Grade 11

Term 2
Physical Sciences
Study Notes

Vectors

Some physical quantities only have the value of magnitude, i.e. their size. Time and
temperature are examples of this. For certain physical quantities their size is the
only important value. For example, this is found with distance and speed. These
quantities are called scalars.

Quantities such as force, displacement and velocity which have both magnitude
and direction are known as vectors.

Vectors are represented graphically by depicting a straight line with an arrowhead.

The length of the line indicates the magnitude of the vector. The arrowhead points in
the direction in which the vector is operating.

Vectors can be represented algebraically as well, for example:

F1 of 100 N and F2 of 70 N are exerted in the same direction, and are parallel
to each other.

They are added algebraically as 100 N + 70 N = 170 N in the same direction

of movement. Always mention direction of the vector in your answer.

Graphically, this is represented as:

Result of vectors in the opposite direction

If:

• F1 = 100 N
• F2 = - 70 N

then it is represented as:

100 N + (-70 N) = 30 N in the forward direction

Or

Adding Vectors that are Perpendicular to each other

Vectors can be depicted on the Cartesian Plane, which is a system where two axes
are drawn at right angles. The axes can be used as reference vectors.

The horizontal x-axis and the vertical y-axis intersect at the origin. Directions to the
right and above the origin are positive. The opposite directions are negative.

If two or more vectors act in the horizontal or vertical plane at the same time, we can
determine the net (resultant) horizontal (Rx) and vertical (Ry) components. To do
this all vectors in the horizontal direction and then all the vectors in the vertical
direction must be added together.

If:

• F1 = 1 N acts vertically upwards on a box

• F2 = 2 N acts vertically upwards on a box
• F3 = 2 N acts horizontally to the right on a box
• F4 = 2 N acts horizontally to the right on a box

then the resultant horizontal vector is Fx = 2 N + 2 N = 4 N to the right.

The resultant vertical vector is Fy = 1 N + 2 N = 3 N upwards.

Graphically this is:

Determine the resultant of perpendicular vectors graphically

If we have the Rx and Ry values, we can graphically determine the resultant vector
R. There are two ways to do this graphically: the head-to-tail method and the tail-to-
tail method.

Head-to-tail method

The vectors must be drawn to scale.

If:

• there is a resultant force of Rx upwards and

• there is a resultant force of Ry to the right,

it is represented as:
 The arrowheads depict the direction of the force.

The diagonal line represents the Resultant (R). It is drawn from the start of the
first vector to the end of the second vector.

Tail-to-tail method (Parallelogram Method)

If:

• there is a force of Rx to the right,

• there is a force of Ry upwards and
• they originate at the same point

then it is drawn as:

 • Rx and Ry originate at the same point.
• The vertical dotted line is drawn as a construction, and is parallel to the solid
vertical line.
• The horizontal dotted line is drawn as a construction, and is parallel to the
solid horizontal line.
• The Resultant (R) is drawn from origin to where the dotted lines intersect.

Determine the resultant of perpendicular vectors by calculation

The magnitude of the resultant of two perpendicular vectors can be determined by

using Pythagoras’s Theorem: The square of the hypotenuse is proportionate to the
sum of the squares of the other two sides.

In the diagram, c2 = a2 + b2

Therefore, c = √a2 + b 2

As a vector has both magnitude and direction, we always indicate both.

Trigonometry is used to calculate the directions of the resultant of two perpendicular
vectors.

Again, using the previous example, it is calculated as:

b
tan θ =
a

b
Therefore θ = tan−1 ( )
a
Resultant of perpendicular vectors

Addition of vectors that are not co-linear or perpendicular

• Co-linear (also collinear) refers to points that lie on the same straight line.
• Where two vectors do not act along the same line or are not perpendicular to
each other we use the either the tail-to-tail or tail-to-head method to calculate
the resultant.
• If there are more than two vectors the tail-to-head method must be used.

Example

Four forces act on an object:

• 4 N vertically upwards
• 3 N horizontally to the right
• 9 N at 45 downwards from the horizontal to the right
• 5 N horizontally to the left, directly opposite the 3 N force

The easiest way that we can add more than two vectors is using the polygon method
of tail-to-head addition which is shown in sketch (a).

In (b) the forces are drawn in succession, one after the other using the tail-to-tail
method.
Resolution of a vector into two perpendicular components

When adding two vectors it results in a single resultant vector. A single resultant
vector can also be resolved (broken up) into two components.

It is also possible to resolve a single vector into many combinations of two vectors
that will have the same effect as the original vector. It is helpful to resolve a vector
into two perpendicular components because they can be resolved by using
Pythagoras’s theorem and trigonometry.

Given:

• The Rx and Ry components are drawn.

• The scale does not matter as the diagram is used for calculation purposes only,
using Sinθ and Cosθ.
• Ry = Rsin θ
• Rx = Rcos θ
 Different Types of Forces

Forces consist of either a push or a pull. Forces can:

1. move a stationary object,

2. stop a moving object,
3. change a moving object's direction,
4. change the speed of a moving object, and
5. change the shape of an object.

Force is measured in Newton (N).

There are contact and non-contact forces.

• An applied force is a contact force, e.g. friction

• Non-contact forces: e.g. gravity and magnetic force

Contact Forces

Objects apply contact forces on each other when they touch, or when they are in
contact. The pulling force exerted by something that can stretch is called tension and
is represented by the letter T.

Contact forces consist of Frictional and Normal forces.

Normal Forces

Normal forces are the same size, and they act in opposite directions at the same
time and on the same object.

They form a 90 angle with the surface (i.e. they are perpendicular), regardless of
the slope or inclination of the surface.

The symbols N or FN are used for Normal Force.

In this figure, the plank / table and the duster each exert a normal force on each
other.
 FD is the force that the duster exerts on the table.

FN is the force that the table exerts on the duster.

("Newton 3 pair")

The magnitude of the normal force will be diversified for different objects with
different weights.

In the figure, the normal force exerted by the table on a heavier book is different from
the normal force exerted on a lighter book:
Friction Force

Friction force is the contact force that a surface exerts on an object in a direction that
is parallel to the surface.

If an object is pushed or pulled but does not move, it is known as a static force.

A moving object experiences kinetic force.

The direction of the friction force is always opposite to the direction of the motion or
attempted motion of the object.

In this diagram, the boy pushes the stove to the right, and the floor exerts static
friction to the left:

The tyres push on the ground with a force directed to the left, and the road exerts
kinetic friction to the right:
The friction force applied by a surface is proportional to the coefficient of friction,
represented by the symbol µ (Greek letter mu).

Once contact has been made between an object and a surface, the microscopic
lumps and bumps of the object and the surface interlock with each other. This slows
down or completely stops the motion of an object.

The magnitude of a kinetic friction force is less than the maximum capacity of the
static force.

Relationship between Friction Force and Normal Force

The normal force and friction force are two elements of one contact force that a
surface exerts on an object.

• fs  µsFN for an object at rest, where µs is the coefficient of the static friction.
• fk = µkFN for a moving object, where µk is the coefficient of the kinetic friction.

Non-Contact Forces

Objects do not have to be in contact to inflict forces on each other. These forces are
known as non-contact forces.

The solar system is an example of non-contact forces where the planets stay in orbit
around the sun.

• Fg = mg, where g is the acceleration due to gravity and g has an approximate

value of 9.8ms-2.
 Force Diagrams and Free Body Diagrams

Two different types of diagrams are used to analyse forces that act on objects and
the effect these forces have.

In a free body diagram, the arrows representing the forces cannot touch the dot at
the centre of the object, and all the forces acting on it must be drawn.

We use FA for the applied force.

Force diagrams do not need the dot at the centre of the force, and the object being
drawn does not need to have all the forces acting on it represented.

An example of a force diagram:

In the diagrams below

As the object is being pulled up and to the right, FA = Fx + Fy.

In the above diagram, Fx and Fy were drawn as part of an explanation, but these are
the same as FA.

If the force is pulling up, Fg = FN + Fy

If the force is pulling down, Fg + Fy = FN

To calculate the force in the above example we create a right-angled triangle, and
use the Trigonometric ratio sine (sin).

opposite
sinθ = hypotenuse

F𝑦
sin30 =
180 N

 sin30 x 180 N = Fy

 Fy = 90 N

To determine Fx:

adjacent
cosθ = hypotenuse

F𝑥
cos30 =
180 N

Fx = 155.88 N
Drawing a force arrow for contact forces

1. Start the force arrow on the object that applies the force, at the point of
contact. Point it in the direction of the object that it acts on.
2. The length of the arrow shows the magnitude of the force. Use longer arrows
for larger forces.
3. Use an arrowhead to indicate the direction of the force.
4. When you refer to the force vector, label it clearly.

Drawing a force arrow for free body diagrams

1. Draw a dot to represent the centre of mass of the object.

2. For each force that acts on an object draw an arrow starting from the dot, and
point it in the direction of the force.
3. Make the length of the arrow proportional to the magnitude of the force.
4. Label each force.
 Newton's Three Laws of Motion

Law 1: Uniform Motion (The law of inertia)

Law 1 applies when an object is at a state of rest, or in equilibrium or moving at a

constant velocity.

The net force, Fnet, is always 0 N.

Uniform motion (constant velocity) is a natural state. An object in uniform motion will
stay in uniform motion unless something makes its motion change. An unbalanced
force causes an adjustment in motion.

Newton's First Law: An object continues in a state of rest or uniform velocity unless it
is acted on by an unbalanced force.

Inertia is the tendency of an object to continue moving as it was.

The measure of an object's inertia is its mass. If a net force is applied to an object,
its motion is going to change.

See the example in the next lesson:

Law 2: F = ma

The moment when a net force, Fnet, is applied to an object with mass m, the object
accelerates in the direction of the net force. The acceleration, a, is directly
proportional to the net force and inversely proportional to the mass.

Fnet = ma

When a net or resultant force acts on an object it causes the object’s motion to be
altered. If the object was at rest, it will move.
Example: Refer to the diagrams below

The coefficient of friction, µ, is given as 0.1, the box weighs 10kg and the force
acting on the box is 50 N to the right.

The acceleration of the box needs to be calculated.

Fnet = ma

Start by drawing a free body diagram of all the forces acting on the object.

As the force is not moving up or down, the forces of gravity and the upward force
from the surface that the object is resting on, cancel each other out.

Friction: f = (coefficient of friction) x FN

f = 0.1 x 98 N

f = 9.8 N
We know that Fnet = ma

But Fnet = FA - f, so

FA - f = ma

Fnet = 50 N - 9.8 N

50 N - 9.8 N = 10kg x a

a = 4.02ms-2 to the right

Remember that acceleration is a vector, so include both magnitude and direction.

Law 3: For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction

The moment object A exerts a force on object B, object B simultaneously exerts an

oppositely directed force of equal magnitude on object A.

For Newton's 3rd Law:

• The forces are the same magnitude.

• The forces are in opposite directions.
 • There are two different objects and thus two separate forces, and it requires
two free body diagrams to be correctly depicted.

The law states: For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction:

• in all interactions,
• regardless of mass or size.

In the diagram above, the force the boy exerts on the box and the force the box
exerts on the boy are a "Newton 3 pair": they cancel each other out, regardless of
their mass or size.

Newton's second law is used when you want to know about the forces acting on a
single object, or when you want to know about the forces exerted by pairs of objects
on one another.
 The chemistry of water

• Water can exist in three states: ice (solid), water (liquid) and water vapour
(gas).
• Every phase has the same building block, H2O and therefore they have the
same chemical properties.
• These three phases of water also have the same type of inter-molecular force,
hydrogen bonding.
• Nonetheless, the strength of the hydrogen bonding that is between the water
molecules, varies in each phase.
• In ice, the water molecules are kept together very tightly, and the molecules
are in a fixed position to form a solid.
• In the liquid phase, the hydrogen bonding is weaker than in the solid phase.
• A water molecule is made up of one oxygen atom covalently bonded with two
hydrogen atoms.
• There are lone pairs of electrons on the oxygen atom. Therefore, the oxygen
side of the water molecule has a partial negative charge.
• The electron from each hydrogen atom is shared between the hydrogen and
the oxygen atom. Thus, the other side of the hydrogen atoms are more
positive because of the exposed proton.
• This imbalanced distribution of electrons gives the water molecule its polarity.

Hydrogen bonding

• Hydrogen bonding is an electrostatic interaction between water molecules.

• Hydrogen bonding in water is triggered by the high electronegativity variance
between oxygen and hydrogen.
• The oxygen atom in the water molecule draws the electrons in the oxygen-
hydrogen bond towards itself.
• The side of the hydrogen atom that is directed away from the oxygen-
hydrogen bond has little electron density, and its nucleus is exposed.
 • This part of the hydrogen atom interacts with the lone pair of electrons on the
oxygen in a water molecule nearby, to form an intermolecular force called
hydrogen bonding.
• Although hydrogen bonding is a stronger intermolecular force than normal
dipole-dipole forces, it is a lot weaker than the intramolecular forces within
each water molecule.
• Hydrogen bonding only has 5% of the strength of a covalent bond.
• The network of hydrogen bonds that occur between water molecules in its
solid, liquid and gaseous phases gives water its distinctive properties.
• Compounds in which hydrogen is combined with one other element are
known as hydrides.
• Water has a boiling point of 100oC at standard atmospheric pressure. This is
high in comparison with other hydrides and compounds that have similar
molecular mass.
• Water is a comparatively small molecule and its high boiling point is mostly
due to the strength of the hydrogen bonding between the liquid molecules.
• When water absorbs heat energy from a source, the molecules of water begin
to vibrate with increased kinetic energy.
• Temperature and the kinetic energy rise at the same rate.
• In time, some of the water molecule gain enough kinetic energy to overcome
the external pressure and the forces of attraction between the molecules.
• These water molecules have sufficient energy to break the intermolecular
forces that keep the molecules in the liquid phase. Now the molecules change
into the gas phase.

Melting and freezing points of water

• Melting point is the temperature at which a solid changes into a liquid at

regular atmospheric pressure.
• The opposite process of melting is known as freezing.
• Therefore, the temperature at which water melts or freezes is equivalent.
• The freezing point of water is 0o C at regular atmospheric pressure.
Heat of vaporisation of water

• Specific heat capacity is the amount of heat necessary to raise the

temperature of one gram of a substance by 1oC.
• Water has high specific heat capacity.
• When the temperature increases, molecules have more kinetic energy and
they move further apart.
• When there are strong intermolecular forces such as hydrogen bonding in
water, it requires more energy to move the molecules apart.
• Therefore, water absorbs a large amount of heat energy for a small change in
temperature.
• Quantity of heat energy

= exact heat capacity x the temperature transformation x mass.

• Water has a higher heat of vaporisation than most substances.

• Heat of vaporisation is the heat absorbed by a substance to change from a
liquid phase into a gaseous phase.

Water bag

• Before air-conditioners were installed in vehicles, people who drove through

deserts hung canvas water bags with drinking water outside of their vehicles
to keep the water cool.

Clay pots

• In many regions of the developing world and in desert areas, people use clay
pots to store water to keep it cool and to improve its taste.
• Skilled potters create the pots and pass their knowledge onto the next
generation and the cycle continues.
• Clay pots use water evaporation and work in a similar way to canvas water
bags.
• This is how the cooling system works: a porous outer earthenware pot is lined
with wet sand, and a pot with food is put inside the outer pot. When the outer
liquid evaporates, it draws heat from the inner pot, and this allows the food to
keep cool and this preserves its freshness in dry, hot areas.
Traditional food safes and cool rooms

• Meat or food safes are containers used to keep food safe from flies and other
creatures; they also keep the products clean and cool.
• For centuries, food safes have been used to store perishable foods, and they
are still used today.
• Their construction is easy and simple; they are made up of a frame made of
wood or metal, with wire mesh panels for ventilation.
• Some safes have a galvanised iron tray on top, which is full of water.
• Cooling takes place because of the water in hessian which absorbs the heat
energy given off by the food.
• As the water gains energy, it evaporates.

Density of water and ice

• Because ice floats on water, it must have a lower density than water.
• Therefore, the solid phase of water is less dense than its liquid phase.
• The molecules in ice are arranged in the form of a tetrahedron in which each
molecule is attached to four other molecules.
• A tetrahedral arrangement provides a structure with empty space in the
network. Thus, there are fewer molecules in a particular volume of ice than in
an equivalent volume of water (liquid).
• A benefit of this property is that lakes and rivers freeze from the top. This
allows aquatic animals to survive in the water below the ice. Throughout the
cold season, the ice sheet insulates the water and prevents it from losing heat
and ultimately freezing.
• Therefore, when water freezes, its reduction in density helps moderate the
temperature of the Earth.

Water as a solvent

• A solute is soluble in a solvent if an intermolecular force can form between the

particles of the solute and the solvent.
• Two or more solvents are called "miscible" when a strong intermolecular force
can from between them. The result is a homogenous mixture.
 • Water is utilised as a solvent to make most drinks such as cooldrink, coffee
and tea.

Implications of the properties of water on the environment

• Water has a very high specific heat capacity due to the hydrogen bonds
between water molecules.
• This has massive implications for both the climate and for the aquatic life on
our planet.
• Water can absorb a large amount of energy such as heat energy from the sun
without a big change in temperature of the water.
• A large amount of energy must be lost before the temperature drops. So, the
ocean and other large bodies of water act as heat reservoirs that control
temperature changes, and they moderate the Earth's climate.
 Molecular shape

The Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) theory

• The VSEPR theory gives us the knowledge to predict the shape of molecules
based on the arrangement of the electrons in the outer shell, that is, the
valence electrons. Remember that the number of valence electrons is the
same as the group number on the Periodic Table.
• The theory tells us that the valence electrons which occur in pairs will repel
each other so that they are as far away from each other as possible.
• To determine the shape of the molecule you must make use of the following 3
steps:
o First find the positions of the electron regions around the central atom.
The 'electron region' is the approximate amount of space that is
occupied by an electron pair or, in the case of double or triple bonds,
by two or three pairs of electrons.
o Figure out how many surrounding atoms there are and where they are
bonded to the central atom.
o Apply the principles of the VSEPR theory to discover the shape of the
molecule.

Position of electron regions

• There are five possibilities that we can consider: two, three, four, five and six
electron regions around the central atom.
• Remember that we think of a double or triple bond as one electron region.
• Perfect molecular shapes are found when there are only bonding pairs on the
central atom; that means that the central atom has no lone pairs.
• This means that there is an atom bonded to the central atom for every
electron region on the central atom.

Two electron regions

• Two electron regions are as far away from each other as possible when they
repel each other and move to opposite sides of the central atom.
• When the electrons around the central atom are all bonding pairs the
molecule has a linear molecular shape. We call this AX2, where A is the
 central atom and X represents the terminal atoms (the atoms on the ends of
the molecule).

Four electron regions

These are furthest apart when they are in three-dimensional positions forming a
tetrahedral shape around the central atom.

Example of a model being held to show the 3-dimensional aspect:

• If the electron region formed a flat square, they would not be able to be as far
apart as in a tetrahedral shape.
• In a flat square shape, the bond angle would be 90 o.
• In the tetrahedral shape, the bond angle is approximately 109.5o.

Shape of molecule - With lone pairs on the central atom

• The moment that we have lone pairs on the central atom is when the number
of atoms bonded to it is not equal to the number of electron regions.
• It is crucial to not confuse the position of the electron region with the shape of
the molecule.
• Begin by finding the positions of the electron regions and then work out where
the atoms are positioned.
 Intermolecular forces

Effect of intermolecular forces

• Intermolecular forces affect the melting and boiling point of substances.

• Melting point is the temperature a substance needs to reach in order to
change from the solid phase to the liquid phase.
• Boiling point is the temperature a substance needs to reach in order to
change from the liquid phase to the gaseous phase at standard pressure.
Note that temperature is the average kinetic energy of a substance.
• The temperature at which a substance undergoes a phase change is an
indication of the strength of the intermolecular forces that are in the
substance.
• The attraction of intermolecular forces must be overcome for a substance to
change phase.
• Generally, non-polar substances have low melting points and boiling points.
This is due to weak London forces existing between the molecules of non-
polar substances.
• The larger the molecules of a substance, the greater the London forces are.
• The intermolecular forces have different strengths:
o Hydrogen bonding (strongest)
o Dipole-dipole
o London forces (weakest)
• Polar substances have higher melting and boiling points than non-polar
substances. This is due to stronger dipole-dipole intermolecular forces
existing in these substances.
The effects of molecular size

• Each molecule or atom has electrons which are in constant motion around the
nucleus. Therefore induced-dipole-induced-dipole or London forces exist in all
compounds.
• The strength of these intermolecular forces is decided by the size of the
molecules.
• A bigger molecule has a bigger electron cloud which can be polarised with
ease, so the London forces are stronger.

• He and O2 are gases at room temperature (25 C). It is easy to overcome the
intermolecular forces between helium atoms and oxygen molecules at this
temperature.
• The most crucial ingredient of petrol, octane, is a liquid at room temperature,
so it is more challenging to overcome the intermolecular forces.
• Wax is a solid at room temperature. It changes to a liquid at just below 50 C
and it reaches boiling point at 380 C. Hence it is difficult to overcome the
intermolecular forces between wax molecules.
• The strength of London forces increases with an increase in molecular size.

Density of materials

• Atoms and molecules in solids are closely packed and organized in an orderly
manner.
• Liquid molecules are loosely packed and organized at random.
• Gas molecules are held very loosely and are in disarray.
 • The differences within the arrangement of the molecules are caused by the
differences within the strength of intermolecular forces that exist within the
three phases of matter.
• In general, for a given substance, the solid has the greatest number of atoms
per unit volume.
• Hence solids have a higher density than liquids and gases. Similarly, there
are more liquid particles per unit volume in than gases. Hence liquids are
denser than gases.
• Water is an exception to the general trend in density with the different phases
of matter: ice floats on liquid water, which indicates that solid water (ice) is
less dense than liquid water.

Thermal expansion

• Thermal expansion is the change in volume of a substance with a rise in

temperature.
• When the temperature increases, the volume of most substances also
increases.
• The change in volume differs with different substances and their states.
• The amount of energy required to move particles further apart depends on the
strength of the intermolecular forces.
• Substances with stronger intermolecular forces, like hydrogen bonds, need
more energy to move the particles apart than substances with smaller
intermolecular forces.
• Thermal expansion is greater in liquids than in solids.
• In an alcohol thermometer, alcohol is enclosed in a bulb that is joined to a
glass capillary. During temperature measurements the liquid expands with the
increase in temperature.
• The liquid moves up the capillary, and the level of the liquid indicates the
temperature.
• Alcohol expands more than mercury does for a given energy input. Therefore,
an alcohol thermometer is more sensitive than a mercury one.
Thermal conductivity

• Thermal conductivity is a material's capability to conduct heat energy.

Materials with high thermal conductivity transfer heat energy more rapidly
than materials with low thermal conductivity.
• Heat energy moves from a hot object to a cold object without an outside
influence. E.g. when one end of a metal bar is inserted into a candle flame, it
becomes hot quickly. Heat energy quickly transfers to the other end of the
metal bar; therefore, you cannot hold the bar.
• Glass is different. If you place a glass rod in a candle flame it won’t get too hot
to hold.
• Atoms or molecules in solids are held together closely. When a solid
substance is placed in a candle flame, the atoms or molecules absorb heat
energy and begin to vibrate.
• The more heat that the substance gets, the bigger the vibrations.
• These vibrations are carried through to neighbouring atoms or molecules and
cause even bigger vibrations.
• Generally, metals are good conductors of heat, and non-metals are bad
conductors of heat.
• In most metals in the solid phase the atoms are held together in a three-
dimensional network by powerful bonds.
• The atoms are drawn together, so vibrations are effortlessly passed through
the substance.
• Non-metals in their solid phase are typically small covalently bonded
molecules with weaker intermolecular forces between the molecules.
• Graphite is a non-metal which is an exception. It forms layers of covalently
bonded atoms. Due to these being true bonds between the atoms, the
vibrations are effortlessly passed along the layers.
• Graphite does not conduct heat energy well in the perpendicular direction, in
other words, between layers. This is due to the layers having weaker
intermolecular forces between them and therefore they are not held close
together.
Viscosity

• A simple definition of viscosity is: resistance to flow.

• Viscosity is connected to the ease with which molecules can move past one
another.
• Viscosity is affected by the strength of the intermolecular forces that exist in
the liquid.
• The stronger the intermolecular force is in a liquid, the more difficult it is for
the molecules to move past one another. Nonetheless, this is not the only
factor affecting viscosity.
• The length of the molecules can cause the molecules to be tangled, and thus
increase the viscosity.
• The figure shows that a liquid which is less viscous flows a lot faster and fills a
glass more quickly than a more viscous liquid.
 Reflection and refraction part 1

• The reflection of light is light that bounces. Refraction is light that bends.
• The formal definition for the reflection of light is: reflection occurs when light
strikes a surface or object through which it cannot pass, and it moves back
into the same medium.
• If the light strikes the surface at a specific angle, it will bounce away at a
similar angle.
• When light beams are reflected, they move back into the same optical
medium.
• An optical medium is any material through which light can move or can be
propagated.

Reflection of light

• The incident ray is the light ray falling onto the surface at the incidence point.
• The reflected ray is the light ray that is reflected.
• A reference line, also called the normal, is needed to measure angles,
because not all surfaces are flat.
• The angle of incidence ("i") is the angle between the incident ray and the
normal. The angle of reflection ("r") is the angle between the reflected ray and
the normal.
 • The law of reflection states that when light is reflected, the angle of incidence
is always equal to the angle of reflection. Thus i = r.

Periscope

• A periscope is an instrument based on the principle of multiple reflections.

• It is an optical device, which enables an observer to view the surrounding
objects from a lower level.
• Periscopes were widely used in submarines and trenches to observe enemy
movements without being seen.
Density

• Optical density is an indication of how difficult or easy it is for light to travel

through a material.
• When the optical density of a material is higher, the speed of light in this
material will be slower.

Refraction

• The refraction of light is defined as the directional change of light beams as

they move from one optical medium to another one with a different optical
density which is caused by the speed of light at the boundary between the two
media.
• At the boundary, more light will bend if there is a larger difference in the speed
of light in the materials.
• In a vacuum the speed of light (c) is at its maximum of 3 x 108 m x s-1.
• In air the value for the speed of light is nearly as much as its maximum, but in
water it is about ¾ of c’s value.
• The speed is constant when in a medium, and only differs once it changes
between different media.
• In the formula for the refraction index, called n,
o the speed of light in a vacuum is c
o the speed of light in other optical media is v

𝑐
The formula for the refraction index of a material is: 𝑛=
𝑣

• Remember that this is a ratio and has no unit.

• For larger values of n, the speed of light in a medium will be slower. Light
bends more as it passes from the higher optical dense material to the less
dense one.
 Note re angles: 1 < 2

Snell's Law of refraction

• Snell’s law of refraction states the relationship between the refraction and
incidence angles and refractive indices of the optical media when light passes
from one optical medium to another:

• Note the subscript "1" refers to the first optical medium the light passes
through, and "2" refers to the second optical medium.
 • Snell’s law was derived from the following ratios and can thus also be written
as:

The critical angle

• When light refracts away from the normal, the light moves from an optical
dense medium to an optically less dense medium (e.g. from glass to air).
• The refracted ray bends closer to the refracting surface and therefore the
incidence angle is greater than critical angle.
• This effect is called total internal reflection.

C refers to the critical angle.

• The critical angle is the angle of incidence in an optically denser medium that
causes a refraction angle of 90 so that the refracted light can travel along the
border between the two optical media.
 • Snell’s law can be rewritten to calculate the critical angle:

1 is replaced with C and 2 is equal to 90

Application of total internal reflection

• A prism is usually made of glass or Perspex and is a triangular block with

complete transparency.
• When a glass prism is right-angled, the angle of incidence is 45, which is
more than the critical angle of glass (42).
• Total internal reflection in a prism is used in periscopes and prisms.
Total internal reflection in optic fibres

• Optic fibres are extremely thin glass tubes with a diameter almost that of a
human hair.
• When light enters these glass fibres, it is totally internally reflected throughout
the entire length of the fibre.
• Optical fibres, made of glass or plastic, are fibres that transmit light by means
of total internal reflection.
• There are usually many fibres bundled together to form an optical cable.
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