Introduction

Electronic Components and Circuits

Electronics is the field of technology  that deals with the control of electron flow. By controlling
electron flow effectively in an electronic circuit, the circuit can be made to perform useful work.
Hundreds of everyday devices (such as computers, stereos, and radios) are electronic in
construction.

Electronic components are devices that are used to control electron flow. These components are
grouped together to form electronic circuits. In order to understand and work with electronic
circuits, you must understand the theory behind the use of components and how electronic
circuits work.

In this study unit, you’ll learn about the electronic component called the diode. A diode is a type
of semiconductor that’s often used in electronic circuits as a rectifier. A rectifier changes
alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC).

Keeping these facts in mind, let’s start learning about diodes with a discussion
of semiconductors.

What Is a Semiconductor?
In an electric or electronic circuit, different components perform different functions. You
probably know that a conductor is a material or device that allows current to flow through it
easily; an insulator  is a material or device that blocks current flow. In contrast,
a semiconductor  is a material or device that conducts current flow “part-time.” That is,
sometimes a semiconductor acts like a conductor, and sometimes it acts like an insulator.

Because their conductivity can be controlled, semiconductors are useful components in a variety
of circuits. Semiconductors can perform tasks such as rectification, amplification, oscillation,
and switching. The two main types of semiconductor components used in electronics today
are diodes  and transistors. This study unit will introduce you to the operation of diodes. The
operation of transistors is discussed in another study unit.

Semiconductor Materials
There are a number of different elements or compounds (combinations of elements) that are
semiconductors. The most important semiconductor materials used in electronics today are the
elements germanium (Ge), silicon (Si), and selenium (Se) and the compound gallium
arsenide (GaAs). These materials are used to make diodes, transistors, photovoltaic cells, and a
wide variety of other electronic components.
To understand how current flows through a semiconductor, let’s start by reviewing some basic
chemistry concepts that relate to electronic components.

Atomic Structure
Table 1
BASIC ELEMENTS AND THEIR ABBREVIATIONS
Actinium Ac Hafnium Hf Protactiniu
Aluminum Al Helium He Radium
Americium Am Holmium Ho Radon
Antimony Sb Hydrogen H Rhenium
Argon Ar Indium In Rhodium
Arsenic As Iodine I Rubidium
Astatine At Iridium Ir Ruthenium
Barium Ba Iron Fe Samarium
Berkelium Bk Krypton Kr Scandium
Beryllium Be Lanthanum La Selenium
Bismuth Bi Lead Pb Silicon
Boron B Lithium Li Silver
Bromine Br Lutetium Lu Sodium
Cadmium Cd Magnesium Mg Strontium
Calcium Ca Manganese Mn Sulfur
Californium Cf Mercury Hg Tantalum
Carbon C Molybdenum Mo Technetiu
Cerium Ce Neodymium Nd Tellurium
Cesium Cs Neon Ne Terbium
Chlorine Cl Neptunium Np Thallium
Chromium Cr Nickel Ni Thorium
Cobalt Co Noibium Nb Thulium
Copper Cu Nitrogen N Tin
Curium Cm Osmium Os Titanium
Dysprosium Dy Oxygen O Tungsten
Erbium Er Palladium Pd Uranium
Europium Eu Phosphorus P Vanadium
Fluorine F Platinum Pt Xenon
Francium Fr Plutonium Pu Ytterbium
Gadolinium Gd Polonium Po Yttrium
Gallium Ga Potassium K Zinc
Germanium Ge Praseodymium Pr Zirconium
Gold Au Promethium Pm  
All matter in the universe is formed from 92 basic elements, or combinations of elements. (Some
additional elements have been made in laboratories, but these aren’t considered to be basic
elements.) Elements are “pure” substances, such as gold, hydrogen, mercury, and so on. All of
the basic elements and their abbreviations are listed in Table 1.

An element is made up of atoms, which are the smallest particles of the element that retain all
the properties of the element. Atoms are made up of tiny particles called protons,
neutrons,  and electrons.  The electron is a very tiny particle that has a negative electrical charge.
A proton is much heavier than an electron and has a positive charge. Neutrons have no electrical
charge at all-they’re neutral. The physical properties and characteristics of an atom are
determined by the number of protons, neutrons, and electrons it has. The atoms contained in each
of the different elements have their own unique number of protons, neutrons, and electrons.

FIGURE 1—This illustration shows the atomic structure of three different elements. Electron
shells are represented by dashed lines, and each electron is represented by a minus sign in a
circle. The letters “p” and “n” in the nucleus (the shaded circle) represent protons and
neutrons.
Now, let’s look at some atoms. The difference between one element and another element is
illustrated by the atomic examples in Figure 1. The figure shows the construction of the
hydrogen, helium, and lithium atoms.

The hydrogen atom is the simplest atom known. A hydrogen atom contains one proton and one
electron. The proton is located at the nucleus (the center) of the atom. The electron orbits around
the nucleus in a circle, just like the moon orbits around the earth. The circle or orbit of an
electron is called a shell. All atoms are constructed in the same general way as the hydrogen
atom, but the number of electrons, protons, and neutrons varies with each substance.

Different atoms contain different numbers of electrons in their shells. The first shell (the one
closest to the nucleus) can contain a maximum of two electrons. The second shell (moving
outward from the nucleus) can contain a maximum of eight electrons. The third shell can contain
a maximum of 18 electrons; the fourth and fifth shells can have a maximum of 32 electrons each.
If the outermost shell of an atom contains eight electrons (even if the shell can contain a
maximum of 18 or 32 electrons), the shell is considered to be filled and the atom will be stable.
Atoms that have eight electrons in their outer shells are called inert atoms. Examples of inert
elements are argon, helium, neon, krypton, and xenon. These elements are sometimes
called noble gases or inert gases. Atoms of those elements are very stable, and don’t combine
easily with other atoms.

If the outermost shell of an atom isn’t completely filled with electrons, the atom will be unstable.
In the hydrogen atom, a single electron moves around in its shell. However, the first shell isn’t
filled until it has two electrons. Therefore, hydrogen is a very unstable material. That means that
it will combine easily with other atoms.

Now, look again at the helium atom and the lithium atom in Figure 1. The helium atom contains
two protons, two neutrons, and two electrons. Note that the helium atom has two electrons in its
first shell, so the shell is completely filled. That makes helium an inert (very stable) element.

The lithium atom contains three protons, four neutrons, and three electrons. Note that the atom
has two electrons in its inner shell and one electron in its second shell. Since the second shell of
an atom re quires eight electrons in order to be filled, the lithium atom is very unstable.

Covalent Bonding
If the outer shell of an atom isn’t filled with electrons, the atom will be unstable. To make itself
stable, the atom will attempt to fill its outer shell with electrons taken from somewhere else. That
is, the atoms will combine or bond with other atoms in order to become stable. The two atoms
will then share electrons between them, and the shared electrons will fill the outer shells of both
atoms. This sharing of electrons is called covalent bonding.

FIGURE 2—These two hydrogen atoms have

formed a covalent bond. By sharing the two electrons in their outer shells, both atoms have
obtained a filled outer shell.
Unstable atoms combine very easily with other atoms. Let’s look at the example of hydrogen.
Because hydrogen atoms are unstable (their outer shells contain only one electron and there’s
room for two), the atoms will easily combine together in pairs. Although a single hydrogen atom
has only one electron in its outer shell, it can share its electron with its neighbor (Figure 2).
Covalent bonding is an important part of the construction of semi conductors. All of the
semiconductor materials that we’ll discuss are made up of atoms that contain four electrons in
their second (outer) shells. Since eight electrons are required to fill the shells, the semi conductor
atoms bond with each other. Each semiconductor atom forms covalent bonds with four
neighboring atoms. The covalent bonding creates a latticework of atoms in which each atom is
the same distance away from each of its four neighbor atoms.

FIGURE 3—Figure 3A shows the latticework structure of a silicon crystal. Note the covalent
bonds between the silicon atoms. Each silicon atom (represented by the circles) is equally
distant from four other silicon atoms. Figure 3B is a two-dimensional represention of the
latticework structure. The large circles represent atoms, and the smaller circles represent the
electrons in the outer shells of the atoms.
The latticework structure of a silicon crystal is shown in Figure 3A. (Note that atoms of the
semiconductors germanium and gallium arsenide form this same basic structure when they
bond.) A silicon crystal is stable because each atom shares its outer electrons with four of its
neighbors. That fills the shells of all the atoms through covalent bonding.

A two-dimensional model of the covalent bonds in a silicon crystal is shown in Figure 3B. Each
silicon atom is equally distant from its neighboring atoms. The covalent bonds between the
atoms are represented by the dashed lines.

Semiconductor materials are made stable by their covalent bonds. Since the materials are so
stable, you may think that no electrons are available in them to conduct current. That is, since all
of the available electrons are used in the covalent bonds, it might seem the material can’t conduct
current. However, at room temperature, a few electrons will always escape from their bonds and
move for a very short period of time throughout the semiconductor material. This random motion
of electrons is called intrinsic current, and it can be seen in all semi conductor materials. If a
voltage is applied across a piece of pure silicon (or any other semiconductor material) a very
small amount of electric current will be generated.
 N-Type and P-Type Semiconductor
Materials
The pure materials that are used to manufacture diodes, transistors, and other electronic
components are “grown” artificially in laboratories. That is, certain elements can be combined to
produce covalent bonding, and a latticework structure will grow to form a crystal. The crystals
can then be used to make electronic components.

In order to produce a semiconductor material that has certain desired properties, certain atoms of
other substances will be added to the latticework structure of a crystal as it grows. These added
atoms are impurities called dopants.  The process of adding the dopants is called doping.

If the dopant added to a pure material has five electrons in its outer shell, it’s called
a donor.  (Examples of donor materials are arsenic and antimony.) If the dopant has three
electrons in its outer shell, it’s called an acceptor. (Examples of acceptor materials are gallium
and indium.) When donor atoms are added to a pure material, a semiconductor called an N-type
material is produced. When acceptor atoms are added to a pure material, a semiconductor called
a P-type material is produced.

FIGURE 4—The atomic structure of an N-type semiconductor material is shown in Figure 4A.
The structure of a P-type material is shown in Figure 4B. Note the position of the free electron
in Figure 4A and the hole in Figure 4B. These doped materials conduct electricity better than
pure silicon.
Remember, a donor atom has five electrons in its outer shell, and a semiconductor atom has four
electrons in its outer shell. An outer shell needs eight electrons in order to be filled. So, when a
donor atom is added to a semiconductor atom, four of the donor atom’s five outer electrons will
enter into a covalent bond with the semiconductor atom’s four outer electrons. However, note
that the fifth electron from the donor atom will be left over in the covalent bond (Figure 4A).
This “leftover” electron is called a free electron. Free electrons can easily be removed from their
bonds.

Remember that electric current is simply a flow of moving electrons. The process of doping a
material with donor atoms produces free electrons in the material. So, if a voltage is applied
across this N-type semiconductor material, the material will “donate” some free electrons that
can be used in the current flow.

In contrast, an acceptor atom has three electrons in its outer shell. So, when an acceptor atom is
added to a semiconductor atom, the acceptor atom’s three outer electrons will enter into a
covalent bond with the semiconductor atom’s four outer electrons. However, since a total of
eight electrons is needed to fill an outer shell, an electron is missing from this covalent bond. The
missing electron is called a hole.  Thus, doping a material with an acceptor atom produces a hole
in the latticework structure of the P-type semiconductor material (Figure 4B).

In semiconductor language, a hole is a place that will readily accept an electron in order to fill
the outer shell of the atom. A hole is actually a small positive charge. Any free electron moving
nearby will be momentarily captured by the hole (that is, the negatively charged free electron is
momentarily attracted to the positive charge of the hole). However, the electron won’t remain in
that position since it can’t enter the outer shell of the atom. Free electrons, therefore, move from
hole to hole. The holes are considered to be positive charges moving in the opposite direction
from the electrons.

The Flow of Holes and Electrons

FIGURE 5—By using circles to represent electrons in Figure 5A, you can see that the holes
(represented here by spaces) move to the left as the electrons are moved to the right. The
diagram in Figure 5B shows how holes flow toward the negative terminal of the applied voltage,
and how electrons move toward the positive terminal.
To understand the relationship between hole flow and electron flow, look at Figure 5A. (Note
that this illustration is only a model used to explain the movement of electrons and holes. In the
real world, electrons and holes don’t bunch together like this.) The illustration shows five rows
of circles, with six circles in each row. The circles represent electrons. The spaces between the
electrons represent holes.

The electrons move, one step at a time, from left to right (negative to positive). Only one electron
can move in each step. In the top row, an electron moves one step to the right (the positive
direction), and a hole appears in the row. In the second row, another electron moves one step to
the right; at the same time, the hole moves to the left. In the third row, another electron moves to
the right; again, the hole moves to the left. If you look at the overall illustration, you can see the
pattern in which the electrons move to the right and the holes move to the left.

Remember that electrons are negatively charged particles. Since like charges repel and unlike
charges attract, the negatively charged electrons move away from (repel) a negative applied
voltage toward a positive voltage. The hole, on the other hand, is a positive charge. Holes will
always move away from a positive voltage toward a negative voltage. Thus, current occurs when
electrons move from atom to atom in a negative-to-positive direction. Current also occurs when
holes move from atom to atom in a positive-to-negative direction.

The diagram in Figure 5B shows how holes flow toward the negative terminal of the supply
voltage and how electrons move toward the positive terminal. While hole flow occurs inside the
P-type material, electron flow also occurs in the outside circuit connected to that mate rial. The
idea behind hole flow is that there aren’t enough free electrons in an N-type material to make up
the current that flows.

In review, the nature of a semiconductor material determines what type it is. So, remember that
an N-type material has excess electrons, and a P-type material has excess holes.

Charge Carriers
In semiconductor materials, both electrons and holes act as charge carriers. An N-type material
contributes negative charge carriers (electrons) to the flow of current. A P-type material
contributes positive charge carriers (holes) to the flow of current.

In N-type semiconductor materials, electrons dominate the current flow. So, the electrons in an
N-type material are called majority-charge carriers. Any holes that appear in an N-type material
are called minority-charge carriers. In P-type materials, holes dominate the cur rent flow. Thus,
holes in a P-type material are the majority-charge carriers. Any electrons that appear in a P-type
material are the minority-charge carriers.

Don’t think of N-type materials as being negatively charged. N-type materials have no net
negative charge because there are no excess electrons in the material. Each of the free electrons
near the impurity atoms belongs there. The free electrons are bound to the outer shells of the
impurity atoms. The only thing that makes these electrons “free” is the fact that they aren’t
needed to complete the covalent bond.

Likewise, in P-type materials, there’s no net positive charge. In other words, there’s no lack of
electrons in the material. There are holes in the covalent bonds, but the impurity atoms that were
added to the material require only three electrons in their outer shells.

Diode Construction
Junction Diodes
Now that we’ve discussed the important atomic principles behind the operation of
semiconductors, we’re ready to talk about diodes. A diode is a semiconductor device that has
two terminals. Diodes con duct electrons and are used to modify voltage input.

FIGURE 6—The
structure of a junction diode is shown in 6A, and the symbol is shown in 6B.

One important type of diode is the junction diode. A junction diode is made by combining N-
type and P-type materials. The point at which the two different materials meet is called the PN
junction. Figure 6A shows a simplified drawing of a junction diode. The top half of the diode is
called the anode and is made of P-type material. The bottom half is called the cathode and is
made of N-type material. Figure 6B shows the electrical symbol for a junction diode.

A junction diode isn’t made by just sticking P-type and N-type mate rials together. Instead, the
diode is made from a single crystal of semi conductor material that’s very carefully grown in a
laboratory. As the crystal is grown, it’s doped with donor atoms to turn it into an N-type
material. Then, when the crystal is about halfway grown, acceptor atoms are added to change the
crystal into a P-type material. This method is used to make junction diodes out of silicon and
gallium arsenide, but seldom germanium.

By altering the dopant atoms in this way, the latticework structure and the covalent bonding
aren’t interrupted all the way throughout the material. If you were able to travel through the
junction between the N-type material and the P-type material, you wouldn’t see any change in
the latticework structure as you passed through the junction. If you moved through the N-type
material toward the PN junction, you would see widely scattered donor atoms in the latticework
structure. After crossing the PN junction, you would see the same latticework structure widely
scattered with acceptor atoms.

The Depletion Region

FIGURE 7—In this

model of a junction diode, the circles represent holes and the dashes electrons. The battery symbol
represents the junction voltage.

When a junction diode is first grown, charge carriers (electrons and holes) move away from the
PN junction. The motion of holes and electrons produces a depletion region where no charge
carriers are available (Figure 7). This area is located directly around the PN junction (the shaded
area in Figure 7). Once the electrons and holes reach the positions shown near the PN junction in
the figure, the N-type and P-type materials stabilize to form a junction diode.

The depletion region is also sometimes called the insulation region or the barrier

region. Because charge carriers moved away from the PN junction, the depletion region is made
of the pure (undoped) semi conductor material that was used to make the diode. For example, if
the diode is a silicon junction diode, the depletion region is made of pure silicon.

For all practical purposes, the depletion region is an insulator. This is because the depletion
region is much less able to conduct a current than are N-type and P-type materials. Also, note
that once the depletion region is formed, there can be no other motion of charge carriers across
the junction, unless a voltage is applied across the diode terminals.
 Junction Voltage
In Figure 7, note that electrons are lined up on the “P” side of the junction and holes are lined up
on the “N” side. Since holes are the majority-charge carriers in a P-type material and electrons
are the majority-charge carriers in an N-type material, you might not expect to see the electrons
and holes in the positions shown at the junction. However, the electrons and holes are a part of
the latticework structure and they make a very important contribution to diode operation.

Remember that a voltage is a difference of potential between a positive charge and a negative
charge. When there’s an excess of electrons at one location, a negative charge is present. When
there’s a shortage of electrons (or an excess of holes) at a location, a positive charge is present. A
voltage will be present between these negatively charged and positively charged locations.

Thus, since there’s a negative charge on one side of the PN junction and a positive charge on the
other side, a voltage is present across the junction. This voltage is called the junction voltage or
the junction potential. The junction voltage directly affects the operation of diodes and other
semiconductor components. In Figure 7, the junction voltage is represented by the battery
symbol.

Forward-Biasing and Reverse-Biasing

The diode is sometimes called a “one-way street” in a circuit. When a diode is placed in a circuit,
its basic function is to keep current flowing in one direction (forward). So, when a voltage is
applied to a diode in a forward direction, the current moves through the diode, from its cathode
end to the anode end. Applying voltage in this direction is called forward-biasing. If a voltage is
applied in the opposite direction (from the anode end of the diode to the cathode end) the diode
will resist the flow of the current. Applying a voltage in this direction is called reverse-biasing.

If a diode were perfect, it would provide zero resistance when forward voltage was applied.
However, in the real world, no diode functions with absolute perfection. Diodes always have a
very small amount of resistance during forward-biasing. The resistance is caused by the junction
voltage, and to a small degree, the semiconductor resistance. However, in discussions of diode
operation, the tiny amount of resistance produced by the semiconductor material is usually
disregarded.

A perfect diode would also provide infinite resistance when reverse voltage was applied.
However, when a real diode is reverse-biased, a few charge carriers always find their way across
the junction. There fore, a small amount of leakage current is present in a reverse-biased diode.
However, some diodes are specifically designed to operate continuously in the reverse-current
mode of operation (we’ll discuss these diodes a little later in the study unit).
 FIGURE 8—In Figure
8A, when the diode is forward-biased, the positive holes are repelled by the positive applied voltage, and
the negative electrons are repelled by the negative applied voltage. The negative charge carriers are
pushed across the narrow depletion region where they combine with holes in the P-type material. In
Figure 8B, the diode is reverse-biased, and the charge carriers are pulled away from the junction. The
enlarged depletion region prevents current from flowing through the diode.

Figure 8A shows in detail what happens when a diode is forward-biased. An external positive
voltage is applied to the P-type material, and at the same time, an external negative voltage is
applied to the N-type material. The positive voltage repels the positively charged holes toward
the junction in the P-type material. The negative voltage repels the negatively charged electrons
toward the junction in the N-type material. Those actions occur because like charges repel.

The overall result is that charge carriers are forced to move across the junction when the external
voltage is applied. The applied voltage also produces a reduction in the size of the depletion
region to a very small (almost nonexistent) area. When a diode is forward-biased, current flows
in the outside circuit.

Figure 8B shows the detail of what happens when a diode is reverse-biased. Note that the charge
carriers are attracted away from the junction. The electrons are attracted by the positive voltage,
and the holes are attracted by the negative voltage. As a result, the depletion region becomes
larger, and current is prevented from flowing through the diode and into the external circuit.

Note that current can’t flow through a diode unless the applied voltage is high enough to move
the charge carriers through the depletion region. This means that in a semiconductor diode, the
applied voltage must be higher than the junction voltage. Also, even in a forward-biased diode, a
very small depletion region is present. Thus, it takes some energy to get the charge carriers to
move from the N-type material to the P-type material. As a result, when a diode is forward-
biased, a small voltage drop occurs across the diode.
The voltage drop that occurs across a diode is the same value as the diode’s junction voltage.
This information is useful when you’re troubleshooting electronic circuits. Although the voltage
drops are too small to measure with a voltmeter, you can calculate the voltage drops if you know
the junction voltages of the particular diodes in the circuit. The junction voltage of a diode is the
amount of voltage drop that occurs across the diode in an energized semiconductor device.

Table 2

DIODE JUNCTION VOLTAGES (VOLTAGE DROPS)

Diode Type Junction Volta

Point contact 0.1 V

Germanium junction 0.2 V

Silicon junction 0.7 V

Gallium arsenide junction 1.6 V

Table 2 lists the junction voltages for several types of diodes. You haven’t learned about all of
these types yet, but keep the junction voltages in mind when these different diodes are discussed
in greater detail. The junction voltage in a point contact diode is usually less than 0.1 V.

In germanium junction diodes, the junction voltage is about 0.2 V. Silicon junction diodes have a
junction voltage of about 0.7 V, and gallium arsenide junction diodes have the highest junction
voltage—1.6 V. These are typical junction voltages for PN junction diodes and other electronic
components that have PN junctions. (In practice, the voltages may be slightly different for
certain diode types.) Remember these values! You can use them when you’re troubleshooting
electronic circuits.

In order for electrons to move through the diode junction, they must be supplied with energy.
After they cross the junction, the electrons must give up that energy. Since energy can’t be
created or destroyed, the electrons lose their excess energy in some way. This energy can be used
to perform useful work. For example, in some diodes, the energy is converted to heat, light, or
some other type of electromagnetic energy. This is how devices such as light-emitting diodes
(LEDs), lasers, laser diodes, neon lamps, and X-ray tubes function.

Voltages in a Diode Circuit

Two voltages are present in a diode circuit. The first voltage is the diode’s junction voltage, and
the second voltage is the external voltage source used to forward-bias the diode. Depending on
the position of the diode in the circuit and the direction in which the external voltage is applied,
the two voltages will either oppose each other or combine together.
 FIGURE 9—The supply
voltage in this circuit is 3 V, and the diode’s junction voltage is 0.6 V. These two voltages are connected
in opposition (note the positions of the anode and cathode ends of the diode and the negative and
positive terminals of the battery). There fore, the total circuit voltage is equal to the supply voltage
minus the junction voltage.

Figure 9 shows a simple diode circuit that contains one diode and a battery. In this circuit, the
diode’s junction voltage and the external voltage (the supply voltage) are connected in
opposition. Note the position of the anode and cathode ends of the diode and the negative and
positive terminals of the battery. When the two voltages oppose each other in this manner, the
total circuit voltage is equal to the supply voltage minus the junction voltage
(VT   = VS  - VJ). Thus, the total circuit voltage is 2.4 V (3 V - 0.6 V = 2.4 V).

FIGURE 10—In this

circuit, the supply voltage and the diode are connected in series. Therefore, the total circuit voltage is
equal to the supply voltage plus the junction voltage.

Figure 10 shows another simple diode circuit in which the junction voltage and the supply
voltage are connected in series. Again, note the positions of the anode and cathode ends of the
diode and the negative and positive battery terminals. When the two voltages are connected in
series, the voltages combine. So, when the two voltages in a diode circuit have the same polarity,
you can find the total circuit voltage by adding the supply voltage and the junction voltage
(VT = VS + VJ). Thus, the total circuit voltage is 3.6 V (3 V + 0.6 V = 3.6 V).

FIGURE 11—In a
circuit, a current-limiting resistor must be connected in series with a diode to prevent excessive forward
current from destroy ing the diode.

In real diode circuits, a current-limiting resistor must always be connected in series with the
diode to prevent excessive forward current from destroying the diode (Figure 11). Note that the
voltage across the current-limiting resistor opposes electric current flow.

Note: Never connect diodes into a circuit without also including a resistor to prevent excessive
forward current from destroying the diode!

The Characteristic Curve of a Diode

 FIGURE 12—The
characteristic curve of a silicon junction diode is shown here. Note the wavy lines on the negative side of
the graph. This indicates that the reverse and forward characteristic curve aren’t drawn to the same
scale. If the same scale were used, the reverse current flow and zener point would be off the page in this
illustration.

Figure 12 shows a graph of the characteristic  curve of a diode. The horizontal axis of the graph
represents the voltage value, and the vertical axis represents the current value. The right-hand
side of the graph represents the positive (forward-biased) values. The left-hand side of the graph
represents the negative (reverse-biased) values.

When a positive voltage is applied to the diode (that is, when the diode is forward-biased), note
that the current doesn’t start to flow until the voltage reaches a value called the forward
breakover voltage. At this point, the current begins to conduct, and there’s a large current
increase for a small increase in voltage.

When a negative voltage is applied to the diode (when the diode is reverse-biased), note that
there’s only a very small leakage current until the zener point is reached. (The zener point is also
sometimes called the reverse breakover voltage.) When the zener point is reached, the diode
begins to conduct rapidly in the reverse direction.

Between 0 V and the zener point, reverse current is often measured in microamperes. Be careful
when you’re reading the characteristic curve of a diode! Be sure to note the change in current
units between the forward and the reverse currents.
In Figure 12, note the wavy lines on the left-hand side of the graph. These wavy lines tell you
that a change in scale has occurred on the axis. In other words, the left-hand side of the graph
and the right-hand side of the graph are actually represented in different scales of size. For
example, the forward breakover voltage for a silicon diode may be 0.6 V, but the zener point is
about 20 V. It would be difficult to show these very different values on the graph.

Note that the forward breakover voltage value is dependent on the type of material used to make
the diode. One of the advantages of the point contact diode is that it begins to conduct
immediately when forward voltage is applied. In other words, there’s practically no forward
breakover voltage in a point contact diode.

Germanium semiconductors can operate with a high forward current, but they can’t be used in
situations where high internal or ambient temperatures exist. For this reason, germanium junction
diodes aren’t being manufactured for use in new equipment. However, many germanium point
contact diodes and other types are still being sold and used.

Gallium arsenide diodes can operate in higher junction and ambient temperatures. However, they
require a higher forward breakover voltage to produce a forward current.

FIGURE 13—Figure 13A is the characteristic curve of a zener diode. Once the zener point is reached, the
voltage stays the same for any changing current (provided the manufacturer’s specification isn’t
exceeded). Figure 13B shows the construction of a zener diode, and 13C is the symbol for the diode.
All diodes have a zener point. In some cases—when using germanium diodes, for example—
when the zener is reached, internal heat will destroy the diode. Therefore, a special type of diode
called a zener diode  is designed to operate in the negative region. In other words, a zener diode
is designed to operate all the time with a reverse current (Figure 13). Since silicon diodes can
operate with higher internal and ambient (surrounding) temperatures, zener diodes are generally
made of silicon.

Zener diodes are generally used to regulate voltage in power sup plies. When the zener voltage is
reached, the current can be either in creased or decreased, but the voltage across the zener diode
remains the same. Since the voltage across a zener diode remains the same, regardless of the
amount of current moving through it, a zener diode is called a constant-voltage device. This fact
makes the zener diode a very useful voltage-regulating component.

Both silicon and gallium arsenide diodes can be reverse-biased beyond the zener point without
being destroyed, but a current-limiting resistor must be connected in series to the circuit to
prevent excessive reverse current.

Propagation Delay
The propagation delay of a signal (also called the transit time effect) is a measure of the amount
of time that it takes for a change in input voltage or current to reach the output port. Propagation
delays are measured in nanoseconds (1 nanosecond = 1 × 10-9 second, or 0.000000001 second).
You might wonder if such a small unit of measurement is worth bothering with. However,
remember that some radar systems operate in the 10,000 megahertz frequency range. One signal
cycle at that frequency measures only 1 × 10-10 second (0.0000000001 second). At such a
frequency, it’s necessary to use component materials that have a very short time delay.

The propagation delay of a gallium arsenide diode is much lower than that of a silicon diode.
That is, a change in the input voltage or current will arrive at the output port six times faster in a
gallium arsenide diode than in a silicon diode. This fact gives the gallium arsenide diode an
advantage over silicon types.

Now, take a moment to check your learning by completing Power Check 2.

Diode Types and Functions

In the early days of electronics, only three types of diodes were used for virtually all
applications: vacuum tube diodes, solid state diodes, and crystal diodes. These diodes covered all
the needs of the electronics industry.

Vacuum tube diodes were the most popular diodes for a long time. The vacuum tube diode was
invented by Thomas Edison, but he didn’t realize its great potential. Sir John Fleming later used
the diode as a radio signal detector.
Note that the word diode literally means “two elements.” Old-fashioned vacuum tubes were
composed of two elements—an anode and a cathode. The cathode element was composed of a
filament surrounded by a cylinder. The cylinder was often coated with a material capable of
emitting a high current. The filament was heated by a low AC voltage to the point where a cloud
of electrons formed near the filament. These electrons would then be emitted from the surface of
the cathode, and the anode element would pick up the electrons. So, current could only flow
from the cathode to the anode.

FIGURE 14—Figure
14A shows how the principle of thermionic emission works. Figure 14B is the symbol for a vacuum tube
diode.

The principle of heating to obtain an emission of electrons is called thermionic emission (Figure

14). Although the type of vacuum tubes shown in Figure 14 are no longer used in electronics, the
principle of thermionic emission is used in many other devices. Examples are television picture
tubes, the display tubes used in computer systems, and magnetrons.

Magnetrons  are special diodes used in microwave ovens and radar systems. X-ray tubes also use
thermionic emission, as do special high-frequency tubes called klystrons.

In later years, solid-state diodes (such as selenium rectifiers and copper oxide diodes) replaced

vacuum tubes in many applications. The solid-state diodes didn’t require filaments and were
more rugged than vacuum tubes.

The crystal diode was an early solid-state signal diode used in radio circuits to retrieve audio
signals from the transmitted signal. The diode was formed by setting a fine piece of wire called
a cat whisker in contact with a small piece of lead sulfide (galena). Early radio reception
required moving the cat whisker to different points on the surface to find a place where detection
(reception) was best. (Note that the construction of a crystal diode is similar to that of a point
contact diode.)
Today, technicians use a wide variety of diodes in many different electronics applications. For
the purposes of our discussion, a diode  is a two-terminal device that conducts electrons. In most
cases, a diode modifies the input waveform or creates a waveform (rectification). Diodes can
perform other functions, too, such as signaling, amplification, switching, and controlling
frequency. They can also emit energy in the form of current, light, or noise.

FIGURE 15—This
illustration shows several types of diodes. Note that the cathode end is always distinguished in some
way.

Let’s take a closer look at some of the specific characteristics of some different types of diodes.
Figure 15 shows several of the different diodes you’ll encounter in electronic circuits. Note that
with every type of diode, there’s some way to identify the cathode lead.

FIGURE 16—Figure 16A shows two examples of low-current diodes; Figure 16B shows two types of high-
current (rectifier) diodes.

The construction of high-current diodes (rectifier diodes) and low-current diodes  is very

different. You can see the difference in appearance between these diodes in Figure 16. The 200
mA and 5-15 mA diodes are examples of low-current diodes. The 20 A and 250 A (high-current)
diodes are examples of rectifier diodes.
Constant-Current Diodes

FIGURE 17—Figure
17A is the characteristic curve of a constant-current diode. Figure 17B is the symbol for a constant-
current diode.

A constant-voltage diode maintains a constant voltage regardless of the amount of current

through it. In contrast, a constant-current diode conducts the same amount of current even when
the voltage across it changes. Figure 17 shows the characteristic curve for a typical constant-
current diode. Note that constant-current diodes must be operated within the range of voltages
specified by the manufacturer.

Two common examples of constant-current diodes are avalanche diodes and zener diodes. In
order to describe the operation of an avalance diode, let’s start by explaining
current avalanching. You already know that when a reverse voltage is applied to a diode, the
diode’s PN junction becomes an insulator, preventing the flow of current through the diode in the
reverse direction. The stronger the reverse voltage gets, the stronger the diode’s insulating effect
becomes. However, if the reverse voltage is strong enough, the voltage will overcome the
insulating effect of the PN junction. At that point, the junction will suddenly act as if it were
forward-biased. This is known as the avalanche effect. When the voltage drops back down, the
normal insulating function of the PN junction returns.

Here’s a more detailed view of what occurs during avalanching. When a voltage is placed across
a gas or a semiconductor material, free electrons are attracted to the positive side of that voltage.
An electron strikes an atom and displaces one electron. The displaced electron and the original
electron are attracted to the positive voltage, so two electrons are now traveling toward the
positive voltage. These two electrons strike two more atoms, and each atom releases an electron.
Now four electrons are traveling toward the positive voltage. Each of these four electrons strikes
an atom and releases an electron, so eight electrons are in motion. As the process continues, an
avalanche of electrons is put into motion.

The avalanching mechanism just described is used in avalanche diodes. Note that the shape of
the characteristic curve of an avalanche diode is basically the same as the curve of a zener diode.
However, the two diodes operate by a different mechanism. In a zener diode, a positive potential
strips electrons away from their atoms in great numbers, causing a rapid rise in current.
Signal Diodes
Diodes that have a low-voltage positive or negative breakover point are very useful as signal
detectors, so they’re often called signal diodes. One of the desired features of signal diodes is
that they don’t create a lot of electrical noise in their operation. Examples of signal diodes are
backward (or back) diodes, point contact diodes, and hot carrier (Schottky) diodes.

FIGURE 18—Figure
18A shows the characteristic curve of a backward diode. Figure 18B is the symbol for the diode.

The backward or back diode gets its name from the fact that it’s operated in a reverse-biased
mode. Figure 18 shows the characteristic curve of a backward diode. Notice that the reverse
breakover voltage is very low, so backward diodes start to conduct immediately upon being
reverse-biased.

FIGURE 19—This illustration shows the construction

of a point-contact diode.
A point contact diode is made of a fine metal wire called a cat whisker mounted with pressure
against a block of N-type germanium material. Figure 19 shows the construction of a point
contact diode.

FIGURE 20—The hot carrier diode shown in Figure

20A is made of N-type semiconductor material and metal. A hot carrier diode has no depletion region.
The symbol for the hot carrier diode is shown in Figure 20B.

The hot carrier diode (Schottky diode) is made by interfacing N-type semiconductor material

against metal (Figure 20). A hot carrier diode has no depletion region, so it has no junction
voltage. The result is that the reverse recovery time in the diode is reduced to 50 picoseconds.
The electrons entering the metal portion of the diode are in a high-energy state. Scientists say
that these electrons have a “high temperature,” and this is the source of the diode’s name. Hot
carrier diodes produce less noise than other diodes and are operated with a higher breakdown
voltage.

Oscillating and Amplifying Diodes

Certain diodes can be made to produce oscillating microwave radio signals. These diodes include
the IMP ATT diode, the Gunn diode, and the tunnel diode.

The term IMPATT stands for impact-avalanche transit time. When an IMPATT diode  is reverse-

biased to the breakover point, avalanching occurs in the depletion region. The amount of
avalanching can be controlled by an electric field. This diode can be used as an amplifier in the
100-megahertz frequency region.
 FIGURE 21—This is the symbol for a Gunn diode.

Named for its inventor, the Gunn diode is usually made of gallium arsenide. This diode works on
the principle that a high current through a semiconductor material produces microwave
oscillation (frequencies above 890 megahertz). This principle is called the Gunn effect. The
symbol for a Gunn diode is shown in Figure 21.

A tunnel diode is a two-terminal device that’s made like a silicon rectifier. The N-type and P-
type materials used to make a tunnel diode are heavily doped with impurity atoms (sometimes
more than 1,000 times the amount used in an ordinary diode). Because the semiconductor
materials are so heavily doped, they contain many charge carriers. The tunnel diode has a high
energy level, so it can be used as a very fast switch, an oscillator, or an amplifier.

FIGURE 22—Figure
22A shows the characteristic curve for a tunnel diode. Note the negative resistance between voltages at
point A and point B. Figure 22B is a view of the construction of a tunnel diode, and 22C is the symbol for
the diode.

Figure 22 shows the characteristic curve for a tunnel diode. When the voltage across a resistor
increases, the current through the resistor doubles. For a specific region on the tunnel diode,
when the voltage increases, the current decreases. That’s called negative resistance. It’s the
negative resistance feature that’s used to make the tunnel diode act as an oscillator. In the
characteristic curve, the area of negative resistance is indicated between points A and B.

You should be aware of what tunnel diodes are, even though they’re seldom used any longer.
However, the principle of negative resistance is used in some other devices.

Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs)

A light-emitting diode (LED) produces visible light when it’s forward-biased. LEDs are
generally made of gallium arsenide. The gallium arsenide material can also be combined with
other materials to obtain different colors. A plastic lens is built into the diode so that the emitted
light can be seen.

FIGURE 23—Figure 23A shows a view of an LED. The cathode side is indicated by the short lead and by
the flat side of the lens. Figure 23B is the symbol for an LED; Figure 23C is the symbol for a two-color
LED; and Figure 23D is the symbol for a three-color LED.

The physical appearance of an LED is shown in Figure 23. Observe that there are two ways to
identify the cathode. The shorter lead is the cathode lead and the flat side of the lens is the
cathode side.

When electrons arrive at the depletion region of any diode junction, they must be given extra
energy to pass through it. After the electrons pass the depletion region, they must give up that
extra energy. One way is to convert it to light energy. That occurs when the electrons combine
with holes in the P-type material. An LED contains a fairly large depletion region, so about 1.5 V
is required to move the electrons across the junction. Thus, when an LED is forward-biased with
1.5 V, the LED lights up.

Two-color LEDs are made by placing two units inside a plastic lens. The units are doped with
impurities that give them their colors. The two units are mounted “back-to-back.” Forward-
biasing in one direction produces one color of light, and forward-biasing in the other direction
produces the other color of light. The symbol for a two-color LED is shown in Figure 23C.

Three-color LEDs contain two units and three leads. The center lead is common to both units.
Each color can be energized by using two of the leads. By energizing both LEDs at the same
time, the two colors combine to produce a third color. The symbol for a three-color LED is
shown in Figure 23D.

As with all other types of diodes, never energize a LED without first connecting a current-
limiting resistor in series with the diode.

Lasers and Laser Diodes

The word laser is an acronym that stands for light amplification by stimulated emission of
radiation. The basic operating principle of a laser is similar to that of an LED. In the laser
device, electrons are raised to a higher energy level by some method, such as acceleration by an
electric field. When the electrons return to a lower energy level, the extra energy they produced
must be released. (The energy can’t just disappear because energy can’t be either created or
destroyed, only transferred.) The energy can be released as heat, light, or electromagnetic energy.
FIGURE 24—This figure illustrates the construction of the first laser made—the ruby laser. Note that
lasers operate on the same basic principles as LEDs.

Figure 24 shows the construction of a ruby laser, which was the first type of laser made. The
small “ruby” cylinder in the laser is made of aluminum oxide doped with chromium. (Note that
the color of the ruby material used in ruby lasers can be best described as pink.) The laser
contains a reflective surface at one end and a partially reflective surface at the other end.

A xenon flash lamp surrounds the small ruby cylinder. The important characteristics of the flash
lamp are its intense brightness and its (nearly) instant ON and OFF ability. When the lamp is
flashed, a high concentration of energy particles called photons invades the ruby. The photons
strike the atoms and raise their electrons to a higher energy level.

FIGURE 25—The illustration in Figure 25A shows how incoherent light waves look. That is, the light is
made up of many different frequencies or wavelengths. Incoherent light is the type of light produced by
ordinary light bulbs and the sun. In contrast the illustration in Figure 25B shows the coherent light
produced by a laser. Note that the light waves are the same frequency and phase (the waves are in step
with each other).

When the flash lamp is snapped off, all of the electrons return to a lower energy level at the same
time. When this happens, the electrons release energy in the form of light. Since all of the
electrons return to a lower energy level at the same time, the light produced is called coherent
light  (Figure 25). The light is reflected back and forth between the reflective surfaces, and
photon avalanching rapidly takes place. The avalanching is intensified by the internal back and
forth reflections from the mirrored ends. In turn, more and more light is produced within the
laser.

The ruby cylinder is an exact multiple of the wavelength of the light. The mirror on one end of
the ruby cylinder reflects 100 percent of the light. At the other end, the mirror reflects 95 percent
of the light; the other 5 percent passes through. That 5 percent is released as a laser beam. Since
the light produced is coherent, it can be focused into a very narrow, high-intensity beam.

Because of the high internal heat with this type of laser, the output has to be pulsed to prevent
destruction of the ruby material. Newer types of lasers (gas lasers) can produce continuous
(nonpulsing) laser light.

FIGURE 26—This
illustration shows the construction of a laser diode.

Figure 26 shows the construction of a laser diode.  Note that the ends of the diode contain
reflective surfaces. The reflective surfaces are positioned perpendicular to the plane of output
light. The surfaces reflect the light back and forth to obtain photon avalanching. As with an LED,
electrons crossing the junction must be supplied with enough energy to get through the depletion
region. A very high forward current is used to give the electrons the necessary high energy to
cross the depletion region. When they reach the P-type material, they give up that extra energy as
light. The higher energy produces intense light.

The light from a laser diode isn’t as coherent or intense as the light from a ruby laser or any other
modern laser. However, laser diodes are currently used in a number of consumer electronic
products. For example, the very narrow tracks on compact discs are “read” by the light generated
by a laser diode.

Neon Lamps

FIGURE 27—A typical

neon lamp is shown in Figure 27A. Figure 27B shows the characteristic curve of a neon lamp, and Figure
27C shows the symbol.

A neon lamp  contains two electrodes that are inserted in a glass envelope. The envelope is filled
with neon gas (or neon combined with some other gas to obtain special colors). If the two
electrodes are the same size, the lamp is called bilateral. If one electrode is cylindrical and the
other electrode is positioned in the center of the cylinder, the neon lamp is called unilateral. The
appearance of a typical neon lamp and its characteristic curve are shown in Figure 27. Note that
the voltage across a conducting neon lamp is nearly constant, as the characteristic curve shows.
The curve shows that both a forward and reverse breakover occur.

At room temperature, some free electrons are always moving around in a material. In a working
neon lamp, electrons are attracted by a positive voltage on one of the electrodes. (The voltage is
usually 65 V or higher.) As the electrons move away from the negative voltage and toward the
positive voltage, they strike molecules of neon gas and re lease more electrons, producing
avalanching.

The atoms that have lost an electron are now positively charged, so they move toward the
negative electrode of the neon lamp. When the atoms get very close to the negative electrode,
they pull electrons off its surface. These electrons rapidly accelerate to combine with the
positively charged atoms. When the electrons from the surface of the negative electrode combine
with the atoms, they give up the energy they gained during acceleration as visible light.

When a DC voltage is applied across a neon lamp, the area around the negative electrode glows
due to the release of electron energy. When an AC voltage is applied to the metal electrodes, a
periodic reversal of polarity occurs across the lamp. The electrodes will light alternately, but the
polarity reversals happen so rapidly that both electrodes seem to glow at the same time.

Note that a neon lamp doesn’t have an anode and a cathode. A neon lamp will conduct when a
positive voltage is placed across it in either direction. Either lead on the lamp could be positive
with respect to the other lead depending on the direction of the applied voltage. Neon lamps are
sometimes used as low-current oscillators. The basic scientific principles behind the operation of
neon lamps are used to operate many other electronic devices, such as LEDs, lasers, and X-ray
tubes.

X-ray Tubes

FIGURE 28—The high-

speed electron beam in this illustration releases X rays when it strikes the metal plate.

Figure 28 shows the basic principle of operation for an X-ray tube. Electrons are emitted from a
heated cathode, then focused by an electron lens. (Focusing is required because the negative
electrons repel each other and tend to move apart.) The concentrated beam is attracted by a
highly positive plate (anode). The electrons are accelerated to a very high speed before they
strike the plate. Then, they must give up their high-speed energy. In this case, the energy is given
off as X rays.
Three-Layer Diodes (DIACs)

FIGURE 29—A three-

layer diode is shown in Figure 29A. The diode’s characteristic curve is shown in Figure 29B. Note that the
characteristic curve is very similar to that of a neon lamp. Symbols for the three-layer diode are shown in
Figure 29C.

The solid-state equivalent of a neon lamp is the three-layer diode or DIAC. The construction and

characteristic curve for a DIAC are shown in Figure 29. Note that this characteristic curve is very
similar to the curve shown for a neon lamp, and the two components behave in a similar way in
circuits. However, a neon lamp requires about 65 V across its terminals before it can conduct,
while a DIAC will conduct at voltages less than 10 V (depending upon the manufacturer’s
specifications).

Note that this type of diode has two PN junctions. When lead X  is made positive with respect to
lead Y,  the PN junction 2 is forward-biased. However, current can’t flow immediately because
PN junction 1 is reverse-biased.

If the voltage across the diode continually increases, the upper PN junction will eventually reach
a zener point. When that occurs, the current rushes through the diode and the diode’s resistance
drops to a very low value.

If lead X is made negative with respect to lead Y, then PN junction 1 will be forward-biased and
the PN junction 2 will be reverse-biased. Again, current can’t flow until the zener point of
junction 2 is reached. At that time, current again rushes through the device and its resistance
becomes very low.
Four-Layer Diodes (Shockley Diodes)

FIGURE 30—Figure 30A shows the construction of a four-layer diode; 30B shows the characteristic curve;
and 30C shows two symbols.

The four-layer diode gets its name from the fact that it’s constructed from four layers of
semiconductor materials in this arrangement: PNPN. This diode is also sometimes called
a Shockley diode or a PIN-PIN diode. The construction and characteristic curve of a four-layer
diode are shown in Figure 30. Note that the diode won’t conduct until the forward voltage
reaches a specific breakover voltage value. At that point (VBO) it drops to a lower forward
voltage with a rapid rise in forward current.

When a four-layer diode is forward-biased, junctions X and Z are forward-biased and

junction Y is reverse-biased. As soon as the voltage on junction Y exceeds the breakover point
(the zener point of junction Y ), the diode begins to conduct. A rush of current will flow through
the device. When the diode is reverse-biased, junctions Z and X are reverse-biased and
junction Y is forward-biased.

Now, compare the characteristic curves of the three-layer diode and the four-layer diode. The
two curves are very similar for positive breakover voltages. However, a four-layer diode can’t be
used as a breakover device using a reverse voltage.

Noise Diodes
Noise is an ever-present problem in electronic systems. Much effort is spent in an attempt to
reduce the noise generated by electronic components. It may seem strange, then, that a special
type of diode called the noise diode  is designed to produce noise.

A noise diode generates a signal that’s made up of a very wide range of frequencies and
amplitudes. This signal is very useful for testing amplifiers or electronic systems to determine
whether the desired range of frequencies is being passed. Noise (in the form of electric signals) is
used in a wide variety of testing applications. In industry, these sounds are also used to mask
unpleasant noises.

Noise diodes are also used to relieve pain and stress in humans by producing soothing sounds.
The noise signals produced by the diode are converted through an amplifier to a speaker; the
sound produced is very similar to the sound of a waterfall. Dentists and psychiatrists use the
noise for therapeutic purposes.

FIGURE 31—Observe
that current normally flows in the reverse direction through a noise diode.

An example of a noise diode circuit is shown in Figure 31. Observe that the diode is reverse-
biased in that circuit.

Light-Activated Diodes (LADs)

FIGURE 32—This symbol represents a photosensitive

diode.

Light-activated diodes (LADs) are triggered into conduction when light strikes them. Diodes and
other electronic devices that are triggered into operation by light are called photosensitive.  The
symbol for a photosensitive diode is shown in Figure 32.
To understand the LAD’s principle of operation, you must understand that energy is composed
of both waves and particles called photons. When light is allowed to shine through certain
semiconductor materials, the photons strike the atoms or molecules. The collision knocks
electrons loose, and the electrons can then be used to make current flow.

Virtually all semiconductive materials produce effects when light strikes them. Therefore,
regular diodes are wrapped in opaque pack ages to prevent light from interfering with their
intended operation.

Optical Couplers (Optoisolators)

FIGURE 33—An
optical coupler or optoisolator has a very high isolation resistance. That means the power source for one
circuit is isolated from the power source of the other circuit.

An optical coupler or optoisolator is a device that contains both an LED and an LAD in a single
case (Figure 33). The case is light-tight; that is, it’s constructed so that no light can enter. When
the LED is energized, the LAD conducts. So, the circuit on the LED side can energize the circuit
on the LAD side. Thus, the LED converts the input signal to visible light, and the LAD changes
the visible light back to an electrical signal.

Optical couplers are used as control devices. In one application, they’re used as volume controls.
While variable resistors are also used as volume controls, optical couplers are better because
variable resistors tend to get noisy with age. However, no noise is transferred through an optical
coupler, so the output is noise-free.

The most important application of the optical coupler is isolation. A low-voltage, low-current
input circuit can be used to control a high-voltage, high-current output circuit. The isolation
resistance between the input and output circuit is very high.
PIN Diodes

FIGURE 34—The PIN

diode shown in Figure 34A is used in modern television receivers. Symbols for the PIN diode are shown in
Figure 34B.

A PIN diode is composed of a layer of intrinsic semiconductor material (I-type material)

sandwiched in between a layer of P-type material and N-type material (Figure 34). An intrinsic
semiconductor material is pure or nearly pure (without dopants). Normally, these materials have
very few charge carriers available for current.

The letters in PIN stand for P-type intrinsic N-type semiconductor materials. A PIN diode is an
example of one of the many types of light-activated diodes. A PIN diode is usually operated in a
reverse-bias condition, so it’s normally nonconducting. However, when light is directed to the
intrinsic region, charge carriers are released by photon-atom collisions, and the reverse-biased
diode conducts.

PIN diodes are often used in switching applications. One practical application of the PIN diode is
in television remote controls. An infrared diode (a special type of LED) is used in the remote
control to generate infrared light. When the infrared light is directed to the PIN diode, it
conducts. The infrared diode output can be coded to control a variety of TV features, such as the
ON/OFF switch, the volume control, and the channel selector.

Varactor Diodes

FIGURE 35—These two symbols are used to represent

varactor diodes. Varactor diodes are normally operated with reverse voltages.
When a diode is reverse-biased, the depletion region around the PN junction widens. You may
also be aware that the capacitance of a capacitor changes with the distance between the plates.
A varactor diode is a type of junction diode that’s specially made to be used as a variable
capacitor (Figure 35). The N-type and P-type materials in the diode serve as the capacitor plates,
and the depletion region serves as the dielectric.

The “plates” of the capacitor move further apart with an increase in the reverse-biased voltage. In
contrast, the “plates” move closer together with a decrease in the reverse-biased voltage. So, an
increase in reverse bias moves the varactor diode “plates” apart and decreases the capacitance.
Reducing the reverse bias moves the “plates” closer together and increases the varactor diode
capacitance.

Diode Symbols

FIGURE 36—This
figure shows the relationship between the construction of a diode and the parts of a diode symbol.

Diode symbols provide some useful information you can use to remember how these devices
operate. The pointed end of the triangle in a diode symbol always points in the direction of hole
flow inside the device. So, the point of the triangle points away from the P-type material and
toward the N-type material in the diode. There’s another way to say this: the pointed end of the
triangle in a diode symbol always points in the direction of conventional current flow, and
against the direction of electron flow. Figure 36 shows the relationship bewteen a diode and the
diode symbol.

Now, check your learning by completing Power Check 3.

Diode Circuits
Diodes are used in an almost endless variety of circuits. A few examples will be given here. The
examples that we’ve chosen demonstrate the fact that you can easily understand diode circuits
once you understand how the diodes themselves work.

FIGURE 37—Obtaining a desired voltage drop with

series-connected diodes gives a stable DC output.

Figure 37 shows a circuit that’s used in some modern applications to obtain a stable voltage
value from a varying voltage source. The circuit contains five silicon junction diodes connected
in series, a resistor connected in series with the diodes, and a 15 V power supply. The forward
voltage across each diode is 0.6 V.

Let’s calculate the total voltage drop across the series-connected diodes. To do this, simply add
the voltage values of the five diodes.

0.6 + 0.6 + 0.6 + 0.6 + 0.6 = 3 V Add the voltage values of the five diodes. Answer
drop across the diodes is 3 V.

The voltage across each diode is stable, so the output voltage is also stable. In this application, a
3 V output is required, but no output current is being used.

You could get the same voltage division by using a resistor in the circuit in place of the diodes.
However, the diode arrangement provides better regulation. In other words, the input voltage can
vary over a narrow range of values, but the output voltage will remain constant. This method of
regulating voltage is sometimes used in integrated circuits. It’s also used to obtain a quick
calibration voltage for bench test equipment when a zener diode isn’t available.
FIGURE 38—This half-wave rectifier circuit eliminates the negative half of the input voltage waveform.

Figure 38 shows a half-wave rectifier circuit. The input voltage is alternating current (AC), so
the polarity of the voltage constantly changes from positive to negative. However, the diode can
only conduct when the voltage is positive. Therefore, the output voltage is a series of positive
half cycles (pulsating DC).

FIGURE 39—The diodes in this circuit prevent the

current output of one battery from flowing into the other battery.

The circuit in Figure 39 shows two diodes connected in parallel with two batteries. The batteries
are connected in parallel in order to combine their output currents. Note that if the diodes weren’t
present in this circuit, the battery with the higher voltage would conduct into the battery with the
lower voltage. However, if one of the batteries conducts into the other there will be a loss of
current output. Observe that the current from each battery flows into the same point. Because the
diodes conduct in only one direction, however, no current can flow from one battery into the
other.
FIGURE 40—This figure shows a positive limiter circuit. The circuit limits the positive half cycles to a
voltage equal to V.

A limiter circuit is shown in Figure 40. The circuit contains a diode connected in series with a
DC voltage source. A limiter circuit conducts part of a half cycle and limits it to some value.
This circuit conducts the full negative half cycle and removes part of the positive half cycle, so it
can be called a positive limiter circuit.

On the positive half cycle, the diode can’t conduct until the voltage reaches a value equal to the
supply voltage (V). Up to that point, the cathode is more positive than the anode, so the diode is
prevented from conducting.

When the input reaches a voltage equal to V, the anode and cathode voltages are equal. As the
input voltage becomes more positive than the value of V, the diode is forward-biased and it
conducts. Disregarding the low value of junction voltage, the conducting diode can be
considered a short circuit. That puts the value of V across the line and the output voltage is
clamped to its value.
FIGURE 41—This double limiter circuit limits the voltage on both the positive and negative half cycles.

Figure 41 shows a double limiter circuit. The limiter circuit on the left contains a battery (V1)
connected in series with a diode (X1). Note the position of the negative battery terminal. (This
circuit is the same as the positive limiter previously discussed.) This circuit limits the positive
half cycles to a maximum value of V1.

The limiter circuit on the right also contains a battery (V2) connected in series with a diode (X2).
However, note the position of the negative terminal of V2. This circuit limits the negative half
cycle to a maximum value of –V2. The diode can’t conduct until its cathode is more negative
than its anode. That happens when the negative half cycle of input voltage becomes more
negative than V2.

Note that the limiter circuit and the double limiter circuit both contain batteries. However, any
DC voltage source could be used in these circuits.
 FIGURE 42—In this circuit, a zener diode is used as a
voltage regulator.

A zener regulator circuit is shown in Figure 42. The circuit contains a resistor and a zener diode
connected in series. A DC generator is the power source. In this circuit, when the input voltage
increases, the current through the zener diode also increases. However, the voltage across the
zener diode remains the same. When the input voltage de creases, the current through the zener
diode decreases. However, the voltage across the diode remains the same. Since the output
voltage for this circuit remains the same regardless of changes in the input voltage, the output is
said to be voltage-regulated.

Since this zener diode circuit accomplishes the same task as a circuit that contains diodes
connected in series, you might wonder why the diode series circuit is needed. One reason is that
it’s much easier to fabricate junction diodes on an integrated circuit compared with the problem
of fabricating a zener diode. Or, a 3 V zener diode may not be available when a quick calibration
check is needed.

FIGURE 43—This is a
simple light meter circuit. The variable resistor is used for calibration.

Figure 43 shows a simple light meter circuit  that contains a photovoltaic cell or photocell. (A

photocell absorbs energy from outside light and turns the energy into an output voltage. The
voltage output of the cell depends on the amount of light striking it.) The circuit also contains a
variable resistor that makes it possible to calibrate the meter reading for a specific range of light
values.

FIGURE 44—The
three parts of this figure show how to use two diodes to protect a meter against wrong polarity and
excessive current.

Figure 44 shows how a meter can be protected against an excessive current, and at the same
time, against an accidental reverse in the polarity of the input voltage or the current to be
measured. The reverse parallel connections for the two diodes are shown in Figure 44A.

Figure 44B shows how the meter can be protected against an accidental reverse in current or
applied voltage. The diode is forward-biased by the reverse polarity, so it shunts the reverse
current around the meter. Diode X1 must be a type with a low forward breakover rating (a hot
carrier diode will work well). In the ideal situation, a very small amount of reverse current will
flow through the meter.

Figure 44C shows how to protect the meter from an accidental voltage or current overload. When
the forward voltage across the meter exceeds the forward breakpoint of the diode, the diode
begins to conduct. The voltage across the diode is reasonably constant even if the forward
overload voltage or current continues to increase.

If the forward-biased diode is a silicon type, there will be an overload of 0.6 V on the meter.
However, it’s assumed that this voltage isn’t sufficient to destroy a meter, especially if the
overload is limited to a short period of time. If 0.6 V is sufficient to destroy the meter, an other
type of diode can be used. Constant-current diodes can also be used in this circuit.
 FIGURE 45—This
is an easy-to-construct lamp dimmer. Note that the resistor may not be needed if the diode can handle
the full current.

Figure 45 shows an easy-to-construct lamp dimmer circuit.  The lamp to be dimmed is plugged

into the lamp socket. When the switch is in the BRIGHT position, the lamp receives the full AC
input from the plug (about 120 VAC). When the switch is in the DIM position, the diode rectifies
the input so that current only flows for one half cycle out of every full cycle.

You should understand that half of the two-wire AC line is at (or very near to) ground potential.
This is known as the neutral side of the circuit. In all modern plugs, the neutral side is connected
to the larger slot in the socket, and the wider prong in the plug.

WARNING: Note that dimmer switches, like the one in Figure 45, must always be installed on
the neutral side of the AC power line! This very important safety rule applies only to AC
power dimmer switches.

FIGURE 46—A neon

lamp with a built-in resistor can be connected in parallel with a fuse to determine if the fuse is blown.

A useful device that you can use to tell if a fuse is blown is shown in Figure 46. A neon lamp is
connected in parallel with the fuse. If the fuse is in working order, a short circuit occurs across
the neon lamp and the lamp remains unlit. However, if the fuse is blown, the voltage will be
applied across the lamp and the lamp will light up. Some fuses actually contain their own built-in
neon lamps. Then, when a fuse blows, the lamp glows, identifying the bad fuse.

Remember that neon lamps and diodes should never be used without a current-limiting resistor
connected in series. However, some neon lamps are sold with built-in resistors, and that resistor
isn’t shown on schematic diagrams. We’re assuming that the neon lamp in Figure 46 contains a
builtin resistor. Don’t be misled into thinking a resistor isn’t needed!

FIGURE 47—This figure shows the circuit for a neon oscillator.

Figure 47 shows a circuit that contains a neon oscillator. This circuit demonstrates how the
breakover voltage for all components having a similar characteristic curve can be used.

The oscillator produces pulses of light each time the neon lamp fires. When the switch (SW) is
closed, the capacitor (C) charges along the path shown by the solid arrows. When the voltage
across the capacitor reaches the firing potential, the lamp “fires” (gives off light). When the neon
lamp fires, it discharges the capacitor along the path indicated by the broken arrows.

However, note that the capacitor isn’t completely discharged. When the voltage across the
capacitor reaches the “extinguishing potential” of the lamp, the lamp stops glowing. Then, the
capacitor charges to the firing potential again. The ON and OFF condition of the lamp pro duces
the pulses of light characteristic of this type of oscillator.

Oscillators that produce a nonsinusoidal waveform (any waveform that isn’t shaped like a sine
wave) and that charge and discharge a reactive component are called relaxation oscillators.
 Specification Sheets

Table 3

DIODE SPECIFICATION SHEET, GERMANIUM AND SILICON DIODES

          Recurrent   Surge      

        Reverse Peak Average Current Peak Forw

      Temp Working Forward Forward 1 sec- Reverse Curren

    JEDEC or Range Voltage Current Current max. Voltage at + 1

Type Description Fig. No. (°C) (VDC) (mA) (mA) (mA) (VDC) Min M

1N34AS Gen Pur (Ge) DO-7 -50 to +90 60 150 50 500 75 5

1N60 VidDet(Ge) DO-7 -50 to +90 25 150 50 500 30 —

1N82A Silicon UHF Mix DO-7 -50 to +120 3 25 — — 5 15 (0

1N295 50 MC Detector DO-7 -59 to +100 40 125 30 300 50 —

1N914 Gen Pur (Si) A -65 to +200 — 450 150 2000 25 —

1N914A Gen Pur (Si) A -65 to +200 — 450 150 2000 25 —

1N914B Gen Pur (Si) A -65 to +200 — 450 150 2000 25 —

1N5062 Gen Pur (Si) B -65 to +165 800 — 2500 65 A 800 —

DT230B Low Current (Si) DO-34 -65 to +150 200 — 250 5A 200 —

GE-300 Gen Pur (Si) DO-34 -65 to +150 200 — 250 2A 200 200

  50 NANO sec
If you’re building a circuit that contains a diode, or if you’re replacing a diode, you may have to
refer to a diode specification sheet (Table 3). The specification sheet provides a variety of
information about each of the listed germanium and silicon diodes. All of the diodes listed in this
table are for relatively low current operation.

To use a specification sheet, find the identification number (type) of the diode you’re working
with in the list on the left-hand side of the table. Then, read across the table to find out specific
information about that diode.

The information given under the column heading JEDEC or Fig. No. refers to the illustrations at
the bottom of the table and tells you what the particular diode looks like. The column
labeled Temp Range  tells you the temperature range in which that diode can be used. The value
given under the heading Reverse Working Voltage is the maximum continuous reverse voltage
that the diode can with stand. (If a blank space appears in this column, it means that the value
varies depending on the date of manufacture.)

The Recurrent Peak Forward Current value is the maximum amount of current that the diode can
conduct, provided that the diode is allowed to rest between forward current peaks. The Aver age
Forward Current value is the maximum continuous current the diode can conduct.
The column labeled Surge Current tells you the maximum one-time current that can be applied
to the diode. (The surge current must never be longer than 1 second in time.) The Peak Reverse
Voltage (also called peak inverse voltage or PIV) is the maximum reverse voltage that can safely
be applied to the diode.

The diode’s minimum and maximum forward current at 1 V are listed, as well as the maximum
reverse current.

Now, let’s look at an example diode. Let’s read all the information listed about the 1N914A
diode. Find the 1N914A diode on the list at the left-hand side of the table. Read across the table
to obtain specific information about this diode.

First, the letter A listed under JEDEC means that the 1N914A diode looks like the one shown in
illustration A at the bottom of the table. Next, note that this diode can be used in any temperature
from –65°C to +200°C.

The recurrent peak forward current value for this diode is 450 mA. This means that the diode can
conduct momentary forward currents of 450 mA (provided the diode is allowed to rest between
forward current peaks). The average value of the forward current is 150 mA (maximum).

Under Surge Current,  you can see that a one-time surge current of 2,000 mA (2 A) can be
applied to this diode. However, the surge current must never be longer than 1 second. Also, the
maximum reverse voltage that can safely be applied to this diode is 25 V.

Under Characteristics,  note that this diode’s minimum and maximum forward current at 1 V
aren’t given. However, the maximum reverse current is 0.025 microamperes when the reverse
voltage is 20 V.

As a general rule, you can replace the 1N914A diode with any diode that has a higher current
rating. For example, the 1N5062 can be used as a substitute. However, you can never replace it
with one that has a lower forward current rating or a lower peak reverse voltage rating. If you’re
buying a replacement diode, it’s usually sufficient to specify the maximum forward current and
PIV ratings.

Now, let’s take another look at the dimmer circuit shown in Figure 45. What type of diode
should be used in this circuit? Well, it’s always a good idea to consider the “worst case” situation
when designing any circuit. The lamp connected to the dimmer circuit will receive energy only
half the time for each cycle. However, to give the circuit design a good safety factor, let’s
consider the lamp to be ON for the full cycle and choose a diode based upon that amount of
current.

So, start by calculating the maximum amount of current in this circuit. The lamp current can be
determined by using the basic power equation:

I=PEI=PE
In this formula, P stands for power in watts, E stands for voltage in volts, and I  stands for
current in amps. Let’s calculate the lamp current. Assume that we’re going to use the dimmer
circuit with a 100 W bulb; the input voltage is 120 V. Substitute 100 W for P  and 120 V
for E, and solve to find the lamp current.

I=PEI=PE Write the power equation.

I=100W120VI=100W120V Substitute the power and voltage values into the for
Divide (100 ÷ 120 = 0.833). Answer: The value of c
I = 0.833 A
is 0.833 A (rounded).

So, based on our calculations, you can see that a diode that can con duct 1 A in the forward
direction will be adequate for this circuit. However, note that you must also select a diode that
can easily with stand the peak inverse voltage (PIV) across the diode.

When we say the input voltage to this circuit is 120 V, we mean RMS (root-mean-square, or
effective) voltage delivered on the AC line. However, diodes are rated by the PIV voltage. So,
you need to convert the RMS voltage value to a PIV value. You can perform this calculation as
follows:

          PIV = 1.414 × RMS voltage

PIV = 1.414 × 120 V

    PIV = 170 V (rounded)

You would now look on your specification sheets for a diode that can conduct 1 A in the forward
direction and that can withstand 200V (PIV). Always remember this: in a circuit, you can use a
diode that has a higher forward current rating and/or a higher PIV rating than the values you
calculated. However, never use a diode that has ratings that are less than what your calculations
indicate!

In a manufacturer’s catalog, you would find that a diode identified as 1N5624 can conduct a
continuous forward current of 3 A and withstand a PIV of 200 V. Those values are well over the
minimum requirement that your calculations indicated, and it would give an additional safety
factor. If the parts supplier doesn’t have that diode in stock, they’ll offer a substitutediode that
meets or exceeds the specifications of the 1N5624.

Diode Measurements and Troubleshooting

Linear Vs. Nonlinear Components
Electronic components are classified as being either linear or nonlinear devices. In a linear
component, if you double the voltage across the component, the current also doubles. (This
relationship isn’t true in a nonlinear device.)

FIGURE 48—In
this figure, the straight line graphs the relationship between voltage and current for this
component. The straight line shows that a resistor is a linear device.
A resistor is an example of a linear device. The graph in Figure 48 shows how the current
doubles each time the voltage across the resistor is doubled. Two points are marked on the graph.
Point A  shows that when the voltage across the resistor is 3 V, the current through the resistor is
0.3 mA (0.0003 A). Point B on the graph of resistance shows that when the voltage across the
resistor is doubled to 6 V, the current through the resistor is 0.6 mA (0.0006 A).

We can calculate the resistance value of this resistor for any point on the graph by using Ohm’s
law. Remember that Ohm’s law for resistance is represented by the following formula:

R=EIR=EI
In the formula, R  stands for resistance in ohms, E stands for voltage in volts, and I stands for
current in amps.
Let’s calculate the resistance of the resistor at point A in Figure 48. At point A, the current
through the resistor is 0.0003 A and the voltage across the resistor is 3 V. Substitute these values
into the Ohm’s law formula and solve to find the value of resistance.

R=EIR=EI Write the Ohm’s law formula.

R=3V0.0003AR=3V0.0003A Substitute the values for the voltage and current into
Divide (3 ÷ 0.0003 = 10,000). Answer: The resistanc
R = 10,000 Ω
point on the graph is 10,000 Ω.
Now, let’s calculate the resistance at point B on the graph. At point B, the voltage across the
resistor is 6 V and the current through the resistor is 0.0006 A.

R=EIR=EI Write the Ohm’s law formula.

R=6V0.0006AR=6V0.0006A Substitute the values for the voltage and current into
Divide (6 ÷ 0.0006 = 10,000). Answer: The resistanc
R = 10,000 Ω
point on the graph is 10,000 Ω.
These calculations illustrate an important point: although the voltage across the resistor and the
current through the resistor changed, the resistance value didn’t change.

There are some resistors being manufactured that are nonlinear. (That is, a graph of the voltage
across those resistors and current through them wouldn’t be a straight line.)

Examples of these resistors are thermistors and VDRs. A thermistor is a resistor that’s very
sensitive to heat. Increasing the current through a thermistor will cause a change in temperature
that will produce a change in resistance. The resistance value of a voltage-dependent
resistor (VDR) is determined by the voltage across it. If you change the voltage across a VDR its
resistance will change.
 FIGURE 49—The
characteristic curve of a diode isn’t a straight line, so a diode is a nonlinear device.
Now, let’s take a look at a diode. Figure 49 shows the characteristic curve of a diode. (Note that
the graph isn’t a straight line.) At point X on the graph, the forward voltage drop is 0.35 V and
the current through the diode is 0.000035 A. At point Y on the curve, the forward voltage across
the diode is 0.7 V and the current is 0.7 A.

Let’s use Ohm’s law to calculate the resistance of the diode at these two points. First, find the
value of resistance at point X on the graph.

R=EIR=EI Write the Ohm’s law formula.

R=0.35V0.000035AR=0.35V0.000035A Substitute the voltage and current values into the for
R = 10,000 Ω Divide (0.35 ÷ 0.000035 = 10,000). Answer: The res
the diode at point X on the graph is 10,000 Ω.
Now, find the resistance value at point Y on the graph.

R=EIR=EI Write the Ohm’s law formula.

R=0.7V0.7AR=0.7V0.7A Substitute the voltage and current values into the for
R = 1 Ω Divide (0.7 ÷ 0.7 = 1). Answer: The resistance value
point Y on the graph is 1 Ω.
So, you can see that the current through the diode didn’t double when the voltage across it was
doubled. Also, the resistance of the diode changes as the current through it and the voltage across
it changes. Therefore, a diode is not a linear component.
It’s important to understand that Ohm’s law is only a useful tool when it’s used with linear
components. The resistance values we found using Ohm’s law are only valid for points X
and Y on the graph in Figure 49. You would have to know the voltage and current values for
every point on the graph in order to determine the resistance.

FIGURE 50—The resistance value of this circuit

can’t be determined by using Ohm’s law.
So, for example, look at the circuit shown in Figure 50. The circuit contains a diode, a 100 Ω
resistor, and a 5 V power supply. What’s the current in the circuit?

The answer is, we can’t solve this problem because no resistance value for the diode can be
determined. The resistance value of the diode varies depending on the voltage across it and the
current through it. However, since you don’t know either of those values, you can’t solve this
problem with Ohm’s law.

Measuring the Voltage across a Diode

Measuring the voltage across a diode (or any other place where there’s a PN junction) is a useful
troubleshooting procedure. If current is flowing through a diode junction, you should be able to
measure a forward voltage drop across that diode. The first step in the troubleshooting procedure
is to take voltage measurements. Then, compare the measurements against the junction voltage
value the diode should have. If your measurements correspond to the expected values, the
component is working properly. If your measurements don’t correspond to the expected values,
the component is probably defective, and additional testing is needed.

You can perform both forward-bias and reverse-bias tests in a diode circuit. After you take the
forward-bias voltage measurement, com pare it against the typical junction voltage for the diode.
If you measure a much higher voltage drop or a much lower voltage across the diode, you can
presume the diode may not be working properly. Further testing will then be required to
determine the problem in the circuit.
All diodes produce some leakage current when they’re reverse-biased. You can determine the
amount of leakage current by measuring the volt age drop across the series current-limiting
resistor in the circuit. Or, if you know the resistance and the voltage across that resistor, you can
calculate the leakage current by using Ohm’s law. (Again, remember that Ohm’s law won’t work
by using the voltage across the diode and the resistance of the diode, because a diode is a
nonlinear device!)

A voltmeter test for leakage current won’t help you much unless you know how much leakage
current is permitted. Many technicians who often work on the same kind of equipment over a
period of time keep a small pocket notebook with important values such as the allowable leakage
current. They get some of their data by making measurements in equipment that’s working
properly.

FIGURE 51—In the forward-biased diode shown in 51A, the depletion region is narrowed. A
voltmeter is being used to measure the voltage across the diode as its conducting. In the reverse-
biased diode shown in 51B, the dashed arrow shows the path for a small amount of leakage
current.
Figure 51 shows a forward-bias and a reverse-bias test on a silicon junction diode.
 FIGURE 52—
Figure 52A shows a forward-bias test. When an ohmmeter forward-biases the diode, the
resistance reading is low and the needle swings to the right. A reverse-bias test is shown in 52B.
When the ohmmeter reverse-biases the diode, the resistance reading is high and the needle
swings to the left.
If a voltage test indicates that a diode may be defective, you can perform another diode test
(Figure 52). You can measure the forward and reverse resistance of the diode using an
ohmmeter. Remember that an ohmmeter is an instrument that applies a voltage to the component
or circuit being tested.

In this test, you must first turn the circuit off. Disconnect one lead of the diode from the circuit.
Remember the following: Never connect an ohmmeter into an energized circuit. Always make
sure the power is off before making an ohmmeter measurement.

In Figure 52A, the ohmmeter output voltage is used to forward-bias a diode. Note that the
positive ohmmeter lead is connected at the anode end of the diode and the negative lead of the
ohmmeter is connected at the cathode end of the diode. This test should indicate a low resistance
on the ohmmeter scale. (You must know the polarities of your ohmmeter output voltage on the
leads in order to make this test meaningful!)

In the reverse-bias test shown in Figure 52B, the ohmmeter leads are reversed. The voltage
polarity of the ohmmeter connection is also reversed. The holes in the P-type materials are
attracted toward the negative voltage supplied by the ohmmeter. At the same time, the electrons
in the N-type material are attracted to the positive voltage supplied by the ohmmeter. The charge
carriers are attracted away from the junction, because unlike charges attract.

During a reverse-bias test, the ohmmeter lead polarities have the effect of increasing the size of
the depletion region. No current flows at this time, and the diode is said to be reverse-biased. The
ohmmeter should display a high resistance with this measurement.

If you’re making an ohmmeter test on a high-current rectifier diode, the reverse resistance should
be at least 10 times higher than the for ward resistance. If you’re making an ohmmeter test on a
low-current, small-signal diode, the reverse resistance should be at least 100 times higher than
the forward resistance. If you don’t get the expected ohm meter values during testing, the diode
may not be useful in its circuit.

Before performing a voltmeter test or an ohmmeter test on a diode, you should be aware of how
a diode’s materials affect the diode’s operation. You should also determine your ohmmeter’s
output voltage before conducting tests, because ohmmeter output can vary.

To conduct a proper test, your ohmmeter should be able to forward-bias the diode under test into
conduction. If the ohmmeter’s output voltage is lower than the diode’s forward breakover
voltage, the ohmmeter won’t forward-bias the diode into conduction. As a result, you’ll get a
high forward resistance measurement. Since an ohmmeter’s output voltage is usually about 1.5 V
or less, the ohmmeter may not be able to forward-bias a gallium arsenide diode into conduction
(a gallium arsenide diode requires a forward voltage of about 1.6 V to produce a forward
current). Thus, an ohmmeter test may not work on LEDs, which are made with gallium arsenide.
You’ll also measure a low forward resistance with an ohmmeter test on silicon junction diodes.

A note of caution is needed here. Once the forward breakover voltage is reached, a rapid rise in
current occurs through a diode. This means that if an ohmmeter is set to the R × 1 scale, the
ohmmeter could destroy a PN junction. When an ohmmeter is used on a scale higher than R × 1
for reading a higher resistance, the ohmmeter’s internal resistance is higher and the junction is
protected. So, never check a diode or any other device that has a PN junction by using an
ohmmeter on the R × l scale.

As a rule of thumb, the ratio of the back-to-front (reverse-to-forward) resistance (as shown in
Figure 52) should be at least ten-to-one for a high-current diode. With that ratio (or higher), the
diode can be considered to be good. In other words, if the value of the forward resistance is no
more than one-tenth the value of the reverse resistance, the high-current diode can be used. (In
some isolated cases, the high-current semiconductor diodes used in power supply circuits may
have lower back-to-front ratios. In certain specialized applications, a ratio of seven-to-one would
be acceptable.)

In order for an ohmmeter measurement to be meaningful, you need to know what kind of diode
you’re dealing with. Although the ohm meter test just described is often used, there’s a
disadvantage in using an ohmmeter to test diodes. The problem is that the voltage supplied by an
ohmmeter is only 1.5 V (maximum). So, the voltage may not be enough voltage to forward-bias
a diode. It may also not be enough voltage to properly test the reverse resistance of a diode. The
higher the reverse voltage is, the lower the reverse leakage current is.

Rule: Never check a PN junction in any semiconductor device with an ohmmeter set to the R × 1
scale unless you’re absolutely sure that the device won’t be destroyed by the test.

Diode Testers
Some technicians prefer to use commercially made diode testers. Sometimes those testers are
part of a more elaborate test instrument. The higher reverse voltage that these testers can produce
provides a better test of reverse resistance than the ohmmeter test.

FIGURE 53—This
figure shows an example of a parts layout for the diode tester.
Some technicians prefer to construct their own diode and junction testers. Figure 53 shows the
outside view of the parts of such a tester. Note that the tester contains two LEDs, two push-
button switches, and a toggle switch.

Let’s assume that we want to test a silicon diode. The diode is in stalled in the tester with the
ON/OFF switch open. The ON/OFF switch is a safety feature that protects the test equipment
from overload if terminals A and B are accidentally shorted together with out a diode installed.
FIGURE 54—This illustration shows a forward-bias test on a diode. Note that only the left half
of the circuit Is energized. The switch on the left side (SW1) is closed, while the switch on the
right (SW2) is open.
After the diode is installed, the ON/OFF switch is closed (turned to the ON position). When the
push-button switch SW1 is closed, the diode under test will be forward-biased. If that diode can
conduct in the forward direction, the current flow will be as shown with broken line arrows in
Figure 54. The green LED will be ON to indicate that the diode under test is good as far as
forward current is concerned.
FIGURE 55—This illustration shows a reverse-bias test on a diode. Note that only the right half
of the circuit is energized. Switch SW2 is closed, and SW1 is open.
Figure 54 shows a diagram of a forward-bias test being performed on a basic diode circuit.
Figure 55 shows a reverse-bias test.

To make sure that the forward current isn’t high enough to destroy the diode being tested, you’ll
need to perform some basic calculations to determine what resistance value is required for Rl.
Let’s review the information you need for that calculation.

The LED is made of gallium arsenide, so it has a forward voltage drop of 1.6 V and a rated
current of 15 mA. That rating must not be exceeded! Assume that the diode under test is a
silicon type that can withstand a forward current of up to 150 mA, so it won’t be destroyed by
the 15 mA current required by the LED. The forward voltage across the silicon diode is about 0.6
V. You can use the slightly higher value 0.7 V to be sure the diode is sufficiently forward-biased
for conduction. The applied voltage is 9 V.

Start by calculating the value of the voltage across Rl when the forward-biased diode test is being
performed. To find the voltage drop across the resistor, you must subtract all of the voltages
across the diodes from the total applied voltage. (The sum of the voltage drops in a closed circuit
must equal the total supplied voltage.)

1.6 V + 0.7 V = 2.3 v Add the voltage drops across the LED and the diode
9 V – 2.3 V = 6.7 V Subtract this sum from the supplied voltage to determ
the resistance across R1. Answer: The voltage drop
is 6.7 V.
Thus, the voltage drop across the resistor is 6.7 V and the current through the resistor is 15 mA.
That’s the maximum allowable current for the LED, and since the current is the same in all parts
of a series circuit, this is also the current through the R1 (and through the diode under test). Since
you know the voltage drop across the resistor (6.7 V) and the current through the resistor (15 mA
or 0.015 A) you can use Ohm’s law to determine the resistance of R1.

R1=ER1IR1R1=ER1IR1 Write the Ohm’s law formula.

R2=6.7V0.015AR2=6.7V0.015A Substitute the voltage and current values into the fo

R1 = 447 Ω Divide (6.7 ÷ 0.015 = 447). Answer: The resistance

The resistance of R1 is 447 Ω, which isn’t a standard size for resistors. The next largest standard
size is 470 Ω. Note that if R1 has a value of 470 Ω the current in the circuit will be slightly
reduced (6.7 V ÷ 470 Ω = 14.26 mA). When the current in the circuit is reduced, the LED will
glow at a slightly lower brightness.

A reverse-bias test is shown in Figure 55. The worst possible condition for a reverse-bias test
occurs when the diode under test is a short circuit. In that case, only the red LED will be in the
circuit when SW2 is pressed. To find the voltage across R2, subtract the LED’s forward voltage
drop (1.6 V) from the supply voltage (9 V).

9 V –1.6 V = 7.4 V   Subtract to find the voltage across R2.

Since you know the voltage drop across the resistor (7.4 V) and the current through the resistor
(15 mA or 0.015 A) you can use Ohm’s law to determine the resistance of R2.

R2=ER2IR2R2=ER2IR2 Write the Ohm’s law formula.

 R2=R2=7.4v0.015AR2=R2=7.4v0.015A Substitute the voltage and current values into the for
R2 = 493 Ω Divide (7.4 ÷ 0.015 = 493). Answer: The resistance o
The value of R2 is 493 Ω,  which isn’t a standard size. So, you’ll need to use the next highest
standard resistance of 500 Ω. That will slightly reduce the current in the circuit to 14.8 mA (7.4
V ÷ 500 Ω = 14.8 mA). So, there will be a slight reduction in the brightness of the red LED when
the diode has no reverse resistance.

An important thing to remember is that the values for the currents through the LED and the diode
under test weren’t calculated: the values were obtained from catalogs. Again, you can’t calculate
the current through a diode by using Ohm’s law.

FIGURE 56—This circuit can be used to show a PN junction diode characteristic curve on an
oscilloscope display.
Another type of diode tester shows the diode characteristic curve on the screen of an
oscilloscope. As with the diode tester, it’s also more likely to indicate a defective diode than the
ohmmeter test. Figure 56 shows the circuit for displaying a diode characteristic curve on an
oscilloscope screen.

The zener (reverse breakover) voltage is usually well beyond the ability of an ohmmeter to
reverse-bias a diode into conduction. When you use an ohmmeter to measure the reverse
resistance of a zener diode, you should get a very high reverse resistance measurement. The best
of the tests described so far is the one that puts the zener diode characteristic curve on the
oscilloscope display.