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e.g. Water (H2O) can be broken down into hydrogen and oxygen, therefore, water is not an element.
Oxygen cannot be broken down into other substances, therefore, oxygen is an element.
Chemical Chemical
Element Latin Name Element Latin Name
Symbol Symbol
Aluminium Al Lead Plumbum Pb
Argon Ar Lithium Li
Barium Ba Magnesium Mg
Beryllium Be Manganese Mn
Boron B Mercury Hydragyrum Hg
Bromine Br Neon Ne
Calcium Ca Nickel Ni
Carbon C Nitrogen N
Chlorine Cl Oxygen O
Chromium Cr Phosphorus P
Cobalt Co Platinum Pt
Copper Cuprum Cu Potassium Kalium K
Fluorine F Silicon Si
Gold Aurum Au Silver Argentum Ag
Helium He Sodium Natrium Na
Hydrogen H Sulphur S
Iodine I Tin Stannum Sn
Iron Ferrum Fe Zinc Zn
C. States of Elements
Elements exist in different states at room temperature and pressure.
e.g. Silver and sulphur are solids
Bromine and mercury are liquids
Chlorine is gas
D. Classification of elements
a.. In general, elements can be classified into metals and non-metals
(ii) Metalloids have some properties similar to metals and some properties similar to non-metals.
Examples of metalloids include boron, silicon and germanium
(iii) Most metalloids have important uses in industry. An example is silicon which is a semi-conductor. It is
wisely used in making computer chips.
Classwork
Study the following descriptions of three elements. Classify each as a metal, non-metal or metalloid. Explain you
choice in each case.
Element Description
X A yellow solid that melts at 119 C. Both the solid and liquid forms do not conduct electricity.
o
Answer
X is a non-metal element because it has a low melting point and it does not conduct electricity in both solid
and liquid state.
Y is a metal element because it is malleable.
Z is a metalloid because it is a brittle solid but it also can conduct electricity.
(i) The center of an atom is a very tiny and extremely dense region called the nucleus. The nucleus
contains protons and neutrons packed tightly together.
(ii) Electrons are spinning very fast around the nucleus.
Part II The Microscopic World I/P.3
(iii) There is empty space in-between the nucleus and electrons.
Sub-atomic Symbol Relative mass Relative charge Position within the atom
Particle
Proton p 1 +1 inside nucleus
Neutron n 1 0 inside nucleus
Electron e 1/1837 -1 move freely at great speed around
nucleus
b. Building Up Different Atoms
(i) Different atoms have different numbers of protons, neutrons and electrons.
(ii) An atom is electrically neutral. This is because any atom always has equal numbers of protons and
electrons.
(iii) On the other hand, the number of neutrons may not be equal to that of protons.
To be more convenient, atomic number and mass number of an atom are usually expressed as a simplied
notation.
208
For example, 82 Pb
Which represents a lead atom having 82 protons, 82 electrons and (208-82) = 126 neutrons.
Part II The Microscopic World I/P.5
G. Isotopes 同位素
a. Definition: Isotopes are atoms of the same element which have different numbers of neutrons.
e.g. and are the two isotopes of chlorine.
b. Properties of Isotopes
(i) Isotopes have the same chemical properties because they have the same number of protons and
outermost shell electrons.
(ii) Isotopes have different physical properties because they have different number of neutrons.
hydrogen relative mass of exactly 12.00. Masses of all other atoms are compared with the reference
1 standard to give their relative masses.
atom ( 1 H )
1
is equal to 12 of the mass of a carbon-12 atom, so is relative isotopic mass is 1.
24
2. A magnesium atom (12 Mg ) is twice as heavy as a carbon-12 atom, so its relative isotopic mass is
24.
(iii) By approximation,
Relative isotopic mass = mass number
Example
a. Chlorine consists of two natural isotopes, and , with percentage abundance of 75.4% and 24.6%
respectively. Calculate the relative atomic mass of chlorine.
Ans: 35.5
Part II The Microscopic World I/P.6
20
b. Neon in the air contains two isotopes: 10 Ne and 1022 Ne . The relative atomic mass of neon is 20.2. Calculate
the relative abundance of the isotopes.
20 22
Ans: 10 Ne (90%); 10 Ne (10%)
(ii) Each electron shell is given a number 1, 2, 3, 4 and so on, starting from the one closest to the nucleus (i.e.
the innermost shell). Each shell can hold up to a certain maximum number of electrons.
For example, a sodium atom has 11 electrons. The electronic arrangement of a Na atom is
2 , 8, 1
no. of
electrons in: 1st shell 2nd shell 3rd shell
Notes:
1. The nucleus is represented by the symbol of the atom.
2. Electronic shells are represented by concentric circles around the nucleus.
3. Electrons are represented by dots or crosses.
Part II The Microscopic World I/P.9
II. Periodic Table
A. Groups and Periods
b. It is divided into:
(i) Vertical columns called ____________.
d. Group names
e. Elements having similar chemical properties are put together in the same group.
Elements of the same group have similar chemical properties because ___________________
__________________________________.
b. The reactivity of the elements also changes across a period. Apart from the noble gases, the most reactive
elements are near the edges of the periodic table and the least reactive ones are in the center.
c.
The table above shows the different blocks of elements in the periodic table.
Elements near the zig-zag line are metalloids, for example, boron, silicon and germanium. Elements
between Groups II and III are transition metals 過渡金屬.
C. Properties of Elements
a. Group I Elements – Alkali Metals 鹼金屬
The six elements in Group I are Lithium, Sodium, Potassium, Rubidium, Caesium and Francium. These
elements react with water to form alkalis. Therefore they are called the alkali metals.
5. They all react vigorously with water to give hydrogen and an alkaline solution.
The six elements in Group II are Beryllium, Magnesium, Calcium, Strontium, Barium and Radium. They
are called as alkaline earth metals.
The noble gases are stable because their outermost shells are full of electrons.
Example
Part II The Microscopic World I/P.13
1. Caesium is a Group I element below potassium in the Periodic Table.
a. How many outermost shell electron(s) is/are there in a caesium atom? Explain your answer.
b. Predict the state of caesium at room temperature and pressure.
c. Predict the observation when caesium reacts with cold water.
d. Which of the metals, potassium or caesium, is more reactive?
e. Suggest ONE method to store caesium safely in the laboratory.
Answer
a. 1 outermost shell electron. Because it is a Group I element. Group I elements have one
2. Astatineoutermost
is a Group VIIelectron.
shell element below iodine in the Periodic Table.
a.b.How many
Solid outermost shell electron(s) is/are there in an atom of astatine?
b.c.Predict the state of astatine
It floats and moves on the at surface
room temperature
of water. and pressure.
c. Predict whether astatine is poisonous.
It reacts with water vigorously and gives a colourless gas (hydrogen)
AnswerColoured flame may be seen.
a. 7 “Hissing”
outermost sound
shell electrons
is heard.
d. Solid
b. Caesium is more reactive.
e. It Caesium
c. is poisonous
should be stored in paraffin oil.
Part II The Microscopic World I/P.14
III. Chemical Bonds
A. Stability and Noble gases
a. Noble gases are unreactive or stable because their outermost shell is full of electrons.
b. If an atom of an element has the same electronic configuration as that of a noble gas, it will be stable.
c. Therefore, elements having other electronic structures tend to lose or gain electron(s) in order to obtain the
stable octet structures as that of the nearest noble gases.
d. To get this special stability, atoms tend to form compounds so that they achieve the electronic
arrangement of atoms of the noble gases. The forces which bind these atoms together in a compound are
called chemical bonds.
A chemical bond refers to the strong electrostatic force (i.e. attraction between opposite charges)
holding atoms or ions together.
(i) Sodium atom - which has an electronic arrangement of 2, 8, 1 - tends to lose one electron from its
outermost shell in order to achieve the stable electronic arrangement of the nearest noble gas, neon (2, 8).
The atom becomes positively charged when the number of protons it possesses is greater than the number
of electrons. Positive ion or cation is thus formed.
(ii) A sodium ion carries 1 positive charge and is represented by the symbol Na+. The “+” sign means 1
positive charge.
The atom becomes negatively charged when the number of protons it possesses is smaller than the number
of electrons. Negative ion or anion is thus formed.
(ii) A chloride ion carries 1 negative charge and is represented by the symbol Cl-. The “ - ” sign means 1
negative charge.
When an oxygen atom gains two electrons, an oxide ion forms. It carries 2 negative charges and is
represented by the symbol O2-. The “2-“ sign means 2 negative charges.
Notes:
1. Metals usually have one, two or three outermost shell electrons and they usually form ions of charge +1, +2
and +3 respectively.
2. Non-metals such as Group V, VI or VII usually form ions of charge -3, -2 and -1 respectively.
3. Ions may be formed from simple atoms such as Na+, K+, Cl- and I- which are called simple ions. Those formed
from two or more atoms such as OH-, NO3-, NH4+ are called polyatomic ions.
B. Ionic Bonds
a. When sodium and chlorine react together, the sodium atom loses one electron to the chlorine atom. This
transfer of electron results in the formation of two ions, Na+ and Cl-.
b. The electronic diagram ("dot and cross" diagram) shows the transfer of electrons. Ions are put inside square
brackets with the charge written at the right hand corner.
Part II The Microscopic World I/P.17
You should note that all electrons are identical. The dots and crosses are symbols only.
c. The opposite charges of sodium ion and chloride ion attract each other strongly. This type of attractive force is
called ionic bond.
Ionic bond is a strong electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions which are formed by
transfer of electrons from one atom (or group of atoms) to another.
d. A simplified electronic diagram (showing the outermost shell electrons only) of a compound is as follows.
xx
+ xx -
x x
Na Cl x Na Cl x
x x
xx xx
Classwork
Draw electronic diagrams to show bond formation between the following elements
1. potassium and sulphur
Positive Ions
+1 ions +2 ions +3 ions
Name Symbol Name Symbol Name Symbol
Lithium ion Li +
Magnesium ion Mg 2+
aluminium ion Al3+
Sodium ion Na+ Calcium ion Ca2+ iron(III) ion Fe3+
Potassium ion K+ Barium ion Ba2+ chromium(III) ion Cr3+
Silver ion Ag+ lead(II) ion Pb2+
copper(I) ion Cu+ copper(II) ion Cu2+
mercury(I) ion Hg+ Zinc ion Zn2+
Hydrogen ion H+ iron(II) ion Fe2+
Ammonium ion NH4+ mercury(II) ion Hg2+
manganese(II) ion Mn2+
cobalt(II) ion Co2+
nickel(II) ion Ni2+
Negative ions
-1 ions -2 ions -3 ions
Name Symbol Name Symbol Name Symbol
Fluoride ion F- Oxide ion O2- Nitride ion N3-
Chloride ion Cl- Sulphide ion S2- Phosphide ion P3-
Bromide ion Br- Sulphate ion SO42- Phosphate ion PO43-
Iodide ion I- Sulphite ion SO32-
Hydroxide ion OH- Thiosulphate ion S2O32-
Nitrate ion NO3- Chromate ion CrO42-
Hydrogencarbonate HCO3- Dichromate ion Cr2O72-
ion
Hydrogensulphate HSO4- Carbonate ion CO32-
ion
Permanganate ion MnO4- Silicate ion SiO32-
Hypochlorite ion ClO-
Part II The Microscopic World I/P.19
(ii) NaCl is the simplest chemical formula which gives the simplest ratio of the number of atoms or ions
present in the compound. It is also known as the empirical formula 實驗式of the compound.
(iii) In writing the chemical formula of an ionic compound by combining the positive and negative ions. The
net charge for the compound must be zero.
(iv) Examples
1. Calcium chloride
Calcium ions (Ca2+) carries 2 positive charges. Chloride ion (Cl) carries 1 negative charge. The net
charge for the compound must be zero.
Therefore, the simplest ratio of Ca2+: Cl- in the compound should be 1:2. The chemical formula of
calcium chloride is CaCl2.
2. Magnesium hydroxide
Magnesium ion (Mg2+) carries 2 positive charges and hydroxide ion (OH-) carries 1 negative charge.
The net charge for the compound must be zero.
Therefore, the simplest ratio of Mg2+:OH- in the compound should be 1:2. The chemical formula of
magnesium hydroxide is Mg(OH)2.
Notice that brackets should be used for a polyatomic ion if the number of that ion in the chemical
formula is 2 or more.
e.g. calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2,
aluminium hydroxide Al(OH)3,
ammonium sulphate (NH4)2SO4
For simple ions, there is no need to use brackets, even when the number of that ion in the
formula is 2 or more.
e.g. sodium sulphide Na2S,
aluminium oxide Al2O3,
magnesium chloride MgCl2
Classwork
Write down the chemical formulae of the following ionic compounds
For example, a compound consists of sodium ions and chloride ions is named as sodium chloride. Further
examples are given below:
Classwork
Name the following compounds
LiF CuI
Al(NO3)3 NaHCO3
CuCO3 KHSO4
K2Cr2O7 NH4Cl
Part II The Microscopic World I/P.21
AgCl Na2SO3
FeSO4 MgBr2
NiCO3 CoCl2
Zn(NO3)2 BaSO4
Note: It is important to determine the names of the positive ions and negative ions of the ionic compounds.
b. The colour of an ion may be deduced by observing the colour of solutions of a series of compounds.
Activity - To observe solutions of a series of compounds and deduce colours of some ions
Some common compounds are shown. Record the colour of every compound in aqueous state under its
formula in the following table and deduce the colour of the ions.
Example:
(i) As the aqueous (NH4)2CO3 is colourless, therefore, the colour of NH4+ and CO32- are both colourless.
(ii) As the aqueous CuCO3 is blue, and the colour of CO32- is colourless, therefore, the colour of Cu2+ is blue.
d. Notice that the transition metals usually form coloured ions, which may be cations (e.g. Cu2+ ion) or
polyatomic anions (e.g. permanganate ion MnO4-).
On the other hand, elements in main groups (Gp 1 to Gp 0) in the Periodic Table form colourless ions.
Positive Ions
+1 ions +2 ions +3 ions
Name Colour Name Colour Name Colour
lithium ion, Li+ colourless magnesium ion , Mg2+ colourless aluminium ion, Al3+ colourless
sodium ion, Na+ colourless calcium ion, Ca2+ colourless
potassium ion, K+ colourless barium ion, Ba2+ colourless
silver ion, Ag+ colourless lead(II) ion, Pb2+ colourless
hydrogen ion, H+ colourless zinc ion, Zn2+ colourless
ammonium ion, NH4+ colourless
Negative ions
-1 ions -2 ions -3 ions
Name Colour Name Colour Name Colour
fluoride ion, F- Colourless oxide ion, O2- Colourless nitride ion, N3- Colourless
chloride ion, Cl- Colourless sulphide ion, S2- Colourless phosphide ion, P3- Colourless
bromide ion, Br- Colourless sulphate ion, SO42- Colourless phosphate ion, PO43- Colourless
iodide ion, I- Colourless sulphite ion, SO32- Colourless
hydroxide ion, OH- Colourless carbonate ion, CO32- Colourless
nitrate ion, NO3- Colourless
nitrite ion, NO2- Colourless
hydrogencarbonate ion, HCO3- Colourless
hydrogensulphate ion, HSO4- Colourless
e. Colour of aqueous ionic compounds
Positive Ion (colour) Negative ion (colour) Aqueous Ionic Compound (colour)
Na+ (colourless) Cl- (colourless) NaCl (colourless)
Cu2+ (blue) SO42- (colourless) CuSO4 (blue)
K (colourless)
+
MnO4- (purple) KMnO4 (purple)
Fe3+ (brown) Br- (colourless) FeBr3 (brown)
Part II The Microscopic World I/P.23
Cu (blue)
2+
Cr2O (orange)
7
2-
CuCr2O7 (brown)
f. Example
A student used the following set-up to study the movement of ions.
A B C
+ -
The student placed a drop of copper(II) sulphate solution at A and a drop of orange solution at C. The two
solutions do not react.
a. The orange colour of the solution at C is due to the anion present. Name the ion responsible for the colour.
b. Electricity was passed through for some time.
(i) What would be the colour change at A? Explain your answer.
(ii) What would be the colour change at B? Explain your answer.
Answer
a. Dichromate ion Cr2O72-
b. (i) The blue colour fades. The blue copper(II) ions move towards the negative electrode.
(ii) A green colour appeared. The orange negative ions move towards the positive electrode
while the blue positive ions move towards the negative electrode. They mix to give a
green colourn at B.
Part II The Microscopic World I/P.24
V. Covalent Bonds 共價鍵
A. Formation of Covalent Bonds by Sharing of electrons
a. Let us take chlorine as an example.
The chlorine atom, Cl, is very unstable. Its outermost shell contains only 7 electrons. Electron transfer between
chlorine atoms cannot occur here, as they all tend to gain electron, and no one is willing to lose it.
However, by sharing of electrons, a chlorine molecule is formed, in which each chlorine atom gas a stable
octet in the outermost shell.
b. Electronic diagram showing sharing of two electrons in the formation of a chlorine molecule* (only outermost
shell electrons are shown):
*Non-metal atoms join together by sharing of electrons to form a group which is called as a Molecule 分子.
c. Definition:
Covalent bond is the strong electrostatic attraction between shared electrons (negatively charged) and
two nuclei (positively charged) of the bonded atoms.
(ii) Cl2 is the molecular formula of chlorine, while ClCl is the structural formula of chlorine.
1. The molecular formula of a molecular substance is the formula which shows the actual number of each
kind of atom(s) in one molecule of the substance.
2. The structural formula of a molecular substance is the formula which shows how the atoms are joined up
in one molecule of the substance.
(iii) Generally, when we say the formula of a molecular substance, we mean its molecular formula.
In the molecule, each hydrogen atom forms a duplet (not an octet) which is the stable electronic configuration
of the noble gas helium.
Part II The Microscopic World I/P.25
A single covalent bond is formed with the sharing of 1 pair of electrons between the two atoms.
H2 H-H
b. Oxygen molecule
A double covalent bond is formed with the sharing of 2 pairs of electrons between the two atoms.
An oxygen molecule can be shown as O = O.
O2 OO
c. Nitrogen molecule
A triple covalent bond is formed with the sharing of 3 pairs of electrons between the two atoms.
A nitrogen molecule can be shown as N≡N.
N2 NN
After reaction, the hydrogen atom forms a duplet (not an octet) which is the stable electronic configuration of
helium.
e. Water molecule
There are two unshared pairs of electrons in the valence shell of oxygen. The unshared pairs also called lone
pairs.
f. Ammonia molecule
Part II The Microscopic World I/P.27
Example 1
Step Compound formed from
hydrogen and oxygen
1. Write down the electronic configurations of the atoms H O
involved 1 2,6
2. Decide the number of electrons needed to get a stable hydrogen atom needs 1 electron, while
electronic arrangement. oxygen atom needs 2 electrons
1 2
H O
3. Decide the number of each type of atoms in one molecule 1 2
(cross multiply the numbers and the symbols). H O
=H2 =O1
4. Combine the symbols and simplify the ratio if necessary. H2O
(Omit the number of 1 for oxygen)
Example 2
Step Compound formed from
carbon and hydrogen
1. Write down the electronic configurations of the atoms C H
involved 2,4 1
2. Decide the number of electrons needed to get a stable carbon atom needs 4 electrons, while
electronic arrangement. hydrogen atom needs 1 electron
4 1
C H
3. Decide the number of each type of atoms in one molecule 4 1
(cross multiply the numbers and the symbols). C H
=C1 =H4
4. Combine the symbols and simplify the ratio if necessary. CH4
(Omit the number of 1 for carbon)
Classwork
Draw the electronic diagrams (showing the valence shell only) and give the molecular formulae, structural
formulae for the molecules formed by
Example
HKCEE 1995 Q4 (Essay Question)
“When atoms combine, they tend to attain noble gas electronic structures.”
Discuss how atoms can attain the noble gas electronic structure. In your answer, you should give suitable
examples and the electronic structures of the products formed.
(8 marks)
Answer
Chemical Knowledge (5 marks)
Atoms become stable by attaining noble has electronic structures. They can achieve that by losing,
gaining or sharing of electrons.
Consider the formation of chlorine molecule from two chlorine atoms. A chlorine atom has an
electronic configuration of 2,8,7. It needs one more electron to obtain the noble gas electronic structure.
In order to obtain stable electronic structure, each chlorine atom will give one electron for sharing.
xx xx
x
Part II The Microscopic World I/P.30
VI. Metallic Bond
a. Metallic structure and Metallic bond
(i) A metal consists of atoms packed closely together.
The loosely held outermost shell electrons get separated from their atoms.
(ii) This results in a lattice of positive ions, and free electrons (or delocalized electrons) which move freely
throughout the whole metal structure. Thus a giant metallic structure is formed, with a "sea" of free
electrons around a giant lattice of metal ions.
b. The electrostatic attraction between free electrons (negatively charged) and metal ions (positively charged)
is called metallic bond.
Part II The Microscopic World I/P.31
VII. Relative Molecular Mass and Formula Mass
A. Relative Molecular Mass
a. Just as the relative atomic mass is used to describe the relative masses of atoms, the relative molecular mass
is used to describe the relative masses of molecules.
c. Example
Given: Relative atomic mass of H = 1.0, C=12.0, N = 14.0, O = 16.0, Cl = 35.5
B. Formula Mass
a. Ionic compounds consists of anions and cations. Since ionic compounds do not contain molecules, we use
Formula mass to describe the relative masses of ionic compounds.
b. Example
Given: Relative atomic masses of Na = 23.0, K = 39.0, Ca = 40.0, Cl = 35.5, C = 12.0, O = 16.0,
H = 1.0, Cu = 63.5, N = 14.0
1. Giant structures
a. Giant structures include:
giant ionic structures 巨型離子結構e.g. sodium chloride
giant covalent structures 巨型共價結構e.g. diamond, quartz
giant metallic structures巨型金屬結構 e.g. copper
b. In a giant structure, millions of particles (atoms or ions) are joined together by strong chemical bonds. A
huge network is formed and the structure is difficult to break.
2. Molecular structures
a. Molecular structures include:
simple molecular structures e.g. hydrogen, chlorine, carbon dioxide, water
macromolecules 巨大分子 e.g. polyethene (plastic)
b. Simple molecular structures consist of separate molecules. The atoms within the molecules are strongly
bonded together by covalent bonds. The intermolecular forces between the molecules are weak.
c. Macromolecules are very big molecules containing thousands of atoms joined together by covalent
bonds.
b. We can also show the structure of sodium chloride by using a ball-and-stick model.
Part II The Microscopic World I/P.34
It is because the ions are packed in a giant lattice and the force of attraction between the ions (i.e.
ionic bond) is strong.. Much energy is needed to overcome the attraction.
For example, the melting point of sodium chloride is 808oC and the boiling point is 1465oC;
the melting point of magnesium oxide is 2852 oC and the boiling point is 3600 oC.
When sodium chloride is put into water, there is attraction between the ions of sodium chloride and
the water molecules. This cause the sodium and chloride ions to be removed from the lattice. The
ions then move into the solution.
No such attraction exists between the ions of sodium chloride and the 1,1,1-trichloroethane
molecules.
Some ionic compounds such as calcium sulphate are insoluble in water. This is because the attractive
forces between ions in the solid are stronger than those between the ions and the water molecules.
(iv) Hardness
Part II The Microscopic World I/P.35
Ionic compounds like sodium chloride are hard. This is due to the strong ionic bonds between oppositely
charged ions.
(Ionic compounds are hard but brittle.)
Diamond and graphite are different forms of the same element carbon, i.e. carbon is said to exhibit allotropy同
素異構, diamond and graphite are the allotropes 同素異構體 of carbon.
a. Diamond
(i) Diamond is a form of carbon.
(ii) In diamond, each carbon atom is surrounded by 4 other carbon atoms in the form of a tetrahedron. Each
carbon atom forms covalent bonds with 4 other carbon atoms around it. Hence the structure consists of a
network of covalent bonds.
b. Graphite
(i) Graphite is a much more common form of carbon than diamond. Pencil 'lead' is made from graphite. Like
diamond, graphite has a giant covalent structure, but even so its properties are very different. Graphite is soft
and slippery, and it conducts electricity.
c. Quartz
(i) Quartz is silicon dioxide, SiO2.
3. Solubility in water
They are insoluble in water. It is because the atoms are held together strongly and it is very difficult to
separate the atoms.
4. Electrical conductivity
Since the bonding electrons in substances with giant covalent structure cannot move (i.e. no free ions or
free electrons) , they do not conduct electricity in solid state or liquid state (except graphite).
d.
Some properties of quartz and diamond
Substance State at room temperature and Melting Point Solubility in Electrical
pressure ( C)
o
water conductivity
Quartz Solid 1610 Insoluble Non-conductor
Diamond Solid 3500 Insoluble Non-conductor
In simple molecular substances, the atoms are joined together within the molecule by strong covalent bonds,
but the separate molecules are attracted to each other by much weaker intermolecular forces (e.g. van der
Waals' forces).
a. Iodine
The iodine molecules are packed close to on another in a regular pattern. Weak van der Waals’ forces hold
the molecules together. The pattern is repeated millions of times, and the result is a crystal.
b. Dry ice
Dry ice consists of separate carbon dioxide molecules.
Part II The Microscopic World I/P.38
In each molecule, strong covalent bonds hold the carbon and oxygen atoms together. The carbon dioxide
molecules are packed close to one another in a regular pattern. Weak van der Waals’ forces hold the
molecules together.
Let us take iodine as an example. Iodine is slightly soluble in water but very soluble in 1,1,1-
trichloroethane. Water molecules have strong intermolecular forces. The weak attractive forces between
iodine and water molecules are not strong enough to separate the water molecules.
On the other hand, 1,1,1-trichloroethane molecules have weak intermolecular forces similar to those
between iodine molecules. Hence iodine and1,1,1-trichloroethane molecules can mix together easily.
Part II The Microscopic World I/P.39
Note: Aqueous solutions of some substances with simple molecular structures conduct electricity.
This is because mobile ions are formed when these substances dissolve in water. Examples
include sulphur dioxide, hydrogen chloride, ammonia, etc.
(iv) Hardness
Solid simple molecular substances are usually soft because the forces of attraction between the molecules
are weak (i.e. weak intermolecular forces i.e. van der Waals’ forces).
a. Properties of metals
Part II The Microscopic World I/P.40
(i) Density
Metals generally have high densities due to the close packing of their atoms.
(ii) Sodium, magnesium and aluminium are metals. The strength of the metallic bond depends on the number of
delocalized electrons in the metal structure.
Sodium has one outermost shell electron, magnesium has two, while aluminium has three. The strength of
metallic bond and hence the melting point increases from sodium to aluminium.
Answer
2. a. Ionic bond
b. Giant ionic structure
c. (i) high melting point and boiling point
(ii) conduct electricity only when in molten state or liquid state.
a. Name three substances which have the same structures as A, B and C respectively.
b. Name the type of bonding between particles in
(1) B, (2) C.
Part II The Microscopic World I/P.42
c. In terms of the forces between particles, explain why there is a large difference in melting point between
(1) A and B,
(2) A and C.
In each case, state which of the two solids is expected to have the higher melting point.
Answer
a. Structure A: Iodine
3. The table belowB:shows
Structure some
Sodium properties of four substances.
chloride
Structure C: Diamond Electrical conductivity
Substance Melting point (oC) Boiling point (oC)
b. (1) ionic bond Solid state Molten state
A
(2) covalent bond 776 1500 Nil Good
c. (1) BBhas a higher melting961 point. 2160 Good Good
The attraction between
C 3500the ions in structure B is ionic bond. The attraction
4827 Nil between theNil
molecules in structure-7A is van der Waals’ forces.
D 59 The ionic bond is- much stronger than -
the van der Waals’ forces. Therefore, the melting point of B is much higher than that of
A. substance is likely to have:
Explain which
a. a (2) C has
simple a higher structure;
molecular melting point.
The attraction between the atoms in structure C is covalent bond. The attraction between
b. a giant metallic structure;
the molecules
c. a giant ionic structure; in structure A is van der Waals’ forces. The covalent bond is much
stronger than
d. a giant covalent structurethe van der Waals’ forces. Therefore, the melting point of C is much
higher than that of A.
Answer
a. D. Because D has a low melting point and boiling point.
4. HKCEE 1998 Q7aB has a high melting point and boiling point. B also can conduct electricity in
b. B. Because
Both carbon and silicon are Group IV elements in the Periodic Table. The diagram below show the structures
solid state.
ofc.dry
A.ice (solid carbon
Because A has adioxide) and quartz
high melting point(aand
formboiling
of silicon dioxide):
point. A only can conduct electricity in
molten state, but does not conduct electricity in solid state.
d. C. Because C has a very high melting point and boiling point. However, C does not conduct
electricity in both solid state and molten state.
(i) With reference to the structures of the two substances, explain why quartz is a solid which melts at a high
temperature, while carbon dioxide is a gas at room temperature.
(ii) With the help of a labeled diagram, suggest how to show experimentally that dry ice sublimes to give
gaseous carbon dioxide.
(iii) Sand (an impure form of quartz) and limestone are raw materials used for making glass.
(1) Name the main chemical constituent of limestone.
(2) Suggest ONE reason why glass had been used by mankind for a long time.
(3) Suggest ONE reason why glass bottles are preferred to plastic bottles for the storage of champagne.
(9 marks)
Answer
Part II The Microscopic World I/P.43
Appendix One
Dative Covalent Bond (Coordinate bond) 配價鍵
The two electrons which form a covalent bond do not necessarily have to come from each atom; both
may originate from one of the atoms.
Dative covalent bond occurs when one atom provides both of the electrons necessary for the
formation of a single covalent bond. Once the dative bond is formed it is indistinguishable from other
covalent bonds of the same type.
The H+ ion is attracted to the unsharded electrons of oxygen atom of a water molecule, forming a
dative covalent bond. A more stable ion, hydronium ion H3O+, is obtained.
Appendix Two
Structure of caesium chloride CsCl
Since caesium ion is larger in size than the sodium ion, each Cs+ ion is surrounded by 8 Cl- ions and
each Cl- ion is in turn surrounded by 8 Cs+ ions.
Part II The Microscopic World I/P.44