Scalars and Vectors:

A quantity which is completely specified by a certain number associated with a suitable unit
without any mention of direction in space is known as scalar. Examples of scalar are time, mass,
length, volume, density, temperature, energy, distance, speed etc. The number describing the
quantity of a particular scalar is known as its magnitude. The scalars are added subtracted,
multiplied and divided by the usual arithmetical laws.
A quantity which is completely described only when both their magnitude and direction are
specified is known as vector. Examples of vector are force, velocity, acceleration, displacement,
torque, momentum, gravitational force, electric and magnetic intensities etc. A vector is
represented by a Roman letter in bold face and its magnitude, by the same letter in italics. Thus V
means vector and V is magnitude.
Applications of Vectors
VECTOR ADDITION – If 2 similar vectors point in the SAME direction, add them.
Example: A man walks 54.5 meters east, then another 30 meters east. Calculate his displacement
relative to where he started?
Notice that the SIZE of the arrow conveys
MAGNITUDE and the way it was drawn conveys
DIRECTION.

VECTOR SUBTRACTION - If 2 vectors are going in opposite directions, you SUBTRACT.

Example: A man walks 54.5 meters east, then 30 meters west. Calculate his displacement
relative to where he started?

A bear, searching for food wanders 35 meters east then 20 meters north. Frustrated, he wanders
another 12 meters west then 6 meters south. Calculate the bear's displacement.

X – component

Y – component
Newton’s Law of Motion:
1. An object at rest stays at rest and an object in motion stays in motion with the same speed
and in the same direction unless acted upon by an unbalanced force.
2. The acceleration of an object as produced by a net force is directly proportional to the
magnitude of the net force, in the same direction as the net force, and inversely
proportional to the mass of the object.
3. For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
Force
A force is a push or pull upon an object resulting from the object's interaction with another
object. Whenever there is an interaction between two objects, there is a force upon each of the
objects. When the interaction ceases, the two objects no longer experience the force. Forces only
exist as a result of an interaction.

Contact Forces Action-at-a-Distance Forces

Frictional Force Gravitational Force
Tension Force Electrical Force
Normal Force Magnetic Force
Air Resistance Force
Applied Force
Spring Force

Applied Force - An applied force is a force that is applied to an object by a person or another
object.
Gravity Force - The force of gravity is the force with which the earth, moon, or other massively
large object attracts another object towards itself. By definition, this is the weight of the object.
All objects upon earth experience a force of gravity that is directed "downward" towards the
center of the earth. The force of gravity on earth is always equal to the weight of the object as
found by the equation: F = m*g
Normal Force - The normal force is the support force exerted upon an object that is in contact
with another stable object.
Friction Force - The friction force is the force exerted by a surface as an object moves across it
or makes an effort to move across it. There are at least two types of friction force - sliding and
static friction.
Air Resistance Force - The air resistance is a special type of frictional force that acts upon
objects as they travel through the air. The force of air resistance is often observed to oppose the
motion of an object. This force will frequently be neglected due to its negligible magnitude (and
due to the fact that it is mathematically difficult to predict its value). It is most noticeable for
objects that travel at high speeds (e.g., a skydiver or a downhill skier) or for objects with large
surface areas.
Tension Force - The tension force is the force that is transmitted through a string, rope, cable or
wire when it is pulled tight by forces acting from opposite ends. The tension force is directed
along the length of the wire and pulls equally on the objects on the opposite ends of the wire.
Spring Force - The spring force is the force exerted by a compressed or stretched spring upon
any object that is attached to it. An object that compresses or stretches a spring is always acted
upon by a force that restores the object to its rest or equilibrium position. For most springs
(specifically, for those that are said to obey "Hooke's Law"), the magnitude of the force is
directly proportional to the amount of stretch or compression of the spring.
Moment
The measure of the capacity or ability of the force to produce twisting or turning effect
about an axis. This axis is perpendicular to the plane containing the line of action of the force.
The magnitude of moment is equal to the product of the force and the perpendicular distance
from the axis to the line of action of the force. The intersection of the plane and the axis is
commonly called the moment center, and the perpendicular distance from the moment center to
the line of action of the force is called moment arm. M = Fd

Force Systems:
I. Coplanar Force Systems
Coplanar force system refers to the number of forces which remain in same plane. It is also
stated as the number of forces in a system which remains in single plane. This force system can
be concurrent, parallel and non-concurrent and non-parallel.
A. Concurrent coplanar force system
The concurrent coplanar force system refers to the number of forces which interest at a
common point with their lines of action. It is not recommended that all the separate vectors are to
meet at the common point. It is the simplest coplanar force system to resolve to determine the
resultant force.
B. Parallel coplanar force system
The concurrent coplanar force system refers to the number of forces which are parallel to
each other with their lines of action. This force system is mostly used in the analysis of simple
beams with number of point loads.
C. Non-concurrent and non-parallel coplanar force systems
Non-concurrent and non-parallel coplanar force systems refer to the number of forces which
are not parallel and do not lie at the common point with their lines of action. It is not the simplest
coplanar force system to resolve to determine the resultant force when compared to concurrent
and parallel coplanar systems.
 II. Non-coplanar Force System
Non-coplanar force system refers to the number of forces which do not remain in same
plane. It is also stated as the number of forces in a system which remains in dissimilar planes.
Free-body diagrams
Diagrams used to show the relative magnitude and direction of all forces acting upon an
object in a given situation. A free-body diagram is a special example of the vector diagrams. The
only rule for drawing free-body diagrams is to depict all the forces that exist for that object in the
given situation. Thus, to construct free-body diagrams, it is extremely important to know the
various types of forces.

Resultant of Forces:
A resultant is one vector, which has the same effect on a body as the two or more vectors that are
actually acting on that body. It starts at the beginning of the first vector and ends at the end of the
last one.
An equilibrant is one vector, which cancels out the effect that the two or more vectors actually
have on a body. It is equal in size to the resultant but opposite in direction.
Ways in Solving Resultant of Forces:
I. Graphically:
a. Parallelogram Method
b. Polygon Method

II. Analytically:
a. Triangle Method

b. Component Method
𝑅 2 = ∑ 𝑋 2 + ∑ 𝑌 2 : 𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃, 𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
∑𝑌
tan 𝜃 =
∑𝑋
Any vector directed in two dimensions can be thought of as having an influence in
two different directions. That is, it can be thought of as having two parts. Each part
of a two-dimensional vector is known as a component. The components of a vector
depict the influence of that vector in a given direction. The combined influence of
the two components is equivalent to the influence of the single two-dimensional
vector. The single two-dimensional vector could be replaced by the two
components.

Triangle Method.
1.
By Component Method:
1. Determine the x and y scalar components of F1, F2, and F3 acting at point A of the
bracket

2. Three vectors are oriented, where |A| = 20.0 units, |B| = 40.0 units 45 deg above x axis,
and |C| = 30.0 units 45 deg below x axis. Find (a) the x and y components of the resultant
vector and (b) the magnitude and direction of the resultant vector.
Resultant of Coplanar Concurrent Force System
The line of action of each forces in coplanar concurrent force system are on the same plane. All of
these forces meet at a common point, thus concurrent. In x-y plane, the resultant can be found by
the following formulas:

Example:
1. Three ropes are tied to a small metal ring. At the end of each rope three students are pulling,
each trying to move the ring in their direction. If we look down from above, the forces and
directions they are applying are shown in the figure. Find the net force on the ring due to
the three applied forces.

2. Forces F, P, and T are concurrent and acting in the direction as shown in the figure.
a. Find the value of F and α if T = 450 N, P = 250 N, β = 30°, and the resultant is 300
N acting up along the y-axis.
b. Find the value of F and α if T = 450 N, P = 250 N, β = 30° and the resultant is zero.
c. Find the value of α and β if T = 450 N, P = 250 N, F = 350 N, and the resultant is zero.
 3. Tension in cable BC is 725 N; determine the resultant of the three forces exerted at point
B of beam AB.

Resultant of Coplanar Parallel Force System

Parallel forces can be in the same or in opposite directions. The sign of the direction can be chosen
arbitrarily, meaning, taking one direction as positive makes the opposite direction negative. The
complete definition of the resultant is according to its magnitude, direction, and line of action.
Example:
1. A parallel force system acts on the lever shown in the figure. Determine the magnitude and
position of the resultant.

2. Find the value of P and F so that the four forces shown in figure produce an upward
resultant of 300 lb acting at 4 ft from the left end of the bar.

3. The beam AB in the figure supports a load which varies an intensity of 220 N/m to 890
N/m. Calculate the magnitude and position of the resultant load.
Equilibrium of Forces:
When all the forces that act upon an object are balanced, then the object is said to be in a state of
equilibrium. The forces are considered to be balanced if the rightward forces are balanced by the
leftward forces and the upward forces are balanced by the downward forces.
If an object is at equilibrium, then the forces are balanced. Balanced is the key word that is used
to describe equilibrium situations. Thus, the net force is zero and the acceleration is 0 m/s/s.
Objects at equilibrium must have an acceleration of 0 m/s/s. This extends from Newton's first law
of motion. But having an acceleration of 0 m/s/s does not mean the object is at rest. An object at
equilibrium is either at rest and staying at rest, or in motion and continuing in motion with the
same speed and direction.