Journal of Cleaner Production xxx (2016) 1e17

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Journal of Cleaner Production

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Energy audits in industrial processes

Aldona Kluczek a, *, Paweł Olszewski b
a
Institute for Organization of Production, Faculty of Production Engineering, Warsaw University of Technology, 86 Narbutta Street, 02-524, Warszawa,
Poland
b
Department of Engineering Technology, Mechanical Engineering Technology Program, University of Wisconsin Oshkosh, 800 Algoma Boulevard, Oshkosh,
WI, 54901-8644, USA

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Efficiency improvements such as the adoption of many energy efficiency measures represent a driver for
Received 4 May 2016 increasing industrial process performance due to related economic costs and significant environmental
Received in revised form impacts. The energy audit, a well-known tool for analyzing energy flow and assessing energy saving
22 October 2016
opportunities, is demonstrated in this paper as one of the steps in an energy efficiency initiative.
Accepted 22 October 2016
Available online xxx
The focus of this study is on investigating the outcomes of energy efficiency improvements and
analyzing the benefits achieved under various energy efficiency measures from energy audits based on
case studies. Specifically, the objectives of the paper are listed as follows: (i) multidimensionality of
Keywords:
Energy audit
energy audits for energy conversion, (ii) example tools used for energy audits, (iii) outline of compe-
Energy management tences of energy auditors. By discussing energy audit structure, new insights into non-energy benefits are
Benefits defined with very positive outcomes in achieving the reduction of energy consumption and carbon
Industrial energy efficiency emissions in industrial processes. The results show that the cost-effective and energy conservation po-
Industrial processes tentials represent reduction in energy consumption by 30%, 13%, 70%, 14%, 10%, and 5% respectively for
targeted processes used by energy-efficiency investments. The energy-efficiency investment plans were
carefully formed based on local realities with the reasonable and acceptable return period of less than 2
years. The paper demonstrated non-benefits for achieving industrial energy efficiency, which should be
embodied in the energy auditing framework and considered by plant operations managers during
evaluation of energy efficiency investments.
Based on six case studies, competences of energy auditors are also formulated as well.
© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Increasing energy costs and environmental regulations are
driving efforts to increase energy efficiency in the U.S.
manufacturing sector. The industrial sector depends heavily on
energy resources to provide power and steam for the conversion of
raw materials into usable products.
The need to make changes in the way energy is used and sup-
plied throughout the industrial processes represents the greatest
challenge to engineers in moving toward sustainability. A quite
different challenge will face those industrial plants in developed
countries, which have not looked in detail at energy use before. In
the United States of America, where the industrial sector absorbs
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: a.kluczek@wip.pw.edu.pl (A. Kluczek), olszewskip@uwosh.
edu (P. Olszewski).
about 22% of total energy consumption (EIA, 2014), many changes
can be done in the way energy is currently used without the
complexities involved in the U.S. energy image. In 2014, the total
energy consumption amounted to 10.37
10^15 kJ (98.3 Quadril-
lion Btu) (EIA, 2014). The main primary energy sources consumed
in the U.S. are petroleum (35%), natural gas (28%), coal (18%), nu-
clear power and renewables. The EIA (2008) estimates that savings
of around 14e22% of energy forecasted to be consumed
(36.18
10^15 kJ) could be cost-efficiency improvements achieved
by 2020 thanks to the implementation of new energy-efficient
technologies as well as retrofitting of the existing ones.
2.11
10^15 kJ of this savings can be supplied by further efficiency
investment (e.g. use of combined heat and power systems tech-
nologies) (EIA, 2014).
Because consumption of fuel results from a rapid increase in
energy price and greenhouse gas emissions, chances exist in most
industrial plants where simple changes can save energy at minimal
cost or with substantial savings opportunities. Policies and

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dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.10.123
2 A. Kluczek, P. Olszewski / Journal of Cleaner Production xxx (2016) 1e17
programs (Thollander et al., 2013) on energy efficiency and
greenhouse gases are heading towards setting standards for the
industrial sector and processes related to units of production, thus
standards for environmental and energy management (Laskurain
et al., 2015). Key elements of those policies include increased
auditing and facility management attention to the issue of energy
efficiency (Drum et al., 2013); promoting the dissemination of
generally accepted standards of good engineering practices (GEP)
(McKane et al., 2007). GEP provide appropriate, cost-effective, and
well-documented solutions to meet facility requirements and
compliance with applicable regulations. The concise definition of
(recognized and generally accepted) good engineering practice
(RAGAGEP) offered by, for example, the OHSA, on its website, de-
scribes RAGAGEP as “the application of appropriate engineering,
operating, and maintenance knowledge when designing, operating
and maintaining facilities with the purpose of ensuring safety and
preventing process safety incidents. Energy auditing is one of the
most comprehensive methods of achieving energy savings in in-
dustry so that wasteful consumption of energy will be minimized.
With selection of the appropriate type of audit (Cagno et al., 2010),
different depths of analysis into the production operations can be
performed by the given facility. Recommendations suggested by
the auditors depends on auditor's experience and knowledge. The
energy audit which can assist in the achievement of improved
energy performance identifies also energy conservation measures
and mitigate greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) in process industries.
Industrial energy efficiency measures are widely known, both in
case of process-specific industries (Trianni et al., 2016) and for
energy-efficient technologies (Anderson and Newell, 2004;
Dongellini et al., 2014). Non-industrial energy efficiency measures
are represented by non-processes-specific industries involving the
less intensive consumers, e.g. residential buildings. Energy effi-
ciency measures, which normally meet all three goals: they are
environmentally sound, economically and thermodynamically
efficient referring to improved processes or energy systems,
including improving energy efficiency for example, in heating,
ventilation, air-conditioning (HVAC) systems, adopting local ma-
terials and recycling materials etc. (Jiang et al., 2013). Several en-
ergy audits with respect to select cost-effective solutions regarding
energy efficiency measures were conducted in many production
processes (Yingjian et al., 2010; Shrivastava et al., 2013) or on ver-
satile industrial practices (Petek et al., 2016). Therefore, whether
making steel, cement, manufacturing glass (Li et al., 2010) or food
processing (Olayinka, and Oladele, 2013), it is significant potential
to improve industrial energy efficiency, reducing, at low or no cost,
the amount of energy used to manufacture most goods by
upgrading energy systems or developing energy-efficient technol-
ogies (Islam et al., 2016).
Efficiency improvements such as the adoption of many energy
efficiency measures represent a driver for increasing process per-
formance. Key process factors (or key performance indicators)
which are tracked to measure progress (McKane et al., 2007) such
as energy cost index, energy use intensity, load factor, GHG emis-
sions or productivity index) are broadly being addressed by three
different approaches within industry; management-led initiatives
within companies, energy-efficiency technology implementation
and adherence to policies and regulations (Aughney and O'Donnell,
2015). Measuring and analyzing the influencing factors of industrial
energy efficiency is the foundation to build efficient energy man-
agement systems with low-energy consumption, low-pollution and
low-emission in industrial plants (Alhourani and Saxena, 2009).
The management system according to ISO 50001 becomes more
important when an industry is consuming energy under variable
energy pricing (Islam et al., 2016). While ISO 5001 provides only
general requirements for the operational level for companies on
Please cite this article in press as: Kluczek, A., Olszewski, P., Energy audits in industrial processes, Journal of Cleaner Production (2016), http://
dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.10.123
how to realize energy-efficient processes, the energy conversion
and compliance is the plant's responsibility (ISO 50001; 2011;
Doerr et al., 2013). Furthermore, there is a lack of information on
the auditor's competences needed to carry out audits. Additionally,
the roles of audit participants are not defined.
The potential for energy efficiency improvements remains un-
tapped, referred to as “the energy efficiency gap” (Backlund and
Thollander, 2015) in small- and medium-sized industrial plants
(SMEs), where energy consumption was not always seen as a major
cost factor within the industrial production (Schulze et al., 2016).
Energy cost is receiving relatively little attention from the financial
point of view (Kannan and Boie, 2003). Therefore, energy costs
were in most cases only treated as overhead rather than as a cost
category. It also represents an opportunity for energy- and cost-
efficient investments which can lead to energy and cost savings
beneficial for industrial plants, which are not implemented due to
barriers faced by the actors involved (decision-makers, financial
institutions etc.) (Kostka et al., 2013; Trianni et al., 2013). Many
academic researchers propose implementing the energy manage-
ment system as a basic tool to overcome these barriers (Kannan and
Boie, 2003). The lack of information about the costs (Barbetta et al.,
2015) and energy-savings benefits within industrial processes is
seen as a barrier to industrial energy-efficiency measures (Duflou
et al., 2012). Thus, energy audits have been undertaken to over-
come the efficiency gap.
Moreover, the significant impacts of energy efficiency measures
indicated by (economic) benefits to date (Thollander et al., 2013;
Worrell et al., 2003), suggests that the pursuit of energy savings
should no longer be seen as a goal in and of itself, but rather, should
be considered as a means to pursue a wide range of effects that
need to be evaluated. Many studies (Mironeasa and Codina, 2013;
Schlüter and Rosano, 2016) have focused on an audit's energy
savings benefits as a potential to overcome the aforementioned
barriers, but appear to overlook the other potential benefits of
energy audits. In addition to reduced energy costs, other non-
energy benefits of making energy efficiency investments
(Sardianou, 2008) can go far beyond energy savings. Examples are:
better working conditions, improved product quality and increased
productivity (Worrell et al., 2003), reduced cost of environmental
compliance, raw material savings (Mikul^ ci^
c et al., 2016), reduced
emissions, extended equipment life and reduced maintenance re-
quirements (Pye and McKane, 2000).
Many opportunities still exist for energy conservation and cost
optimization in industries with complex infrastructure, particularly
through the energy audit. However, knowledge on the benefits of
energy audit would be of great interest to academics and practi-
tioners that are interested in approaches to overcome barriers to
improve energy and carbon efficiency measures.
Under such circumstances, it is important to understand the
energy audit as one of the steps in any energy efficiency initiative.
Benefits can be achieved by optimizing energy cost through an
energy audit, in order to fill the lack of adequate information about
the cost and benefits of energy-saving investments (Barbetta et al.,
2015). By conducting energy audits of industrial facilities, the au-
thors demonstrated the ability of an energy audit to identify
beneficial energy efficiency measures to reduce energy use and CO2
emissions, simultaneously helping manage a production structure
in an effective way. The benefits are reflected directly in an enter-
prise's profitability (non-energy profits) making a contribution to
environmental improvement at the various levels in terms of en-
ergy conservation (Rabadia and Motwani, 2015; Rasmussen, 2014).
Therefore, this paper investigates the outcomes from energy effi-
ciency improvements, which extend to untapped benefits that are
significantly wider than energy savings alone.
Based on the presented literature review, the goals of this paper
 A. Kluczek, P. Olszewski / Journal of Cleaner Production xxx (2016) 1e17 3

are: (i) discussion of the energy audit's multidimensionality based

on six different case studies, (ii) presentation of tools used during
the auditing process, and finally (iii) outline of competences for
energy auditors.

2. Material and methods

The energy audit has been widely considered as one of the most
cost-effective ways to improve energy efficiency by investigating
energy flows within a firm as well as within individual process
units (Trianni et al., 2014). Although ISO 50001 focuses on energy
issues, certification audits share many similar qualities with envi-
ronmental standards (ISO 14001, 2015) in terms of structure,
implementation process and monitoring (McKane et al., 2007).
Both systems are important in realizing continual improvement.
While most auditing practices focus on the operational level of
improvement, the system level is more important in realizing
continual improvement. Certification to the standard is purported
to foster not only improved production (MacDonald, 2005) and
energy use, but also improved environmental outcomes and eco-
nomic benefits (Dovi et al., 2009). In this regard, the energy audit
can be performed with different focuses of analysis depending on
the needs of the firm and can be categorized into the following
types: walk-through, mini-audit, and maxi-audit (Cagno et al.,
2010). Kumbhar and Joshi (2012) described three types of energy
audits: a walk-through audit, an intermediate audit, and an
extended energy audit. Although Kumbhar and Joshi's classification
is useful to examine individual facilities, it focuses on the scope and
implications of environmental audits for actual and potential
environmental problems related to the management of material Fig. 1. Structure of energy audit inscribed in the ISO 50001 energy management
and energy flow and regulate environmental performance (Heras- system (EMS).
Saizarbitoria et al., 2013).
Considering the problems discussed in the Introduction section,
and issues described above, three perspectives for energy audits improvement (Telukdarie et al., 2006).
have been proposed: The stage initial analysis of processes (Fig. 1), includes a pre-
liminary meeting with the engineering team, related to
1) General energy audit procedure in industrial processes, stan- manufacturing process and energy conversion types. An audit team
dardized according to ISO 50001 with its components: energy is comprised of qualified engineers or consultants with sufficient
policy with formulated management responsibility, energy experience in conducing energy audits who work in conjunction
planning, implementation, checking performance and man- with company representatives (facility managers, maintenance
agement review (Eccleston et al., 2012). engineers (Telukdarie et al., 2006; Saidur and Mekhilef, 2010). This
2) Energy flow analysis and energy conversion in the audited stage is associated with the walkthrough and observation of pre-
plants (Rabadia and Motwani, 2015; Rasmussen, 2014). viously discussed problems.
3) Benefits of energy audits. During the further auditing directions stage, auditors define
possible energy conservation related activities. From this point, any
further activities direct towards a specified, methodologically cor-
2.1. Auditing procedure rect energy assessment. Auditors decide about data to collect,
documents, measurements, characteristics of manufacturing
Fig. 1 illustrates the role of the auditing procedure in the overall equipment and processed materials, general energy streams, etc.
ISO 50001 Energy Management System (EMS) structure. Thus, most All of the activities defined in the previous step are executed in
auditing activities fit into the energy planning stage. the measurements and data collection block. At this stage it is
Energy audits should start with the pre-audit questionnaire recommended for auditors to meet again with the facility staff to
(Fig. 1) including the most basic information about factory pro- review the initial outcome and consider potential
cesses. It is important to formulate a short (one page) informative recommendations.
questionnaire that is easy for non-energy oriented engineering staff The energy analysis and final report are prepared based on the
to understand. The completed questionnaire should provide in- information collected. In most cases this is the most intensive and
formation about the manufacturing profile, processed materials, time-consuming part of the energy audit. All assumptions anda-
final product and production scale, giving auditors hints to possible nalysis leading to the presented benefits must be documented and
energy conversion processes. In addition, a questionnaire should explained, allowing for further checking or reproduction by the
include annual usage and costs (based on monthly utility bills) of factory staff. Conclusions from an energy audit should be sufficient
electricity, natural gas (or other fuel), water, processed gases (N2, to undertake the next step in the EMS according to ISO 50001.
O2, etc.) and eventually information about the most energy- The last stage of the auditing procedure includes the imple-
intensive machines/processes. Based on this information, the mentation report. The auditor contacts the company afterward,
auditor should have a general image of the factory's energy con- usually 6 months after the final report, to verify their observations
version and flow allowing for identification of areas of possible and recommendations.

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4 A. Kluczek, P. Olszewski / Journal of Cleaner Production xxx (2016) 1e17
By repeating the energy audit, the company can improve energy
performance as required by energy management systems certifi-
cation e.g. the ISO 50001 standard (Eccleston et al., 2012).
Through this standard, companies are able to achieve reductions
in GHG emissions and have positive effects on other environmental
issues and energy costs (Bo€ tter and Müller, 2014).
2.2. Energy analysis
While the energy audit procedure has its own administrative
structure (Fig. 1), the energy analysis in most cases cannot be
limited by strict guidelines. Section 3 discusses six different case
studies, varied by manufacturing profile and difficulty, and
approach complexity. There are some cases which can repeat in
various factories, for example compressed air system, but others
can be very unique for a given group of factories. Intellectual depth
of energy analysis, types of measurements and analysis tools used
depend mostly on the auditor's experience and knowledge. Energy
analysis can describe simple, typical recommendations, as well as
provide interesting cases for advanced applied scientific research.
2.3. Benefits of energy audits
2.3.1. Energy savings
The most obvious effect of the energy audit should return in
energy savings. In basic recommendations the use of one source of
energy will be reduced within one process, for example by
installing more efficient equipment. Similarly, some recovered
forms of energy (mostly heat) can be utilized by other
manufacturing processes, for example heat recovered from boilers
preheating fresh water in juice production. In more complex rec-
ommendations, one form of energy can result in energy savings in
other form, for example heat recovered from a high temperature
exhaust stack used for electricity generation.
Energy savings is typically described by the absolute or relative
formula:
EPACT  EPNEW
ESABS ¼ EPACT  EPNEW ; or ESREL ¼
EPACT
2.3.2. Cost savings
Cost savings are associated with the determined energy savings.
In many cases, it is simply the product of energy savings (ESABS) and
its unit price (EUP).
CS ¼ ESABS $EUP
In some cases, utility companies split energy price into many
components. Its structure depends on the region and country, but
the total energy price can include demand, transmission, and
waste, etc. components, related to energy consumed during some
period of time (power). This component can also provide significant
cost reduction.
Cost reduction plays a key role at the decision stage. It allows
auditors to determine the simply payback period, i.e. time neces-
sary to recover investment costs associated with the implementa-
tion of the recommended actions.
2.3.3. Emission reduction
Based on data measured and gathered on-site, the calculation of
GHG emissions can be performed. For the calculation of GHG
emissions the following data needs to be collected on-site: elec-
tricity consumption, fuel consumption and heat production using
available greenhouse gas equivalencies calculator developed by the
Please cite this article in press as: Kluczek, A., Olszewski, P., Energy audits in industrial processes, Journal of Cleaner Production (2016), http://
dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.10.123
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), (2015).
This straightforward calculator provides conversions from one
unit of energy to the equivalent amount of CO2 emission expected
from using that amount. To estimate indirect greenhouse gas
emissions from electricity use, the individual can use Power Profiler
or use eGRID2012 U.S. annual output emission rates as a default
emission factor (EPA, 2015). This calculator may also be useful in
estimating other (non-CO2) emission gasses expressed in CO2
equivalent as shown in Fig. 2 form EPA's calculator.
2.3.4. Improvements in process organization
An analysis of existing literature concerning the measurement
of energy efficiency has shown that industrial energy audits pro-
vide relevant and representative conclusions on the direction for
improvement (Mironeasa and Codina, 2013) and have become an
important part of companies' efforts to reduce their energy in-
tensity. Moreover, given the projected continuing increase in pro-
cess efficiency, the reduction in energy use and CO2 emissions will
require identifying non-energy benefits in production technologies
for implementation. Including non-energy benefits in the invest-
ment analysis can enhance the energy-efficiency assessment in the
different steps of manufacturing processes (Nehler and Rasmussen,
2016) or a single production technology or process (Schlüter and
Rosano, 2016). The lack of information about non-energy benefits
within manufacturing is seen as a barrier to industrial energy-
efficiency measures (Duflou et al., 2012). Energy audit programs
reveal that 60e90% of the measures implemented by industrial
SMEs concern support processes (Gruber et al., 2011).
It is clear that increasing the efficiency of energy use could result
in substantial benefits related to energy efficiency investment. It
can be recognized as providing a number of direct economic ben-
efits from energy efficiency (such as energy savings) and indirect
benefits such as increased higher productivity (Thollander et al.,
2013; Worrell et al., 2003), lower energy prices resource manage-
ment, and energy security (Ryan and Campbell, 2012). The litera-
ture reviewed supports the idea that there is a direct link between
implementing energy audits and achieving tangible energy savings
but is less clear about the extent to which energy audits can trigger
(1)
changes in consumer behavior (EEA, 2013). Potential benefits may
include reduced environmental compliance costs, enhanced pro-
ductivity and competitiveness, decreased maintenance costs,
extended equipment lifetime, reduced waste disposal costs,
improved process and product quality, and improved work
conditions.
There are multidimensional (socio-economic) benefits available
from energy measurement and energy efficiency improvement
(2) (Ryan and Campbell, 2012), such as reduction in local pollution,
stimulation of new business and enhanced energy security. These
benefits are reflected directly in an enterprise's profitability while
also making a contribution to environmental improvement at the
various levels in terms of energy conservation (Rabadia and
Motwani, 2015; Rasmussen, 2014). Simultaneous impact of en-
ergy efficiency measures at various levels (process, facility, orga-
nizational level) can go far beyond energy savings, that may include
non-energy benefits: increased productivity, improved product
quality (reduced scrap/rework costs), reduced cost of environ-
mental compliance, reduction in carbon and emission footprint,
reduced waste disposal costs and many others (Mikul^ ci^
c et al.,
2016; Pye and McKane, 2000). The full set of non-energy benefits
of energy-efficiency technologies has been provided by Worrell
et al. (2003).
The implementation of industrial energy efficiency measures,
together with multidimensional benefits could also associate with
the generation of business opportunities for investments in energy-
efficiency technologies in industry and access to new markets
 A. Kluczek, P. Olszewski / Journal of Cleaner Production xxx (2016) 1e17 5

Fig. 2. Greenhouse Gas Equivalencies Calculator for other emission data (Source: Adapted from the EPA Greenhouse Gas Equivalencies Calculator).

(Kong et al., 2016; Mundaca et al., 2010). There has been a growing
awareness of the need to promote the examination of multidi-
mensional benefits within manufacturing environments in more
detail as a base to deriving measures to improve energy efficiency
in the different steps of manufacturing processes.
Additionally, auditors may be required to provide information
on benefits of recommended energy efficiency measures such as
noise reductions, product quality improvements and lower emis-
sions of greenhouse gases and local pollutants. The most common
non-energy benefits as found in the authors’ literature are shown in
Table 1.
The benefits of energy audit tool might be used for representing
non-energy benefits, showing the cause-effect relationships be-
tween the related elements in terms of quantitative and non
equantitative savings.
3. Theory and calculations
This section includes six case studies of real energy audits and
analyses. Starting from the most basic example through more
advanced problems, the selection of cases reflects a wide variety of
energy conversion types and resulting benefits. In addition, various
tools useful for energy auditing were presented. The organization of
the case studies discussed below reflects the plan presented in
Fig. 1.
3.1. Case study #1: un-load VSD operation in plastic molding
machine
3.1.1. Initial analysis of a process
This factory manufactured parts for an automotive industry
using plastic molding machines. Observation of the molding

Table 1
Examples of non-energy benefits after energy audits.

Type of non-energy benefit Type of savings Metrics References

Possibilities for re-investment of savings from New income streams; increased production Monetary value
lower energy bill capacity
Reliability/Improved equipment performance Reduction of down time, reduction of time Hours of operation per year [Pye and McKane, 2000;
needed to restart operations; reduction of Mikul^ci^
c et al., 2016]
maintenance costs
Decreased resources use Reduction in (waste, emissions, energy-related Rate (%) [Pye and McKane, 2000;
products) Worrell et al., 2003;
Mikul^ci^
c et al., 2016]
Achieved incentives for improving energy Additional income Monetary value [Nehler and Rasmussen, 2016;
efficiency in energy-intensive industries Thollander and Ottosson, 2008]
Local employment opportunities and plant Additional revenue; improved competitive Percentage of local [Worrell et al., 2003]
improvement products quality edge employment; short term
trainings
Improved energy management Impacts on plan indoor air quality (e.g. ensuring reduced maintenance costs; [Pye and McKane, 2000;
adequate ventilation) reduced wasted labor costs; Rabadia and Motwani, 2015]
hours of operation/year
Range of potential health benefits (not Improved worker productivity Stability, comfort level
quantitative)
Compliance with legal and environmental Cost savings from not having to pay fines Yes/no; monetary value
regulation
Energy management system implementation Improved competitive position; improve Fines; rate [Kannan and Boie, 2003]
compliance, reduction in waste and substituting
material
Competition (from adopted energy efficiency Increased production capacity, improved Rate (%), reduced energy (Sardianou, 2008)
technologies) energy efficiency processes savings cost

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6 A. Kluczek, P. Olszewski / Journal of Cleaner Production xxx (2016) 1e17
machine during its working mode indicated its periodic charac-
teristic with two modes: (i) loaded, when plastic is molded into the
form, and (ii) unloaded, during which the molded part is removed
and forms are set up for the next cycle.
3.1.2. Further auditing directions
Possible energy savings can be realized by rescheduling the
unloaded machine operation. From the process point of view, the
motor powered molding screw could be turned off in this mode.
However, such implementation would additionally load the entire
system with high current when the motor starts. For this case, use
of a Variable Speed Drive (VSD) could significantly lower the power
consumption, operating the motor at lower frequencies during its
idle operation.
3.1.3. Measurements and data collection
Continuous measurements of power consumption by the
driving motor (0), allows complex analysis to be conducted. For this
purpose, a DENT Instruments ELITEpro Recording Poly Phase Power
Meter recorded power consumption every 3 s.
3.1.4. Energy analysis
Based on the obtained data, periodical changes in power con-
sumption were observed indicating a two-phase process (Fig. 3): (i)
the pressing Phase I lasting ~20 s and (ii) ~33 s duration unload
Phase II.
During about 23.4% of the cycle time, effective pressing takes
place, with average power consumption 64.6 kW. Remaining 76.6%
comes to the idle operation with average power consumption of
15.3 kW. Implementation of a Variable Speed Drive (VSD) will allow
reducing un-load frequency from 60 Hz to 20 Hz.
3.2. Case study #2: optimization of a compressed air system
3.2.1. Initial analysis of a process
In an aluminum casting plant, parts are blown out from dies
periodically. Compressed air is used to eject parts as well as for
cleaning of dies after each manufacturing cycle. In the existing
factory conditions, 100 kW LOAD/UN-LOAD operated compressor
with rated flow rate of 20 m3/min, is located some distance from its
consumption site. In the compressor room, an 8 m3 (~2100 gal)
receiver tank is installed. To keep the process running, compressed
air pressure set points are at an elevated pressure of 6.2e7.6 bar
(~90e~110 PSI). According to information from the plant engi-
neering team, the pressure cannot simply be reduced, due to
insufficient blowing effect especially at its final stage.
Fig. 3. Expected effect of a Variable Speed Drive control for the motor, driving the injection-molding process.
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3.2.2. Further auditing directions
After gathering general information regarding the compressed
air system and its usage, further analysis followed towards possible
energy optimization by matching appropriate size of air storage
volume, installed in place of air consumption (Olszewski and
Borgnakke, 2016). Simultaneously, such a configuration would
reduce peak flowrates through the pipeline system and related
pressure drop, allowing for pressure reduction in the entire system.
For this reason, it was necessary to gather additional detailed in-
formation to obtain a complete image of the analyzed case.
Therefore, besides general system characteristics as described
above, power and pressure measurements were taken using the
DENT Instruments ELITEpro Recording Poly Phase Power Meter and
Dickson PR 325 pressure logger respectively.
3.2.3. Measurements and data collection
The data confirm frequent changes of the LOAD/UN-LOAD
operation of the compressor (Fig. 4), due to pressure fluctuation,
caused by consumption of compressed air.
Higher spikes in power consumption coincide with no-blowing
stages, when the system pressure increases rapidly. In such situa-
tions, the compressor's motor is loaded at a higher rate. Pressure
recordings showed frequent pressure drops below the set point
value. It happens during the blowing process and immediately ends
when the blowing process stops.
3.2.4. Energy analysis
As proved by Olszewski and Borgnakke (2016), installation of an
additional receiver tank in the system can help reducing power
consumption by the compressor, mainly due to reduced time of
compressor operation at higher pressure levels. In addition, loca-
tion of a new receiver tank nearby the consumption site, will
reduce pressure fluctuation and pressure drop along the line
caused by short and intense flowrates.
Anticipated energy savings due to pressure reduction by 0.5 bar
can be estimated based on Fig. 3, proposed by Olszewski and
Borgnakke, 2016 in their work. As presented in Fig. 5 (left), the
average base pressure is 6.75 bar with 84.28 kW average power
consumption. Reduction by 0.5 bar will result in ~5% energy
savings.
Additional savings due to the installation of the additional
receiver tank can be assessed, based on the methodology proposed
by Olszewski and Borgnakke (2016), (Fig. 5 e right). In current
conditions, the relative compressed air consumption z (LOAD
operation of the compressor with power consumption above
90 kW) is 55%. The remaining 45% of the time, the compressor
 A. Kluczek, P. Olszewski / Journal of Cleaner Production xxx (2016) 1e17 7

Fig. 4. Power consumption and compressed air pressure in aluminum casting process.

Fig. 5. Energy savings assessment for pressure reduction (left) and installation of additional receiver tank on the consumption site (right), adopted from Olszewski and Borgnakke
(2016).

works in UN-LOAD operation (Fig. 4 e top). Based on information
discussed in Section 3.2.1, the relative receiver tank volume,
defined as ratio of actual storage volume and the compressor rated
flow rate is (8 m3)/(20 m3/min) ¼ 0.4 m3/(m3/min). Installation of
additional storage of 12 m3 on the consumption side will increase
the relative receiver tank volume to 1.0 m3/(m3/min), resulting in
~8% energy savings.
and no heat exchanger on the exhaust stack from the boiler. For
further analysis of the first case, surface temperature is one of the
input parameters. In the second case, one of the commonly used
methods to increase energy efficiency is a waste heat recovery
system from hot gases. . In this way, recovered energy can preheat
inlet cold water or combustion air decreasing the amount of energy
used further in the boiler.

3.3. Case study #3: modification of steam generation system

3.3.1. Initial analysis of a process 3.3.3. Measurements and data collection

The facility uses steam to heat up air in a lumber drying process.
The boiler is powered by natural gas. Steam generated from the
boiler flows through a pipeline system to the drying booths, where
it is used to heat up drying air.
3.3.2. Further auditing directions
The most common sources of heat losses in steam systems are:
(i) insufficient thermal insulation, and (ii) no heat recovery from
exhaust gas. During the walk-though part of the audit, these two
aspects where noticed: an uninsulated, large steam deaerator tank
For further energy assessments, the surface temperature dis-
tribution on the deaerator tank is required. While inspecting the
facility, several thermal pictures of the deaerator were taken, using
FLIR Systems ThermoVision A40M Infrared Camera A40. The ther-
mal images confirmed existence of significant “hot spots” on the
surface of the deaerator indicating intensive heat transfer zones
(Fig. 6).
In addition, based on data collected by the engineering team, the
average temperature of exhaust gas was estimated as high as
250  C.

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Fig. 6. Different views of the deaerator (left) and its thermal image along with its temperature profile (right) e authors' materials.

3.3.4. Energy analysis
Heat transfer analysis provides an appropriate assessment of
energy savings possible after deaerator insulation. This example
can be reduced to the phenomenon of free heat convection from
the surface of a long horizontal cylinder. Fig. 7 shows two screen-
shots from the Interactive Heat Transfer tool (Bergman et al., 2011)
allowing for basic heat and mass transfer calculations. The program
contains property tables for air (and other media), as well as set of
equations for various types of heat transfer modes together with a
built-in calculation engine. The code used for calculations is pre-
sented in the screenshots below. The calculations indicate ~70%
energy savings from the insulation reducing surface temperature
from existing 100  Ce50  C.
In the existing conditions, it is possible to reduce exhaust gas
temperature by 100  C from 250  C to 150  C. Simultaneously,
combustion air will be preheated respectively from 20  C to 120  C
due to similar heat capacity as in the exhaust gas. As shown in the
Fig. 8, the proposed changes will cause ~10% of energy savings in
natural gas used to power the boiler in the analyzed system.
Computer Process Heating Assessment and Survey Tool PHAST
(2010) allows for calculations of available energy savings due to
implementation of the combustion air preheating (Fig. 8).
3.4. Case study #4: heat recovery from ammonia cooling towers
3.4.1. Initial analysis of a process
Dairy milk processing factories use significant amounts of
electricity for cooling systems. In most cases, various types of
refrigeration systems produce process-chilled media. As a side-
effect, to conserve the first law of thermodynamics, on the other
end of the system, some low temperature heat must be rejected to
the ambient surroundings. It is typical that such foodprocessing
plants also consume large amounts of warm water for cleaning
purposes. In this case, the hot water is a result of mixing fresh, cold
city water with in-situ generated steam.
3.4.2. Further auditing directions
Analyzing energy streams used and rejected in the milk pro-
cessing company, heat recovery from the chilled media system to
preheat fresh city water before mixing it with the steam seems to
be realistic and feasible solution. Due to safety reasons, glycol in the
secondary cooling circuit maintains processed milk temperature.
Excess heat is transferred to the ammonia circulating in the pri-
mary loop. Finally, heat from the ammonia loop is rejected outside
in a set of cooling towers. Instead of heat dissipation, it can preheat

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Fig. 7. Screenshots presenting heat transfer calculations for non-insulated (left) and insulated (right)de aerator (Interactive Heat Transfer e IHT 4.0 (Bergman et al., 2011).

fresh city water (Fig. 9). h1e ammonia enthalpy before compressor at the state 1
(1429 kJ/kg).
h2e ammonia enthalpy after compressor at the state 2 (1611 kJ/
3.4.3. Measurements and data collection kg).
This factory has 10 ammonia compressors (6
75 kW,
2
55 kW 1
45 kW and 1
30 kW) supporting appropriate Thus, heat available from the ammonia cooling towers Q_ CH can
conditions for food processing. For the purpose of this assessment, be estimated as.
the operation of seven compressors with total power 500 kW
operating 24 h per day, covering current demand of the plant were GJ
assumed. Thermodynamic properties of Ammonia at the low/high Q_ CH ¼ m_ NH3 ðh3  h2 Þ ¼ 12:99 (4)
hr
pressure sides can be estimated based on pressure measurements
showing 0.275/1.000 MPa abs, respectively. where:

h3e ammonia enthalpy after condenser at the state 3 (297.8 kJ/

3.4.4. Energy analysis kg).
Theoretical reversed Rankine cooling cycle (Fig. 10) indicates
parameters of the ammonia vapor in its characteristic points of the Hourly water consumption in the plant is approximately 30 m3/
primary cooling loop (Fig. 9). hr. In the current system, water temperature cannot be preheated
To estimate energy rejected in the condenser, ammonia flow above 24.9  C (phase change temperature for 1 MPa ammonia). In
rate and stream enthalpiesare required. Using thermodynamic ta- the given thermodynamic conditions, all of the fresh water
bles for ammonia (Fig. 10) the m_ NH3 parameter within the system consumed in considered plant can be preheated by the recovered
can be estimated form Equation 3(0): heat. The amount of heat required to preheat incoming water to
temperature of 24  C equals:
P_ kg
m_ NH3 ¼ ¼ 9; 890 (3)
h2  h1 hr GJ
Q_ W ¼ V_ w $rw $cw $ðtOUT  tNET Þ ¼ 1:76 (5)
hr
where:
where:
_
Pe electricity power consumed in compressors
(500 kW ¼ 500 kJ/s). V_ w e amount of water, that can be preheated (30 m3/hr).

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10 A. Kluczek, P. Olszewski / Journal of Cleaner Production xxx (2016) 1e17

Fig. 8. Screenshot of the PHAST program with calculated energy savings.

Fig. 9. Heat recovery from ammonia e cycle operation.

rw e water density (1000 kg/m3).
cw specific heat of water (4.19 kJ/kgK).
tNET e inlet temperature of city water (10  C).
tOUT e outlet temperature of preheated water (24  C).
3.5. Case study #5: optimization of complex pumping station
3.5.1. Initial analysis of a process
Pumping stations with a set of pumps installed in a parallel
configuration are widely used in various applications: power
plants, city water stations, storm and sewage systems, heating
plants, chemical factories, etc. Each pump can be controlled

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 A. Kluczek, P. Olszewski / Journal of Cleaner Production xxx (2016) 1e17 11

Fig. 10. Thermodynamic parameters for cooling cycle operation (based on Computer-Aided Thermodynamic Tables e CATT 3 (Borgnakke and Sonntag, 2009).

Fig. 11. Schematic diagram of control system for complex pumping station in parallel configuration (left) and experimental pumping station in the Teaching and Energy Research
Industrial Lab e University of Wisconsin Oshkosh (right).

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12 A. Kluczek, P. Olszewski / Journal of Cleaner Production xxx (2016) 1e17
simultaneously by three methods: (i) discharge valve, (ii) by-pass
flow, and (iii) variable speed drive. However, each control method
affects power consumption allowing for complex optimization of
the entire system. (See Fig. 11).
3.5.2. Further auditing directions
The configuration described above allows for unambiguous
operation of the system, when pumped liquid demands coincide
with 100% of pumping station capacity. However, an operator can
control the system many ways to obtain intermediate flow rate
levels.
3.5.3. Measurements and data collection
Further energy analysis requires complex characteristics of in-
dividual pumps and a system resistance curve. For these purposes,
power consumption, flow rate and discharge pressure should be
measured for each pump working at given variable speed drive
frequencies. In many cases, pump manufacturers provide such data
for their products. In addition, resistance characteristic (flow rate e
pressure) of the entire pump system should also be determined.
3.5.4. Energy analysis
Olszewski (2016) proposed methodology for optimization of the
described pumping station. For detailed pump characteristics,
uniquely developed numerical code, with implemented genetic
optimization algorithm determined the most optimal operation
allowing up to ~30% energy savings, comparing to typical, non-
optimized operation.
4. Case study #6: optimization of drying system in corn
ethanol plants
4.1. Initial analysis of a process
Corn ethanol plants process raw grains to get three final prod-
ucts: (i) corn ethanol, (ii) dried distillers grains, and (iii) carbon
dioxide. The entire system is a complex combination of biochemical
processes conducted at required physical conditions. Process
heating supplied by natural gas is the most energy-demanding part
in ethanol production. It can be categorized into two types: (i)
direct heating in dryers, and (ii) steam generation. In addition, a
complex set of pumps and electrical motors transfer processed by-
products.
4.2. Further auditing directions
Due to the nature of production, an energy audit in such a plant
requires a complex approach and analysis from the energy flow
point of view. A process map with temperature profile and indi-
cated energy streams is the most convenient representation
allowing proper understanding of the system. Olszewski (2015)
discussed this type of map (Fig. 12).
At the beginning stage, corn grains are milled, next mixed with
water, steam and enzymes to get slurry. This liquid ferments in
large batch tanks, releasing CO2. After fermentation, the product is
directed to a distillation column. Evaporated alcohol flows through
heated molecular sieves to remove the rest of thewater after
distillation. The second path of the distillation remnants transfers
to centrifugal water separators. Liquids flow to a set of evaporators
and solids direct to a set of dryers, releasing dried distillers grains
(DDGS). To avoid contamination with volatile organic compounds
from drying, exhaust gas is redirected to a high temperature ther-
mal oxidizer. As result of the preliminary analysis, the auditor
(Olszewski, 2015) recommended a modification in the dryer e
thermal oxidizer set as a possible source for energy improvements.
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4.2.1. Measurements and data collection
Further analysis requires complete information about mass and
natural gas streams flowing in to/out from the dryer system.
Modern plants have continuous monitoring of the entire produc-
tion line, which collect and store such data in a central system in an
easily accessible, tabularized text format. Due to invariability of the
production and stability of thermodynamic processes, average
values for some given period (in this example -60 days) provide
representative inputs. The flow rate of the syrup form evaporators,
mass rates of wet cake from centrifuges and final DDGS, together
with natural gas consumption provides sufficient data to perform
energy balance.
4.2.2. Energy analysis
As mentioned above, energy analysis (Olszewski, 2015) focused
on the dryer system. Calculations indicated that exhaust from the
dryers contained a significant amount of moisture at elevated
temperature of 100  C, having two sources: evaporation from wet
cakes and water being a co-product of natural gas combustion. A
mathematical model allowed accounting for both these aspects.
Thorough energy analysis indicated significant heat recovery po-
tentials from the duct connecting the dryers and the thermal
oxidizer, in a realistic scenario up to ~20% of primary energy usage.
Since heat recovery occurs from humid air, simultaneously
condensed warm water can be re-used in corn ethanol production
at entry-slurry stages. In addition, natural gas consumption in the
exhaust stack after the thermal oxidizer decreased by ~1%, due to
smaller mass (by already condensed water) flowing through it.
5. Results discussion
5.1. Assessed benefits
5.1.1. Case study #1
Assuming that VSD operation would reduce power consumption
during the idle operation to 5 kW, implemented solution will
reduce the electricity consumption by ~30% (Eq. (1)).
ð0:234$64:6 þ 0:766$15:3Þ  ð0:234$64:6 þ 0:766$5:0Þ
ES ¼
ð0:234$64:6 þ 0:766$15:3Þ
¼ 30%
(6)
The implementation cost for this recommendation was around
$US 8000 at 2 years payback. Annual reduction of CO2 emission will
amount to 13.6 metric tons.
5.1.2. Case study #2
Reduction by 0.5 bar will result in ~5% energy savings, i.e.
4.2 kW. Installation of additional storage of 12 m3 on the con-
sumption side will increase the relative receiver tank volume to
1.0 m3/(m3/min), resulting in ~8% of energy savings, i.e. 6.7 kW. The
expected simple payback period has been estimated at 16 months
for a factory operating 16 h/day, 6 days/week, 50 weeks/year
(4800 h/year). Annual reduction for CO2 emission can reach 36.8
metric tons.
5.1.3. Case study #3
Energy losses due to lack of insulation can be reduced by ~70%
(see Fig. 7). Additionally, the energy savings from preheating the
inlet air were estimated using the PHAST program at ~10% level (see
Fig. 8). The implementation cost for this recommendation was
estimated as $US 45,000 with 18 months payback. This cost-
effective energy-efficiency investment will bring 311 metric tons/
 A. Kluczek, P. Olszewski / Journal of Cleaner Production xxx (2016) 1e17 13

Fig. 12. Scheme of corn ethanol manufacturing process e product flow diagram (left), general temperature profile trends along the process (center) and implemented energy-
savings methods (right) (Olszewski, 2015).

year of CO2 savings. RR operation hours for the considered facility (4000 h/year).
hG e boiler efficiency (90%).
5.1.4. Case study #4
The proposed solution would generate about 14% energy savings
Compared to heat streams, it was assumed that all fresh water
related to annual natural gas consumption for the discussed com-
consumed by the company can be preheated. Because that water is
pany. The implementation cost for this recommendation was
heated up for cleaning purposes and hG ¼ 90%, annual natural gas
around $US 50,000 with a 2 year payback period. The proposed
savings in this implementation can be calculated:
solution will bring 392 metric tons/year of CO2 savings.
Q_ w $RR
NGS ¼ ¼ 7; 800 GJ=year (7)
hG 5.1.5. Case study #5
Assuming 5% of energy savings in the corn ethanol production,
where: the amount of natural gas burned can be reduced by 90,000 GJ/year,

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14 A. Kluczek, P. Olszewski / Journal of Cleaner Production xxx (2016) 1e17

which is equivalent of 4500 metric tons of CO2.
5.1.6. Case study #6
The presented research relates to pumping station equipped
with four 1 kW-pumps. Assuming 10% energy savings due to
optimized continuous operation during a year-long period (8700 h/
year) gives ~3500 kWh in energy savings, along with 2.5 metric
tons in equivalent CO2. In real applications, pumps can be powered
by 500 kW motors and absolute energy savings can be significantly
higher.
5.2. Comparison of discussed cases
As mentioned above, all cases discussed in Section 3 were
selected to show a wide spectrum of difficulty, saving rates and
types, tools, and required auditor skills. All of the information is
summarized in Table 2.
5.3. Competences of energy auditors
According to ISO 50001, (2011) auditors should have appropriate
knowledge, skills, and abilities needed to carry out audits. The
European Standard EN 16247-5 (2015) specifies the competence
requirements of the energy auditor and supports the development
of national qualification schemes for energy auditors; used by or-
ganizations undertaking energy audits to appoint a suitably
competent energy auditor.
Potential energy auditors should be aware that plant engineers
know their process characteristics, therefore most audit recom-
mendations should be limited to changes not affecting production.
5.4. Implementation statistics
Based on the catalogued and publicly available IAC database
(IAC, 2016), during a few years of program activity focused on
helping SME manufacturing facilities (Standard Industrial Classifi-
cation (SIC) codes 20e39 are eligible) to save on energy cost and
better compete in the market, the IAC has already conducted over
17,449 assessments with more than 132,409 associated recom-
mendations. The average recommended yearly savings is
US$136,528. Implementation rates of recommended solutions
typically average between 30 and 40 percent (IAC, 2016). Table 3
lists post-audit recommendations proposed by Industrial Assess-
ment Centers.
5.5. Energy audit tools
Audits vary widely in their level of detail. Depending on
comprehensive audits and the plant's energy profile, various en-
ergy audit tools are used. By using a checklist that includes the
major areas for energy consumption, an individual can take a
baseline measurement, take notes and identify the areas where
obvious improvements can be made.
Table 4 categorizes auditing tools. Basic energy audits do not
require advanced measurements. In most cases information pro-
vided on nameplates supplemented with basic measurements are
sufficient to perform analysis.
To perform energy balances at moderate and advanced levels,
additional measurements have to be done. In this case, data for
should be collected for long periods of time by data loggers. Very
often factories have data management systems with logged his-
torical data. However, before using them, auditors should check the
frequency of recorded parameters. It may be that previously
collected data will not allow for successful analysis (for example
pressure recorded every 15 min during 12 months will not show
fluctuation of this parameter in a glass blowing processes). Mod-
erate energy audits may require usage of professional software. The
advanced energy audit is connected with complex analysis of entire
systems. Very often it is required to operate at fundamental level
with already existing software or even design unique codes.
6. Conclusions
The aim of the paper is a discussion about multidimensionality
in energy auditing, leading to the deployment of energy efficiency
improvements across a wide variety of industry types. Real world
examples including various energy saving techniques and auditing
tools have been presented. Energy audits can indicate potential
energy and non-energy benefits. The first group of benefits is
explicitly countable in energy units and transferable into fiscal
values and equivalent emission reductions. Direct indication of the
second group of benefits is problematic. In most cases, energy

Table 2
Comparison between discussed analyzed cases.

Case Description Difficulty Rate of Type of savings Used tools Auditor's Skills Audit type
savings

#1 UN-LOAD VSD Basic Low Direct reduction of Power logger, basic Fundamental Typical
operation in plastic electricity calculations electric
molding machine consumption
#2 Optimization of Basic/intermediate Low Direct reduction of Power and pressure Fundamental Typical
compressed air electricity loggers, Published electric, pneumatic
system consumption graphs
#3 Modification of Intermediate Medium Direct reduction of Thermal imaging Fundamental heat Typical
steam generation natural gas camera, IHT 4.0, transfer
system consumption PHAST
#4 Heat recovery from Intermediate Medium Indirect reduction CATT 3 Intermediate Non-typical
ammonia cooling of natural gas thermodynamics
towers consumption
#5 Optimization of Advanced High Indirect reduction Data processing, Intermediate Non-typical
drying system in of natural gas developed thermodynamics
corn ethanol plants consumption mathematical
model
#6 Optimization of Advanced Medium/high Direct reduction of Data processing, Advanced Non-typical
complex pumping electricity power, flow rate, hydraulics, control
station consumption pressure loggers, methods,
genetic algorithms, measurements
programming

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Table 3
Examples of post-audit recommendations proposed by the Industrial Assessment Program (Source: Based on IAC, 2013).

Recommendations Amount %

Install high efficiency lighting 15,300 12.34%

Reduce Compressed Air Leakage 7776 6.27%
Install electricity efficiency motors 5137 4.14%
Duct Outside Air to Compressor Intakes 5045 4.07%
Install pipeline insulation 4823 3.89%
Reduce Set Point Pressure 4167 3.36%
Utilize energy-efficient belts and other improved mechanisms 4106 3.31%
Install Occupancy Switch Sensors 3815 3.08%
Control Excess Air ratio 2345 1.89%
Install Variable Speed Drive Motors (VSD or VFD) 1865 1.50%
Reduce lighting to minimum required 1788 1.44%
Turn off unused equipment 1603 1.29%
Heat recovery from compressed air systems 1554 1.25%
Heat recovery from exhaust (flue) gas 1513 1.22%
Optimize power factor for a facility 1454 1.17%
Total: 62,261 50.23%

Table 4
Useful tools for energy auditing.

Energy analysis level

Basic Moderate Advanced

Hardware ultrasonic leak detector, pressure gauge, power logger, pressure logger, infrared camera, ultrasonic
infrared thermometer, contact thermometer, clamp flow meter, thermoanemometer, thermohigrometer,
multimeter, ammeter factory measurement and data acquisition systems
Software e Standard utility Software: Fundamentals of
software provided by thermodynamics
manufacturers, US DoE (Computer Aided), heat transfer
auditing software (Interactive Heat Transfer),
(AIRMasterþ, Fan own design software to solve
System Assesment advanced, non-standard cases
Tool, Pumping System
Assesment Tool,
PHAST, etc.)

audits initiate positive changes for the company, starting from the
review of driven processes, through additional efforts targeting
better energy usage, up to regular improvements in the organiza-
tion's culture.
The paper, besides energy saving opportunities in presented
cases, indicates important aspects in energy auditing. Six discussed
examples, representing various manufacturing profiles and energy
conversion processes, indicate the possibility for inscribing them
into a common set of auditing procedures, which should create
overall frames for energy audit with particular emphasis on resul-
tant section. The wide variety of energy processes limits versatility
of auditing procedures, which should describe only a general frame
of audits. Additional procedures can detail (i) usage of standard
meters, loggers or other equipment and (ii) auditing of the most
typical processes and systems (compressed air, pipe insulation,
lighting etc). Variety in non-typical energy analysis practically
eliminates possibility of framing them by any formal description.
From this perspective, energy audits become very subjective to the
auditor and mostly relies on their expertise level. Nevertheless, the
use of standardized auditing methodology should lead to the same
conclusions if correctly stated.
There are many barriers to the implementation of energy saving
measures in real industrial applications. Energy audits can help
plant decision makers with integrating energy-related benefits into
their strategic planning, in order to implement energy efficiency
measures in a specific environment, as well as in improving energy
management and assessment methods accounting environmental
impacts. An energy audit report can also be useful for enterprises
with limited experience in energy management, where
implementation is at a planning or initial stage. Comparison of the
presented cases can be helpful in establishing of an energy auditing
team, formulating professional background requirements for its
members, rough initial investment estimation for auditing tools
and equipment, and at least predicting the difficulty with possible
savings scale of planned energy-related actions. In addition, pre-
sented comparison builds knowledge database with processes in
different manufacturing industries.
The cases studies indicate various levels of fundamental
knowledge required in performing energy audits. The most typical
recommendations are very well recognized and there are many
software tools and large amounts of literature available which can
be used in energy savings assessments. In these cases, the most
basic technical knowledge and skills are required. However, some
non-standard recommendations require deep fundamental
knowledge in various areas as thermodynamics, heat transfer, fluid
dynamics, circuits, metrology, etc, with its application to real en-
ergy systems. Experience in energy audits can develop professional
skills and a deep understanding of energy conversion processes and
fundamental knowledge. These skills and abilities are very trans-
ferable to other industries or future careers.
Thus, future research could look into the development of an
evaluation system for energy efficiency performance using data
envelopment analysis model for energy efficiency assessment of
manufacturing processes. A system will be developed to evaluate
the energy efficiency performance based on the energy audit
measures that are important and applicable to manufacturing
processes or industries. In addition, decision-making models for
selection of energy efficiency measures could improve

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16 A. Kluczek, P. Olszewski / Journal of Cleaner Production xxx (2016) 1e17
manufacturing strategy to enhance the sustainable manufacturing
in SMEs, could be another research.
Acknowledgements
This research was supported by the Dekaban Fund at the Uni-
versity of Michigan, granted to Paweł Olszewski and Aldona Kluc-
zek, visiting researchers at College of Engineering of the University
of Michigan.The authors are grateful to Prof. Arvind Atreya, director
of IAC of Univesity of Michigan and Claus Borgnake for their valu-
able contribution in collecting the information for the investiga-
tion, and to Dan Brognakke for his valuable editing comments.
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Please cite this article in press as: Kluczek, A., Olszewski, P., Energy audits in industrial processes, Journal of Cleaner Production (2016), http://
dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.10.123