAPER I

Hani, A.; Koiv, T.-A. (2012). Optimization of office building façades in a warm
summer continental climate. Building Services Engineering Research and
Technology, 3(3), 222 – 230.

83
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Hani, A.; Koiv, T.-A. (2012). Energy consumption monitoring analysis for
residential, educational and public buildings. Smart Grid and Renewable Energy,
3(3), 231 – 238.

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PAPER III

Hani, A.; Koiv, T.-A. (2012). The preliminary research of sea water district heating
and cooling for Tallinn coastal area. Smart Grid and Renewable Energy, 3(3) 246 –
252.

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PAPER IV

Hani, A.; Koiv, T-A.; Mikola, A. (2011). Ventilating with Room Units in
Educational Institutions . International Journal of Energy and Environment, 5, 629 –
636.

The Fig.15 in paper IV shall be not considered.

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 DISSERTATIONS DEFENDED AT
TALLINN UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY ON
CIVIL ENGINEERING

1. Heino Mölder. Cycle of Investigations to Improve the Efficiency and Reliability

of Activated Sludge Process in Sewage Treatment Plants. 1992.
2. Stellian Grabko. Structure and Properties of Oil-Shale Portland Cement
Concrete. 1993.
3. Kent Arvidsson. Analysis of Interacting Systems of Shear Walls, Coupled Shear
Walls and Frames in Multi-Storey Buildings. 1996.
4. Andrus Aavik. Methodical Basis for the Evaluation of Pavement Structural
Strength in Estonian Pavement Management System (EPMS). 2003.
5. Priit Vilba. Unstiffened Welded Thin-Walled Metal Girder under Uniform
Loading. 2003.
6. Irene Lill. Evaluation of Labour Management Strategies in Construction. 2004.
7. Juhan Idnurm. Discrete Analysis of Cable-Supported Bridges. 2004.
8. Arvo Iital. Monitoring of Surface Water Quality in Small Agricultural
Watersheds. Methodology and Optimization of monitoring Network. 2005.
9. Liis Sipelgas. Application of Satellite Data for Monitoring the Marine
Environment. 2006.
10. Ott Koppel. Infrastruktuuri arvestus vertikaalselt integreeritud raudtee-ettevõtja
korral: hinnakujunduse aspekt (Eesti peamise raudtee-ettevõtja näitel). 2006.
11. Targo Kalamees. Hygrothermal Criteria for Design and Simulation of
Buildings. 2006.
12. Raido Puust. Probabilistic Leak Detection in Pipe Networks Using the SCEM-
UA Algorithm. 2007.
13. Sergei Zub. Combined Treatment of Sulfate-Rich Molasses Wastewater from
Yeast Industry. Technology Optimization. 2007.
14. Alvina Reihan. Analysis of Long-Term River Runoff Trends and Climate
Change Impact on Water Resources in Estonia. 2008.
15. Ain Valdmann. On the Coastal Zone Management of the City of Tallinn under
Natural and Anthropogenic Pressure. 2008.
16. Ira Didenkulova. Long Wave Dynamics in the Coastal Zone. 2008.

125
17. Alvar Toode. DHW Consumption, Consumption Profiles and Their Influence
on Dimensioning of a District Heating Network. 2008.
18. Annely Kuu. Biological Diversity of Agricultural Soils in Estonia. 2008.
19. Andres Tolli. Hiina konteinerveod läbi Eesti Venemaale ja Hiinasse
tagasisaadetavate tühjade konteinerite arvu vähendamise võimalused. 2008.
20. Heiki Onton. Investigation of the Causes of Deterioration of Old Reinforced
Concrete Constructions and Possibilities of Their Restoration. 2008.
21. Harri Moora. Life Cycle Assessment as a Decision Support Tool for System
optimisation – the Case of Waste Management in Estonia. 2009.
22. Andres Kask. Lithohydrodynamic Processes in the Tallinn Bay Area. 2009.
23. Loreta Kelpšaitė. Changing Properties of Wind Waves and Vessel Wakes on
the Eastern Coast of the Baltic Sea. 2009.
24. Dmitry Kurennoy. Analysis of the Properties of Fast Ferry Wakes in the
Context of Coastal Management. 2009.
25. Egon Kivi. Structural Behavior of Cable-Stayed Suspension Bridge Structure.
2009.
26. Madis Ratassepp. Wave Scattering at Discontinuities in Plates and Pipes. 2010.
27. Tiia Pedusaar. Management of Lake Ülemiste, a Drinking Water Reservoir.
2010.
28. Karin Pachel. Water Resources, Sustainable Use and Integrated Management
in Estonia. 2010.
29. Andrus Räämet. Spatio-Temporal Variability of the Baltic Sea Wave Fields.
2010.
30. Alar Just. Structural Fire Design of Timber Frame Assemblies Insulated by
Glass Wool and Covered by Gypsum Plasterboards. 2010.
31. Toomas Liiv. Experimental Analysis of Boundary Layer Dynamics in Plunging
Breaking Wave. 2011.
32. Martti Kiisa. Discrete Analysis of Single-Pylon Suspension Bridges. 2011.
33. Ivar Annus. Development of Accelerating Pipe Flow Starting from Rest. 2011.
34. Emlyn D. Q. Witt. Risk Transfer and Construction Project Delivery Efficiency
– Implications for Public Private Partnerships. 2012.
35. Oxana Kurkina. Nonlinear Dynamics of Internal Gravity Waves in Shallow
Seas. 2012.

126