Prison education

Prison education is any educational activity that

occurs inside prison. Courses can include basic
literacy programs, secondary school equivalency
programs, vocational education and tertiary education.
Other activities such as rehabilitation programs,
physical education and arts and crafts programs may
also be considered a form of prison education.
Programs are typically provided, managed and funded
An education class for federal prisoners in the US
by the prison system, though inmates may be required
to pay for distance education programs. The history of
and current practices in prison education vary greatly
among countries.

Those entering prison systems worldwide have, on average, lower levels of education than the general
population. Prison education often aims to make the inmate more employable after release. Administrating
and attending educational programs in prisons can be difficult. Staff and budget shortages, a lack of
educational resources and computers, and the transfer of prisoners between facilities are common barriers.
Prisoners may be reluctant to participate, often due to past educational failures or a lack of motivation.

Studies consistently show that education in prison is an effective way of reducing the rates of recidivism,
which saves the expense of future prison sentences. In the United Kingdom, it is estimated that every
pound spent on prison education saves taxpayers more than two pounds, and in the United States, the rate
is four to five dollars saved for every dollar spent. Despite the benefits of prison education programs, rates
of education within prisons remain low in many countries, and attempts to increase the rate of and funding
for prison education have been opposed. Opponents argue that prison education is a waste of money and
that prisoners are not deserving of the benefit. In countries where inmates do not have to pay for tuition,
opponents may also argue that it is unfair for them to have free education when law-abiding citizens do not.

Contents
History
Europe
North America
Caribbean
South America
Oceania
Asia
Africa
Available programs
Challenges
Reductions in recidivism
Rates
 Reasons
Effects
Study designs
History and results
Cost and financial benefits
Funding allocation and prevalence
Opposition
See also
References
Bibliography
External links

History

Europe

The history and availability of prison education in Europe varies greatly between countries. Nordic
countries have a long history of providing education to prisoners, and Sweden in particular is considered to
be a pioneer in the field.[1] Prison education became mandatory for inmates under 35 in 1842, and
vocational education can be traced back to at least 1874, when the Uppsala County prison hired a carpenter
to teach inmates woodworking.[2] In Denmark, juvenile offenders have had access to education since the
1850s, and educational programs became mandatory for them in 1930. Adult prisons have had educational
programs since 1866, and legislation requiring all inmates under the age of 30 to participate in educational
courses was implemented in 1952.[3] Norway opened its first prison to focus on education as a form of
rehabilitation in 1851.[4] By 1875, all eight prisons in the country were providing education to inmates,[5]
and by the end of the century, legislation was in effect ensuring that any prisoner who had not completed
primary and lower secondary schooling should do so while in prison.[4] As of 2007, every prison in
Norway has a school for inmates.[5] In Finland, legislation was adopted in 1866 which ensured that all
prisoners would receive primary education, though the implementation of the order faced practical
difficulties. A more successful education reform was implemented in 1899, which remained unchanged
until 1975.[6] However Iceland, which as of 2011 averaged only 137 prisoners in the country,[7] only began
implementing education programs in 1971.[8]

Between 1939 and 1975, while under the rule of Francisco Franco, prisons in Spain were infamous for
their harsh conditions and levels of repression. Attitudes later softened, with the 1978 Constitution
declaring that prisons should be oriented at re-education rather than forced labor.[9] While university access
existed, a 1992 Human Rights Watch report found that most prisons only offered basic education and some
vocational training, and female inmates had less access to education than males.[10] As of 2018, the
National University of Distance Education is the only institution allowed to provide university education to
inmates.[11] In 1976, laws in Italy clarified that prisoners were entitled to university education. However,
prisoners were unable to complete courses as correctional facilities neither provided entry for teachers, or
leave for students to complete exams. Prisoners were only effectively allowed to study at university from
1986 when laws were relaxed, and further rights were enabled in 2000, greatly improving educational
access. Many partnerships between prisons and universities were established between the early 2000s and
mid 2010s.[11]
The first significant development of prison education in England was Robert Peel's Parliamentary Gaol Act
of 1823, which called for reading and writing classes in all prisons.[12] While prison staff in the 1850s
recognised the importance of basic literacy, they opposed giving prisoners any form of higher education on
the grounds that education itself would not provide any "moral elevation".[13] The Prison Act of 1877 is
considered to have established the prison system that remained in effect until the 1990s, which only offered
education of a "narrow and selective kind".[12] In 1928, the majority of prisons in the UK were still only
offering the most basic education courses.[14] By 1958, while the number of educational staff in prisons
had increased, there had been no other significant advancements in prison education. Education programs
did not improve until 1992, when the decision was made to outsource educational instruction on a
competitive basis. More than 150 organisations applied, and by 1994, there were 45 educational providers
across 125 prisons, providing various forms of education including secondary and tertiary.[12]

Attempts to rehabilitate prisoners in Russia were made in 1819, possibly for the first time in the country's
history. Reforms included instructing them in "piety and good morals", though this proved impossible due
to the cramped conditions, extreme poverty and lack of other services. Instead, general improvements to
conditions were first made, after which "religious and moral education" were gradually introduced.[15] In
1918, it was recommended that children in Russian prisons should receive education alongside punishment.
However, few educational programs were implemented, because of the competing agendas of various
jurisdictions and agencies.[16] In the 1920s, efforts were made within the Gulag prison camps to eradicate
illiteracy. Almost all the camps had classes on "political education", and some also had classes such as
natural science, history of culture and foreign languages.[17]

North America

In the United States, prisoners were given religious instruction by

chaplains in the early 19th century, and secular prison education
programs were first developed in order to help inmates to read
Bibles and other religious texts. The first major education program
aimed at rehabilitating prisoners was launched in 1876.[18]
Zebulon Brockway, the superintendent of Elmira Reformatory in
New York, was the initial person to implement such a program. He
believed prison education would "discipline the mind and fit it to
receive ... the thoughts and principles that constitute their A prison literacy class for African
possessors good citizens".[18] By 1900, the states of Americans in New Orleans, 1937
Massachusetts, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Indiana, Illinois and
Minnesota had adopted the "Elmira system" of education,[19] and
by the 1930s, educational programs could be found in most prisons.[18] Tertiary education programs did not
appear until much later. In 1960, only nine states were offering college-level education to inmates; by 1983,
such programs were available in most states.[18]

Support and availability of educational programs has fluctuated in the US as policy has switched between
focusing on rehabilitation and crime control.[20] Between 1972 and 1995, inmates in the US were able to
apply for Pell Grants, a subsidy program run by the US federal government that provides funding for
students.[21] However, in 1994 Congress passed the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act,
which denied Pell Grants to anyone who is incarcerated.[22] As a result, by 2005 only about a dozen
prisons were offering post-secondary education, compared to 350 in the early 1990s;[21] the number in
New York dropped from 70 to 4.[23] In 2015, President Barack Obama created a pilot program that
allowed a limited number of inmates to receive Pell grants. More than 200 colleges in 47 states
subsequently expressed interest in running educational programs for prisoners.[23] The Pell ban was
repealed in December 2020, reinstating eligibility for federal financial aid to thousands of incarcerated
people in the US.[24]
The development of prison education within Canada has paralleled that of the US. Royal Commissions in
1914 and 1936 both recommended that work programs be replaced, at least to some extent, by
rehabilitative programs including education.[18] However, education programs did not become
commonplace until the mid 1940s.[18]

Caribbean

A prison system in Barbados was established in 1945. Education programs were officially introduced into it
in 1956, and focused on basic literacy and numeracy, though female prisoners were not allowed to
participate until the Prison Reform Act of 1961–66 was passed. Inmates over the age of 25 were not
allowed to participate in programs until 1990, when Barbados adopted the mandate of the World
Conference on Education For All. The mandate also saw the offering of vocational and secondary
education in the prison system.[25] The Dominican Republic underwent a prison reform beginning in 2003,
with basic literacy becoming compulsory at nearly half the country's 35 prisons; if inmates refuse to
participate they were denied privileges such as visitation. As of 2012, 36 of the 268 prisoners at Najayo
women's prison were completing university degrees in either law or psychology.[26]

Outside access to, and information regarding the conditions of prisons in Cuba following its political
revolution in the 1950s is limited. The government permitted limited access for some journalists in 2013,
but it is unclear to what extent those facilities may have been representative of the country's prisons as a
whole. Private interviews were not permitted, but officials highlighted the system's work and study
programs, including the teaching of skilled trades such as carpentry.[27][28] According to one 1988 report
by the Institute for Policy Studies, prisoners were provided with education up to a ninth grade level,
inmates were provided with training in technical skills and as much as 85% of the population worked.
Political reeducation also played a major role in Cuban penology.[29]

South America

Education opportunities in prison are considered to be generally poorer in South America in comparison to
Europe and North America.[26] Resources for education are comparatively lacking due to rising
incarceration rates and prison overcrowding, partly a by-product of the war on drugs.[30] Prison education
programs began in Argentina in the 1950s. Although details about programs and their effectiveness is
limited, the lack of available data is attributed to corruption within the prison system, alongside poor living
conditions and high levels of violence.[31] A law was enacted in 1996 ensuring all prisoners with less than
the compulsory nine years of basic schooling be able to participate in educational programs. Due to
administrative constraints, on average only about 25% of eligible prisoners participated in these programs as
of 2010.[32]

As of 2009, Brazil was considered to have one of the most progressive policies on prison education in
South America.[33] In 1984, the National Congress of Brazil passed a prison reform law, recognising
inmates' right to education and other services, though the law has not been effectively implemented.[33] As
of 1998, some prisons were not offering education at all, while others only had "a fraction" of inmates
studying; about 23% of inmates at São Paulo State Penitentiary were enrolled in some form of
education;[34] access to education was "more easily available" in female prisons.[35] A 2002 report by the
Federal Court of Accounts estimated that over 90% of the federal budget for prisons was spent on
construction of new jails, and the funding for programs including education "was not used [for] consistent
policies but rather punctual and dispersed initiatives proposed by the states".[33] As of 2004, it is estimated
that less than 20% of Brazil's 400,000 inmates had access to education.[33]
Oceania

The first formal education program to be implemented in the

An educational classroom at a prison
in New South Wales, Australia, c.
1900
Australian state of New South Wales was at Darlinghurst Gaol in
1862, when a schoolmaster was hired to provide elementary and
moral education to any prisoner who wished to attend. Prior to this
one of the prisoners had been providing educational lessons to
other inmates.[36] By the early 1900s, basic literacy programs were
commonplace throughout Australian prisons,[37] and by the 1950s,
all major prisons in the country were offering some form of
education and training programs, though no more than 15 to 20%
of inmates at any given prison could participate in educational
programs at one time.[38]

The Senate Employment, Education and Training References Committee produced the Senate Report of the
Inquiry into Education and Training in Correctional Facilities in 1996.[37] The report stated that the history
of prison education in Australia "could fairly be described as a disgrace", with non-existent or poor
facilities containing deficient and out-dated curricula and resources.[39] It made several recommendations
on how to improve prison education, including the development of a national strategy. In 2001, a national
strategy was launched, and by 2006, all states and territories were offering some form of tertiary education
to inmates.[37] Each state and territory, however, maintains control over its own prison education systems;
there is no national system[37][40] leading to differences in the way education is offered. For example,
inmates in the Australian Capital Territory have been allowed to have laptop computers in their cells for
educational purposes since 2006, though as of 2020 this is not available for inmates in New South Wales.
Accordingly, certain educational and rehabilitation programs that require a computer cannot be offered
there.[41][42][43]

According to the New Zealand Annual Review of Education, the availability and quality of prison
education in the country decreased significantly between 1959 and 2005, as government policy shifted
from prisons focusing on rehabilitation to prisons focusing on punishment. A 2005 Ombudsman's report
stated there were "low levels of rehabilitative and productive activities" for prisoners in New Zealand.[44]

Asia

Prison education in Japan can be traced back to at least 1871, when It is universally known, that
practical ethics lectures were introduced into a prison in Tokyo.[46] the cause of committing
Reading and writing classes began being implemented into the prison crime is the lack of moral
system on a larger scale by 1881. By the late 1880s, it was believed that and intellectual education.
ethics classes were the most important form of education for prisoners, As the principle of a modern
and by the 1890s, education was considered one of the most important prison is to make prisoners
issues of the prison system.[47] In 1910, prison law in Japan ordered repent and to make good
education be given to all juvenile inmates, and to any adult inmate citizens out of the ignorant,
deemed to have a need. Regulations stipulated two to four hours per scandalous and weak, moral
day be set aside for education.[48] In 1952, correspondence courses and intellectual education is
were introduced into all prisons, and in 1955, a high school was indispensable.
established at Matsumoto juvenile prison for juvenile inmates who had
not completed their compulsory education.[49] As of 2018, it is still the
country's only high school in prison, and male prisoners nationwide can —Official prison brochure
be transferred there on request.[50][51] in China, c. 1930s.[45]
Changes were made to the prison system in China in the 1920s, following the establishment of the
Republic of China. Resulting from criticism of the lack of education for inmates at the time, there was a
shift in the prison system away from religious and moral teaching, to intellectual education and hard labour
as the primary means of rehabilitation.[52] Authorities took considerable effort to develop an effective and
diverse educational curriculum. As well as teaching literacy and arithmetic, classes also included music and
composition, popular ethics, Confucianism and patriotic and political doctrine; the teaching of party
doctrine increased significantly in the 1930s.[53] In 1981, the People's Republic of China incorporated
prison education into its national education program, significantly increasing access for inmates.[54]

In India, reports showing the need for prison education were being made as early as the 19th century,
however, the country's prisons focused mostly on punitive measures. In 1983, while general and vocational
programs were in place, they were considered to be understaffed and underfunded, and the types of
vocational training offered were outdated.[55] Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU) is
considered to play a major role in prison education in India, becoming the country's first university to
operate a study centre in prison at Tihar Jail in 1994. By 2010, IGNOU had 52 prison study centres with
approximately 1,500 students; several other universities were also running educational programs in India's
prisons. Enrollments remained relatively low, however, as only fee-paying students were permitted to
undertake courses. In 2010, IGNOU collaborated with the Ministry of Home Affairs to begin offering free
education to inmates.[56]

Africa

Prison education is generally less well-established throughout Africa in

comparison to the Western world.[58] The first prison in Nigeria was
established in 1872, however, as of 2010, no formal education program
had ever been implemented by the Nigerian government;[59][60] in 1986,
one prison launched organised educational programs though they were
run and funded by inmates.[61] Following the death of de facto Nigerian
President Sani Abacha in 1998, many political prisoners were released,
bringing considerable media attention to the "grim conditions" they
faced; prison in Nigeria was seen as purely punitive, with little to no
resources given for infrastructure and rehabilitation programs, like
education. The provision of education was varied from prison to prison,
though typically offered nothing better than informal apprenticeships in Nelson Mandela studied for
trades necessary to keep prisons operational.[60] However, by 2016, the his Bachelor of Laws while
National Open University of Nigeria had established training centers at imprisoned on Robben
six Nigerian prisons, and offers inmates a 50% discount on all tuition Island.[57]
fees.[62]

Since 1961, South Africa began holding criminal and political prisoners in a jail on Robben Island. Inmates
were encouraged to study when the prison opened, and education programs to ensure all inmates were
literate when initiated. Only inmates whose families could afford to pay for tuition fees were permitted to
participate, and access to education improved and then regressed with the prison's ever changing policy; by
the end of the 1960s, programs were restricted on the concern they were improving the inmates' morale too
much. Historians also speculate the prison system was concerned that inmates were becoming better
educated than the guards.[63] Inmates were able to undertake correspondence courses through the
University of London International Programmes; Nelson Mandela completed a Bachelor of Laws while in
custody, though his educational privileges were revoked for four years after staff discovered he was writing
an autobiography, something which was forbidden at the time.[57] Efforts by inmates to educate themselves
politically were significantly hampered by the prison's policy to forbid inmates access to newspapers, radios
and television. These restrictions were lifted in the late 1970s; Jeff Radebe headed a political education
program at the prison in the 1980s.[64] As of 1993, education was a privilege rather than one of the inmates'
rights. Basic literacy courses were provided by paid inmates, rather than qualified teachers, and higher
levels of education were only available to inmates who could afford correspondence courses.[65]

With funding from the United Nations Development Programme, a basic literacy program for inmates was
launched in Ghana in 2003, and by 2008, all prisons were offering education to inmates, though the
program's effectiveness is severely affected by a lack of resources.[66] For many years, the only prison
education offered in Morocco was farming skills at the country's agricultural prisons, though a 2014 report
found that educational opportunities had been increasing and that literacy, vocational and other educational
programs were being offered.[67]

Available programs

Prison education can range from basic numeracy (top) to vocational training (bottom).

Prison education courses can range from basic literacy courses and secondary school equivalency programs
to vocational education and tertiary education programs. Non-formal activities that teach inmates new skills,
like arts and crafts or amateur theatre productions, may also be considered a form of education.[68]
Likewise, some countries consider rehabilitation programs or physical education to be educational
programs, whereas others do not.[69] Educational programs within prisons are typically funded by the
prisons themselves, and may be run by the individual prisons or contracted out to external providers.
Primary, secondary and vocational education is typically free, though some countries require inmates or
their families to pay for correspondence courses. Out of 28 surveyed European countries in 2012, 15
reported offering free distance education to inmates, and 13 reported that inmates would have to pay all
associated costs. In some cases, only certain courses were free; in Denmark, correspondence courses at
primary and lower-secondary level are free, though a percentage of courses undertaken at a higher level
must be paid for by the inmate.[69] Many prisons have mandated that educational programs should focus on
basic literary skills,[70] and accordingly, some do not offer any higher levels of education.[71] It has been
argued that such an approach creates a void for developing further skills,[72] and incorrectly suggests that
people with only the most basic skills will no longer commit crimes.[73][74]

Inmates in the UK are able to access the government student loans for university that are available to the
general public,[69] as are those in Australia.[75] Charity groups, like the Prisoners' Education Trust in the
UK, can accept applications for grants from prisoners who cannot afford to finance their distance
education.[76] In both Australia and the UK, prisoners on remand or in hospital are not eligible to undertake
educational study,[71][77] nor are prisoners on remand in Poland.[78] Norway and Finland, however, do not
house those on remand separately, and they are entitled to the same educational opportunities as regular
prisoners. In Denmark and Sweden inmates on remand are entitled to some education programs, though
less than those available to other prisoners.[79]
Challenges
Many mainstream pedagogical practices carry directly over to prison education, and commonsense
pedagogical considerations are often found to be the most effective, though prison restrictions can act as a
detriment to their implementation.[80] Prison education programs have been considered to be a "delicate
balancing act" between enough cooperation with the criminal justice system and genuine efforts to offer
meaningful learning experiences. For example, while teachers may wish to provide ongoing support,
prisons may forbid inmates from contacting them outside of their class times for ongoing feedback and help
with studies.[81] In some prisons, teachers may be required to not address inmates by their names and
instead call them "offenders", which causes a barrier to developing trust between teachers and students,
often considered an important factor for successful education.[82]

Many other barriers exist to both running and participating in educational programs in prisons. Teachers
may be faced with the challenge of instructing a class that has a large variance in age, educational levels, or
employment history.[83] Similar challenges exist in juvenile prisons, due to the varying academic and
emotional needs of children.[84] Prisons consider security concerns more important than educational
goals,[71][83][85] which restricts how some vocational trades are delivered because of concerns about
prisoners manufacturing weapons.[86] Standard security measures, such as headcounts and searches, cause
frequent disruptions.[75] If prisons are on lockdown, inmates will be unable to attend classes; lockdowns
can last for several weeks.[87]

There is a common perception that inmates have a large amount free time; however, they may only be
allocated extremely limited time specifically for access to educational resources.[87] Distance education
courses are increasingly only being offered online, which presents a significant barrier as most countries do
not permit inmates to access the internet.[71][88][89] Shortages of available space in existing educational
programs can lead to significant waiting lists for enrollment. In some cases inmates may not be able to
access education because the wait times are longer than their sentences.[37] Educating foreign inmates in
prisons can also be challenging, due to language barriers.[72][50]

One of the biggest barriers to prison education is the frequent transfer of

Sometimes study is just
another added pressure.
You're tearing your hair out
because four hours a week
is not enough time in the
education room to keep up
with all the assignments. I
have to study on the floor
too because there's no single
cells. I'm thinking of just
giving up. It's another stress
you don't want to put on
yourself in here.
—An Australian prisoner
commenting on the
difficulties of studying in
custody[87]
prisoners between correctional facilities.[71][87] Inmates may be moved
to another facility at any time for a variety of reasons, such as
overcrowding, a downgrade in security classification, court appearances
or medical appointments.[39][71] Different prisons may have vastly
different attitudes toward or available access to education.[39][87] If an
education course is run by the prison in-house, moving an enrollee to
another prison will effectively force them to drop out.[39] Inmates
studying correspondence courses will have to notify their course
provider, usually by mail, of their change in circumstance, and will be
reliant on the goodwill of both the course provider and the new prison's
staff to help them catch up on any missed work. If study materials are
lost or misplaced in-transit, inmates will have to reapply to education
providers for replacements. Being moved between facilities is a major
cause of inmates ceasing study at university level.[87]
Other hindrances to prison education are staff shortages,[71] not being
able to contact lecturers or other students easily,[90][91] a lack of
educational resources in prison libraries,[92][93] not having a dedicated
room to hold classes in,[94] a lack of audio-visual equipment and
computers[83] (or simply a lack of access to them),[87] not having a
suitable place to study (shared cells often do not have desks) and not
having a suitable place for group work activities after classroom hours.[83] In-house educators may not
have adequate training from the prison for their role,[71][83] and a prison may have difficulty finding
external teachers willing to work for the rates of pay that prisons can offer.[95] Government departments
charging one another for services may also present a barrier. For example, a state-owned prison's budget
may not allow it to afford the fees set by a state-owned education provider.[40] Prison education programs
may also face a lack of support or outright opposition from prison personnel where they operate.[67] For
example, some prison staff may resent the inmates' educational opportunities, because they are poorly
educated themselves,[96] or because they had to pay for their education while inmates are receiving theirs
for free.[94] Prisoners who have to pay for tuition, however, may be reluctant to enroll as they will not
receive refunds if they cannot complete studies due to lockdowns or other circumstances beyond their
control. They are also often reluctant to take out student loans for fear of leaving prison with debt.[97]
Prisoners may also be hesitant as education can be used as a way of further punishing or controlling them,
as studying is a privilege officers can threaten to take away for trivial reasons.[98][99]

Other reasons for reluctance to participate in programs from inmates include previous failures in education
and lack of motivation.[72] Foreign inmates who will be deported at the end of their sentence often lack
incentive to learn the language of the country they are incarcerated in, or obtain qualifications there.[72] The
types of vocational training offered by prisons in the Western world, such as manufacturing, will often not
be useful to someone who will be deported to a country where the manufacturing industry is not well
developed. Other types of vocational training, such as certain forms of woodwork, are outdated and will
not realistically lead to employment opportunities.[100] Juvenile prisoners may face difficulties transferring
back to regular schooling after their release, due to problems recognising course credit for studies
undertaken in prison.[101] Financial incentives also play a factor in an inmate's decision to participate in
educational programs. In both the UK and Belgium, the allowance given to inmates who undertake study is
lower than that given to inmates who undertake domestic work such as cleaning or food-preparation, which
results in inmates having a preference for domestic work. Inmates with children have a particular preference
for employment over education in prison, as it enables them to send more money to their families.[72]

Despite the challenges, some prisoners report finding it easier to study in prison due to having less
distractions, and prisoners are also often more motivated than the general population to study, resulting in
higher retention rates.[102][103] Lecturers working in prison report prisoners are more likely to have
prepared for classes and read course notes than students in the general population.[104]

The COVID-19 pandemic exacerbated many of the existing challenges to education in prison, such as
increased lockdowns and transfer of prisoners between facilities.[105] Teachers and staff were often not
allowed to enter prisons due to restrictions, resulting in educational programs being suspended. In other
cases, external institutions that provided education to prisons themselves closed down during the pandemic.
Posted materials being quarantined also impacted programs that continued to run, resulting in instructors
often receiving coursework from inmates well after they were due.[105] While many education providers
were able to switch to remote learning via the internet during the pandemic, this continued form of
education was unable to be provided to many prisons as they do not permit internet access.[101][106]

Reductions in recidivism

Rates

Recidivism in many countries is high, with rates over 50% not uncommon.[107] Recidivism rates are
difficult to compare between countries, due to differences in laws and also what constitutes recidivism.
Some countries consider simply being re-arrested as recidivism, whereas others count re-conviction or re-
imprisonment. There is also little consistency in the periods of time measured,[107] and some countries do
not release figures at all.[108] A 2019 study analysing the latest available figures from 23 countries and self-
governing areas found that within two years of release, re-arrest rates ranged from 26% (Singapore) to 60%
(US), re-conviction rates ranged from 20% (Norway) to 63% (Denmark), and re-imprisonment rates ranged
from 14% (Oregon, US) to 45% (Australia).[108]

Reasons

People in prison systems worldwide are consistently less educated than the general
population,[67][72][109][110][111][112] and ex-prisoners are also less likely to obtain employment after release
than people of the same age that do not have a criminal record.[113] Prison education programs are intended
to reduce recidivism by increasing an inmate's ability to secure employment.[114][115] A study in the UK in
2002 found that employment reduced a former prisoner's chance of re-offending by at least a third,[72] and
a meta-analysis conducted by the RAND Corporation, which completed a comprehensive literature search
of studies released in the US between 1980 and 2011, found that participating in educational courses
increased an inmate's chances of being employed post-release by 13%.[115]

Prison education programs consistently have a significant effect on reducing recidivism, whereas prison
labour, which is typically more prevalent in prison than education, has been shown to have little to no
effect.[116] Prison education also has therapeutic benefits such as alleviating boredom, improving self-
esteem and stimulating creativity, all of which have been linked to reductions in recidivism;[71][117] studies
have shown that the majority of benefits from high-school equivalency programs in prison come from the
experience of learning, rather than from the opportunities that arise after obtaining the qualification.[84]
Educational programs have also been shown to reduce violence within prisons;[96][116][118] UNESCO has
suggested general educational programs for prisoners as a way of combating extremism.[119] Education has
also been advocated for prisoners who are not expected to ever be released, on the grounds that it promotes
a better atmosphere in the prison community, and prisoners serving life sentences often act as role models
for others.[120]

Effects

Study designs

Observational studies of the effects of education on recidivism have been criticised for self-selection bias: it
has been argued that recidivism is not due to the educational courses themselves, but only reflects the
positive attitudes of people who volunteer for them.[71] "Quasi-experimental" attempts to control for such
biasses with paired difference tests have found that the effect on recidivism persists.[114][121] Trials that
randomly assigned prisoners to either a treatment group or a control group, thus making self-selection
impossible, found similar effects.[122] Such fully-experimental interventions (randomized controlled trials)
are rare in criminology; practical difficulties are often cited as a reason for this lack, but the culture of the
academic field may be more relevant.[123] A study in North Carolina using data from 1990-1991 found that
there was no significant difference in outcomes for prisoners who volunteered for programs, compared to
those who were required to participate in education due to official mandates, supporting a call for
mandatory literacy programs in prison.[124]

Some studies on the link between recidivism and education in prison disregard results if an inmate does not
complete the educational course; such studies therefore never measure the potential benefits of simply
participating in courses. Due to the disparaging factors that prevent inmates from completing education
programs, studies that only record results for graduates are especially vulnerable to selection bias, as they
utilise an independent variable that is strongly associated with ability and motivation, though they are not
able to adjust for these factors.[84] Studies on prison education have a reputation for measuring
effectiveness against rates of recidivism alone, and do not take into consideration any other factors such as
the experience from the perspective of either students or teachers.[125][126]

History and results

In the US, there were few studies on the relationship between educational programs and recidivism before
the 1970s.[18] The first was done at the Ohio Penitentiary in 1924, and examined 200 inmates who had
completed correspondence programs. The results, which found that inmates in the program were more
"successful" after release, established the first link in the US between prison education and reduced
recidivism.[121] A 1948 study at a Wisconsin State Prison examined 680 prisoners who attended full-time
study in custody for two years after their release. Results indicated a "small but statistically significant"
decrease in recidivism.[18] The first extensive study undertaken to examine the relationship was called
Project Newgate.[18] Beginning in 1969, and studying 145 inmates in Minnesota over five years, results
indicated that inmates who participated in an education program were more than 33% less likely to return to
prison.[127][128] Other results at the time were not unanimous. A meta-analysis in 1975 and another in 1983
found that while education programs in prison were beneficial for inmates, their effects on recidivism were
inconclusive;[18] the methods used in these meta-analyses have been considered to be of poor quality by
modern standards.[129] Later studies, however, consistently show that educational programs reduce the
rates of re-offending.[114] A 1987 study of Federal Bureau of Prisons inmates found that those who
participated in education programs were 8.6% less likely to return to prison,[130] and a 1997 study of 3,200
inmates in Maryland, Minnesota and Ohio found a reduction rate of 29%.[22] A meta-analysis of 15 studies
done in the US during the 1990s found that, on average, inmates who attended tertiary level education in
prison were 31% less likely to re-offend.[121] The RAND Corporation meta-analysis found that, on
average, there was a reduction rate of 13% for inmates who participated in educational programs,[115] and a
meta-analysis of 57 studies in the US between 1980 and 2017 found the average recidivism reduction was
32%.[129] An educational program created by the Bard Prison Initiative has a recidivism rate of 4% for
people who only attended the course and 2.5% for those who completed it.[23]

An Australian study of prisoners released between July 2001 and November 2002 found that in the two
years following release, inmates who participated in educational programs were nine percent less likely to
return to prison.[88][95] A 2005 report found that in the Australian state of Queensland there was a 24–28%
reduction in the rate of recidivism among inmates who completed education courses.[131] A study of
14,643 prisoners in Western Australia between 2005 and 2010 found that those who undertook prison
education were 11.25% less likely to be re-incarcerated.[132] In England and Wales, a 2014 study of more
than 6,000 prisoners found that those who undertook education courses were seven percent less likely to
return to prison.[133] A prison education program in Ukraine had only three out of 168 participants (1.8%)
re-offend in 2013;[67] the re-offending rate in Ukraine in 1993 was 30% within three years and 66% within
five years.[134] As of 2012, the re-offending rate in the Dominican Republic for persons incarcerated in
prisons with mandatory educational programs is less than 3% after three years, compared to about 50% for
those in prisons without such programs.[26]

Effects of prison education courses have been found to be cumulative; studies show the more classes an
individual takes while in prison, the less likely they will be to re-offend.[88][132] Studies also show higher
level qualifications are associated with lower re-offending rates.[114][135] A 2000 study by the Texas
Department of Education found that the overall re-offending rate was 40–43%, though the rate for inmates
who completed an associate degree or bachelor's degree was 27.2% and 7.8% respectively.[22]

There is less data available on the relationship between educational programs and recidivism in juvenile
detention.[136] Results are difficult to measure as juvenile inmates are more likely to finish their sentences
before their schooling is completed.[84] Further complications arise in countries where all juvenile inmates
typically receive education, such as the US, as it is not possible to compare the effects of programs against a
"no education" control group.[137] A meta-analysis in the US in 2014 found that juveniles who completed
secondary school equivalency programs were 47% less likely to offend. Meta-analysis on the impact of
vocational education on juvenile offenders, however, only showed minor improvements below the level of
statistical significance.[84]

Cost and financial benefits

In 2013, the cost of providing education to a prisoner in the United
States was between $1,400 and $1,744 a year, and the cost of
incarceration was between $28,323 and $31,286 per inmate,[138]
while in Canada the cost was on average $2,950 per year for
education, and $111,202 for incarceration per male inmate; female
inmates cost approximately twice this amount to
incarcerate.[139][140] In England and Wales, education courses
linked with reduced recidivism are priced at about £250 each as of
2014, compared to an average annual cost of £37,648 to
incarcerate each inmate.[133] In Australia in 1988, the cost of
incarcerating a prisoner was $40,000 a year, while the entire
budget for prison education at Bathurst Correctional Complex was
$120,000 per year. In order for that prison's program to be cost
effective at that time, it would have only needed to keep one
person out of prison for three years.[141] As of 2015, the average
cost of incarcerating a prisoner in Australia is $109,821 a year.[142] Prisoners from the Coyote Ridge
Corrections Center in 2015,
Studies have found that due to the increased post-release
participating in a Bureau of Land
employment and decreased recidivism associated with prison Management program to preserve
education, the financial savings to the community more than offset sagebrush habitat, and the species
the cost of the programs.[143] A 2003 study found that a prison that depend on it. Inmates needed to
education program in Maryland reduced recidivism by 20%. complete a conservation course to
Government analysts estimated that the program was saving participate in the program.
taxpayers more than $24 million a year based solely on the costs of
re-incarceration.[144] In the State of Washington, the cost of post-
secondary prison education in 2016 was $1,249 per inmate, while the total financial savings per inmate due
to the courses was found to be $26,630. In 2019, the Washington State Institute for Public Policy
concluded there was a 100% chance that post-secondary education programs would produce benefits
greater than the course costs,[145] while vocational and basic literacy education were both found to have a
98% chance of being cost-effective, with net savings of $17,226 and $11,364 per inmate respectively.[146]
Estimates on the cost effectiveness of prison education are typically conservative, as they are unable to
measure the indirect savings as a result of fewer victims, and reduced strain on police, judicial and social
service systems. Taxpayers save additional money as former prisoners who gain employment pay taxes, are
better able to support their families,[144][147] and are less reliant on public financial assistance.[132][141]

A 2004 study by the University of California, Los Angeles, found that spending $1 million on prison
education prevents about 600 crimes, and the same amount spent on incarceration prevents only 350
crimes.[148] A 2009 study found that in the UK, every £1 spent on prison education saved taxpayers
£2.50.[72] The 2013 RAND Corporation study estimated that every dollar spent on education saves
taxpayers $4 to $5,[23][149][150] and that to break even on the cost of education programs, recidivism must
be reduced by between 1.9% and 2.6%.[151] According to a 2013 article by Glenn C. Altschuler and David
J. Skorton in Forbes, given the relatively low cost of education and long-term financial savings "it's hard to
fathom why there isn't a national, fully funded prison education program in every [US prison] facility".[21]
Funding allocation and prevalence
Both the availability and rate of participation in prison education programs, as well as the funding available
for programs, varies greatly around the world. It is often difficult to obtain meaningful data on the amount
of funding available for prison education, as the money may not come from a dedicated budget, but rather
from a variety of sources. In some cases, each individual prison receives a set amount of funding, and the
prison warden must determine how much, if any, is spent on education.[69] A survey in 2012 financed by
the European Commission found that out of 31 countries in Europe, the majority reported no change in the
budget for prison education over the previous three years. Funding was reported to have decreased for
general education in three countries and increased in four. Countries that decreased funding appeared to
also have decreases in prison budgets overall, while those that reported increases may have only been a
reflection of the growth in prison population and corresponding increase in overall spending.[69] The
budget for prison education in Norway increased from NOK 107 million in 2005 to NOK 225 million in
2012.[69] In the US, the rate of spending on prison education has decreased, even though the budget for the
prison system overall has increased. In 2010, 29% of prison budgets were allocated to education, the lowest
rate in three decades; in 1982, the rate was 33%.[149][152] Funding for tertiary programs was reduced from
$23 million in 2008 to $17 million in 2009.[85] In Honduras, as of 2012, 97% of the prison system's budget
is spent entirely on staff salaries and food, leaving barely any funding for sanitation or other services.[26]

A study in 1994 of 34 countries found that half offered basic literacy programs to inmates, and one-third a
form of education higher than that.[153] In 2004, 27% of US inmates participated in an education
course,[129] and in 2005, 35–42% of US prisons were offering tertiary education programs. As of 2009–10,
six percent of inmates in participating US states were enrolled in a tertiary program.[85] While Kyrgyzstan's
Criminal Code guarantees the right to education for inmates, the country's prison system has been plagued
with problems since the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, including insufficient budgets and training
for educational staff. As of 2014, six of the 31 prisons in the country offered vocational education, and
13.5% of inmates overall were enrolled in such programs.[67] The Bahamas initiated a prison education
program in 1994, which, while successful, only had the resources to be delivered to 10.75% of inmates.[25]
As of 1996, only 6% of prisoners in Venezuela had access to education, and many prisons there did not
offer education at all.[154]

In 2012–13, 14,353 of Morocco's 70,675 inmates participated in educational programs, an increase of

about 20% on the previous year.[67] Educating prisoners in Morocco is particularly challenging, as about
79% of inmates are illiterate and 46% are on remand.[155] As of 2014, it is compulsory for inmates in South
Africa to complete at least Grade 9 of schooling.[156] As of 2017, 50% of inmates at Naivasha prison in
Kenya are undertaking formal education, and inmates across the country can complete distance education
through the University of London.[157][158] As of 2016, imprisoned students in Egypt are allowed to
complete university degrees, but only those that do not require practical components such as the laboratory
work that science degrees would require. Prisoners are also entitled to complete their Thanaweya Amma
tests.[159] As of 1992, 440 inmates (1.3% of the prison population) in Egypt were attending secondary or
university education.[160] Inspectors from Human Rights Watch were shown classrooms purported to be
used for teaching basic literacy at two prisons, though they reported the rooms appeared to not have not
been used for some time, and also heard an allegation that inmates were only permitted to access education
if they first converted to Islam.[161] Prisoners in Jordan have access to secondary and tertiary education,
though female prisoners are typically given access to less educational programs than men.[155] Roumieh
Prison, which houses about half the prisoners in Lebanon, has 12% of inmates enrolled in secondary
education and 7% in tertiary education as of 2014.[162] Prisoners formally had access to a wide range of
industrial vocational education, however, these programs were terminated in 1975 due to concerns about
manufacturing weapons; as of 2017 the only vocational education offered is computer literacy.[163]
Both the European Convention on Human Rights and the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European
Union state that no person shall be denied the right to education, and the European Prison Rules state the
education of prisoners shall "be integrated with the educational and vocational training system of the
country so that after their release they may continue their education and vocational training without
difficulty".[71] Despite this, prison policy documentation in several European countries does not mention
education at all, and the 2012 European Commission survey found that there were 15 countries in Europe
(including the UK) with less than 25% of inmates participating in educational programs.[71] Twenty-one of
the countries reported there had been an increase in participation over the last five years, five reported no
change and three reported a small decrease. Participation for juveniles was considerably higher; these
results were expected as juvenile inmates are generally under the mandatory age for school attendance.
Eleven of the countries reported a rate of above 50%, and a further 10 countries reported a rate of over
75%. The survey also found that general education was offered to adult inmates in all prisons in 15
countries, in the majority of prisons in six countries and in less than half of prisons in 10 countries.[69]

In the UK, between 2010 and 2015, the number of inmates studying at university level dropped from 1,722
to 1,079, and the number of inmates studying at GCE Advanced Level had halved.[164] As of 2016, only
16% of those who leave prison in the UK completed an education or training placement.[165] According to
a 2014 report, Belarus had 82 correctional centres, five of which were running primary and secondary
schooling for inmates and a further 21 of which were offering vocational training.[67]

While inmates may face difficulty accessing education in some European countries, it is widely available or
even mandatory in others. In both Germany and the Netherlands, prisoners are required to both work and
study while in custody.[166] In 2013, between half and three-quarters of inmates in Germany participated in
education programs.[72] Prison education is considered to be exceptionally good in Norway; by law all
inmates must have access to educational courses.[167] Similar laws are in effect in Austria,[72] and
Denmark.[168] As of 2017, the European Union is funding a prison school in Jamaica.[169]

In 1996–97, the rate of prisoners undertaking education in Australia ranged from 28% in South Australia to
88% in New South Wales, and averaged 57%.[170] For 2006–07, the national average was 36.1%.[171] A
2014 report found that the decrease in participation was due to the inability of prison educational courses
across the country to cope with the growth in the prison population.[172] In 2018–19, the national average
was 38.0%.[173] Vocational education had the highest participation rate at 24.9%, and university level
education had the lowest at 1.5%.[173] In every state and territory in Australia, the demand for prison
education greatly exceeds the available space.[37][40]

A 1990 investigation by Human Rights Watch which visited seven prisons in Indonesia found that all the
prisons offered some form of basic literacy classes, though very little education beyond this level. In two of
the prisons, "religious education" was compulsory.[174] In 1991, 561,000 inmates in China attended
education courses and 546,000 were awarded a certificate for completing such a course; there were
1.2 million inmates in China in 1991.[175] As of 2016, only one of Singapore's 14 prisons has a school for
inmates. Participation at the prison, however, is increasing. In 2015, 239 inmates sat for General Certificate
of Education exams, compared to 210 in 2012.[176]

Opposition
Prison education programs are not without opposition. There is often
Community perceptions of
little public sympathy for prisoners, and the issue is often not given
prisons and prisoners were
political priority, as there may be few votes to be gained from political
essentially a product of
support.[39][44] The lack of support for prison education has been linked sensationalist media
to sensationalist reporting on crime, including a disproportionate reportage, and the advocates
emphasis on violent offences, perpetuating public fear. This in turn of a commitment to
leads to a political desire to be seen as "tough on crime".[39][71] rehabilitation tended to be
According to the United Nations General Assembly, the "willingness of howled down as 'do
politicians" to reflect these fears has led to a "reluctance to embed gooders' or worse. There
prisoners' rights to education".[71] was little place for the
suggestion that the majority
Arguments made against prison education include that inmates do not of prisoners might be fairly
deserve the right to be educated, doing so is being "soft on crime", and ordinary people involved in
that it is a waste of taxpayers' money.[172][177][178] It has also been fairly extraordinary
argued that giving imprisoned people education is "rewarding" them for circumstances, for whom
having committed crimes, and that it is unfair for inmates to receive free prison should provide an
education when law-abiding citizens must pay for it.[23][179] According opportunity to re-establish
to criminologist Grant Duwe, the complaint that giving prisoners free themselves as citizens and
education effectively treats them better than regular citizens is valid, workers on their (inevitable)
though the practice should nonetheless be encouraged due to the return to society.
significant savings for taxpayers as a result of decreases in crime.[116]

Politicians who have advocated for prison education are often met with —Senator John Tierney
opposition from rival parties. In 2014, New York Governor Andrew commenting on public
Cuomo proposed allocating $1 million of the state's $2.8 billion budget opinion to prison education
for prisons towards a college program for inmates. The proposal was in a 1996 Australian federal
supported by 53% of voters; however, it faced backlash from government report[39]
lawmakers and the opposition party, with 68% of Republicans opposing
it. It was subsequently withdrawn and replaced by a program that was
privately funded instead.[23][177] In response, three Republican congressmen introduced a bill entitled the
Kids Before Cons Act, which aimed to remove Pell grants and federal financial aid for prison education,
but the bill was never brought to a vote.[150][177][180] Efforts to expand prison education in the Australian
state of Queensland by the Labor Party have frequently been opposed by the Liberal Party; in 2016, then
Shadow Minister for Police Jarrod Bleijie said that prison "shouldn't be a place where we want to invest all
this money into making sure [inmates get] a better education than what our kids are".[178]

See also
Borstal
Incarceration and health
Index of education articles
Outline of education
Politics in education

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Appleman, Deborah (2021). "Prison Pedagody". In Williamson, Peter; Appleman, Deborah
(eds.). School, Not Jail (https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/School_Not_Jail/UB4wEA
AAQBAJ). Teachers College Press. ISBN 978-0807779637.

External links
Media related to Prison education at Wikimedia Commons

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This page was last edited on 10 December 2021, at 22:12 (UTC).

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