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Chapter No. 2

Vectors and Equilibrium

SCALARS:
Those Physical quantities which can completely specified by a number (magnitude)
having an appropriate unit are known as "SCALAR QUANTITIES". Scalar quantities
do not need direction for their description.
Scalar quantities are comparable only when they have the same physical dimensions.
Scalar quantities can be added, subtracted, multiplied or divided by the simple rules
of algebra.

Examples:
Mass, distance, time, speed, volume, density, temperature, work, power, entropy,
energy, electric charge, electric flux, refractive index, potential difference, viscosity
etc.

VECTORS:
Those physical quantities which have both magnitude and direction are known as
"VECTOR QUANTITIES". We can't specify a vector quantity without its direction.
⃗ , 𝐹 , 𝐴, 𝑅⃗, 𝑇
Vector quantities are expressed by a capital letter with arrow sign such as: 𝑉 ⃗
Vector quantities cannot be added, subtracted, multiplied or divided by the simple
rules of algebra. Vector quantities added, subtracted, multiplied or divided by the rules
of trigonometry and geometry.

Examples:
Displacement, velocity, acceleration, electric field intensity, force, momentum,
torque, weight, angular momentum etc.

REPRESENTATION OF A VECTOR:
Vector quantities are represented by a straight line
with arrowhead pointing the direction of vector or
terminal point of vector.
A vector quantity is first transformed into a suitable
scale and then a line is drawn with the help of the
scale chosen in the given direction. Length of the line
on a certain scale specifies the magnitude of the
vector. An arrowhead is put at one end of the line to
indicate the direction of the given vector.

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Cartesian Co-ordinate System:

It is a set of two or three mutually perpendicular lines intersecting at a point called
origin. The lines are called co-ordinate axes.

Two Dimensional Co-ordinate system:

If there are two perpendicular lines intersecting at origin “O”
then it is called two dimensional co-ordinate system.

Three Dimensional Co-ordinate system:

If there are three perpendicular lines intersecting at origin “O”
then it is called three dimensional co-ordinate system.
The direction of Z is considered to be coming out of the paper or
into the paper.

UNIT VECTOR:
“A unit vector is defined as a vector in any specified direction whose magnitude is
unity i.e., 1. A unit vector only specifies the direction of a given vector.”
A unit vector is denoted by any small letter with a symbol of
arrow hat ( ).
A unit vector can be determined by dividing the vector by its
magnitude.
For example, unit vector of a vector 𝐴 is given by:

𝐴
𝑢̂ =
𝐴

In three-dimensional coordinate system unit vectors 𝑖,̂ 𝑗̂, 𝑘̂ having the direction of the
positive X-axis, Y-axis and Z-axis respectively are used as unit vectors. These unit
vectors are mutually perpendicular to each other.

EQUAL VECTORS:
Two vectors having same directions, magnitude and unit are called equal vectors.

NEGATIVE OF A VECTOR:
The vector ⃗𝑩
⃗ is said to be negative of a vector ⃗𝑨 ⃗ , if it has same
⃗⃗ , symbolized as −𝑨
magnitude but opposite direction as that of 𝑨 ⃗⃗ . The
angle between a vector and its negative vector is always of 180º.

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ZERO OR NULL VECTORS:

A null vector is a vector having magnitude equal to zero. It is represented by 𝑶 ⃗⃗ . A
null vector has no direction or it may have any arbitrary direction. Generally a null
vector is either equal to resultant of two equal vectors acting in opposite directions. If
a vector 𝐴 and its negative of vector −𝐴 is added, then the resultant vector is a null
vector.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ) = 𝑂
𝐴 + (−𝐴 ⃗

FREE VECTOR:
A vector which can be displaced parallel to itself and applied
at any point, is known as free vector.

POSITION VECTOR:
A vector that indicates the position of a point in a coordinate
system is referred to as position vector.
Suppose we have a fixed reference point O, then we can specify
the position of a given point “P” with respect to point O by means
of a vector having magnitude and direction represented by a
directed line segment “OP”. This vector is called position vector.
In a three-dimensional coordinate system if O is at origin, then, O
(0,0,0) and P is any point say P (x, y, z).
In this situation position vector of point P will be:
𝑟 = 𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑦𝑗̂ + 𝑧𝑘̂

Resultant Vector:
A vector having the same effect as the combined effect of all vectors to be added is
known as resultant vector.
Suppose 𝐴 and 𝐵 ⃗ are two vectors to be added, then their sum
𝐴+𝐵 ⃗ will be a new vector 𝑅⃗ called resultant of vector.

𝑅⃗ = 𝐴 + 𝐵
⃗

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ADDITION OF VECTORS BY HEAD TO TAIL METHOD:

(GRAPHICAL METHOD)
Head to Tail method or graphical method is one of the easiest method used to find the
resultant vector of two of more than two vectors.

⃗ acting in the directions as

Consider two vectors 𝐴 and 𝐵
shown below:

In order to get their resultant vector by head to tail

method we must follow the following steps:

STEP # 1
Choose a suitable scale for the vectors so that they can be plotted on the paper.

STEP # 2
̅̅̅̅ of vector 𝐴.
Draw representative line 𝑂𝐴
Draw representative line ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 of vector 𝐵 ⃗ such that the tail of
⃗ coincides with the head of vector 𝐴.
vector 𝐵

STEP # 3
Join 'O' and 'B'.
̅̅̅̅ represents resultant vector of given vectors 𝐴 and 𝐵
𝑂𝐵 ⃗ i.e.
̅̅̅̅ = ̅̅̅̅
𝑂𝐵 𝑂𝐴 + ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵
𝑅⃗ = 𝐴 + 𝐵 ⃗

STEP # 4
Measure the length of line segment 𝑂𝐵 ̅̅̅̅ and multiply it with
the scale choosen initially to get the magnitude of resultant vector.

STEP # 5
The direction of the resultant vector is directed from the tail of vector 𝐴 to the head of
⃗.
vector 𝐵

Rectangular Components of a Vector:

A components of a vector is its effective value in a given direction. It is easy to resolve
a vector into its components along mutually perpendicular directions called
rectangular components.

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Let ⃗⃗⃗
𝐴 be a vector (represented by line 𝑂𝑃 ̅̅̅̅) making an angle θ with x-axis. Draw
projection PQ on x-axis and projection PR on y-axis. The projection PQ is along x
direction that is why it is called 𝐴𝑥 𝑖̂ while the projection PR is along y direction that
is why it is called 𝐴𝑦 𝑗̂. Then according to head to tail rule:

A = 𝐴𝑥𝑖 + 𝐴𝑦𝑗 P
Now, consider right angle triangle OPQ R
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑝 𝑃𝑄
Sin θ = =
𝐻𝑦𝑝 𝑂𝑃 ⃗⃗⃗
𝐴
𝐴𝑦 θ
Sin θ =
𝐴 Q
O

Ay = A Sin θ …….. (i)

Similarly,
𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑃𝑅
Cos θ = =
𝐻𝑦𝑝 𝑂𝑃

𝐴𝑦
Cos θ =
𝐴

Ax = A Cos θ …….. (ii)

Determination of a Vector from its Rectangular Component:

We can determine the magnitude of a vector by Pythagoras theorem, if its rectangular

components are given.
From ΔOPQ, applying Pythagoras theorem
(𝐻𝑦𝑝)2 = (𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒)2 + (𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑝)2
(𝑂𝑃)2 = (𝑂𝑄)2 + (𝑃𝑄)2
𝐴2 = 𝐴𝑥 2 +𝐴𝑦 2

A = √𝐴𝑥 2 +𝐴𝑦 2 …….. (iii)

For direction of vector 𝐴

𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑝 𝑃𝑄
Tan θ = =
𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑂𝑄
𝐴𝑦
Tan θ =
𝐴𝑥
𝐴𝑦
θ = 𝑇𝑎𝑛−1 (
𝐴𝑥
) …….. (iv)

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ADDITION OF VECTORS BY RECTANGULAR COMPONENTS:

Consider two vectors A1 and A2 making angles θ1 and θ2 with x-axis respectively as
shown in figure. A1 and A2 are added by using head to tail rule to give the resultant
vector A.
Resolve the vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴1 into its rectangular components 𝐴1𝑥 and 𝐴1𝑦 . The magnitude of
these component vectors is given by
𝐴1𝑥 = 𝐴1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 𝐴1𝑦 = 𝐴1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1
Resolve the vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴2 into its rectangular components 𝐴2𝑥 and 𝐴2𝑦 . The magnitude of
these component vectors is given by
𝐴2𝑥 = 𝐴2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 𝐴2𝑦 = 𝐴2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2

STEP # 1 (x and y components of given vectors):

For the x-components of A, we add the x-components of A1 and A2 which are A1x and
A2x. If the x-component of A is denoted by Ax, then.
𝐴𝑥 = 𝐴1 𝑥 + 𝐴2 𝑥
Or
𝐴𝑥 = 𝐴1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃1 + 𝐴2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃2 ................. (i)

For the y-components of A, we add the y-components of A1 and A2 which are A1y and
A2y. If the y-component of A is denoted by Ay then;
𝐴𝑦 = 𝐴1 𝑦 + 𝐴2 𝑦
Or
𝐴𝑦 = 𝐴1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃1 + 𝐴2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 ................. (ii)
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STEP # 2 (x component of resultant vector):

If Ax is the x component of resultant vector, 𝐴 then Ax
is the sum of 𝐴1𝑥 and 𝐴2𝑥 : P

Ax = 𝐴1𝑥 + 𝐴2𝑥

STEP # 3 (y component of resultant vector):

If Ay is the y component of resultant vector, 𝐴 then Ay
is the sum of 𝐴1𝑦 and 𝐴2𝑦 : O
Q

Ay = 𝐴1𝑦 + 𝐴2𝑦

STEP # 4 (magnitude of resultant vectors):

The magnitude of resultant vector A is given by

𝐴 = √𝐴2𝑥 + 𝐴2𝑦 ……………(iii)

But,
Ax = 𝐴1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃1 + 𝐴2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃2
Ay = 𝐴1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃1 + 𝐴2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2

Substituting the value of Ax and Ay in equation (iii)

𝐴 = √(𝐴1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃1 + 𝐴2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃2 )2 + (𝐴1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃1 + 𝐴2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 )2

STEP # 5 (direction of resultant vector):

From triangle OPQ, we can find the direction of the resultant vector A
𝐴𝑦
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 =
𝐴𝑥

𝐴𝑦
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 [𝐴𝑥]

PRODUCT OF TWO VECTORS:

1. Scalar Product (Dot Product)
2. Vector Product (Cross Product)

1. Scalar Product OR Dot Product:

If the product of two vectors is a scalar quantity, then the product itself is known as
Scalar Product or Dot Product.
The dot product of two vectors A and B having angle θ between them may be defined
as the product of magnitudes of A and B and the cosine of the angle θ.
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𝐴. 𝐵⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ | 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
|𝐴||𝐵
Or ⃗ = 𝐴𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
𝐴 .𝐵
The scalar product of vector A and vector B is equal to the magnitude of vector A
times the projection of vector B onto the direction of A.
If 𝐵𝐴 is the projection of vector B onto the direction of A, then according to the
definition of dot product.

⃗ = 𝐴 𝐵𝐴
𝐴 .𝐵
{𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐵𝐴 = 𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃}
⃗ = 𝐴𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝐴 .𝐵

Examples:
1. Work is the scalar product of force and displacement
𝑊 = 𝐹. 𝑑

2. Power is the dot product of force and velocity

⃗
P = 𝐹. 𝑉

Characteristics of Scalar Product:

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2. Vector Product OR Cross Product:

When the product of two vectors is another vector perpendicular to the plane formed
by the multiplying vectors, the product is then called vector or cross product.
The cross product of two vector A and B having angle θ between them may be defined
as "the product of magnitude of A and B and the sine of the angle θ, such that the
product vector has a direction perpendicular to the plane containing A and B

⃗ = 𝐴𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑢̂
𝐴×𝐵

Where 𝑢̂ is the unit vector perpendicular to the plane containing A

and B. The direction of vector product can be determined by right
hand rule i.e., if two vectors A & B are rotating along the curl of
fingers then the erect thumb will point in the direction of resultant
vector.
Examples:
1. Torque is a vector product of force and the moment arm:
𝜏 = 𝑟x𝐹

2. The force on a particle of charge “q” and velocity “v” in a magnetic field of
strength is given by vector product
𝐹 = q (v⃗ x𝐵⃗)

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Characteristics of Vector Product:

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TORQUE OR MOMENT OF FORCE: “𝜏”

Definition:
“The turning effect of the force about the axis of rotation is called torque.”

𝜏= 𝑟 ×𝐹 …………. (i)
OR 𝜏 = r F Sin θ
Torque directly depends on the magnitude of applied force and the moment arm.
Torque is the cross or vector product of force and the moment arm, hence torque
itself is a vector quantity. Its SI unit is Nm and has the same dimension as that of
work, kinetic and potential energy i.e., M𝑳𝟐 𝑻−𝟐 .

If line of action of force passes through the axis of rotation ( θ = 0º), then this force
cannot produce torque.
𝜏 = r F Sin θ {Sin 0 º = 0}
𝜏 = r F (0)
𝜏=0

Direction of torque:
The direction of torque can be found by using Right Hand Rule and is always
perpendicular to the plane containing 𝑟 & 𝐹 .
Thus
Clockwise torque → negative
Counter-Clockwise torque → positive

Explanation:
Let 𝐹 is the force acting on a rigid body at point P, whose
position vector from pivot O is 𝑟. F𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐹 is resolved into its
rectangular components, ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝑥 (parallel to position vector 𝑟 ) and
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝑦 (perpendicular to position vector 𝑟 ) and θ is the angle
between 𝐹 and extended line of 𝑟.
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝐹 ∥ will pull the particle in the direction of 𝑟 & the
component of 𝐹 which produces rotation in the body is
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝑦 𝑜𝑟 𝐹 ⊥. Therefore, the magnitude of torque (τ) is the product
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ .
of the magnitudes of 𝑟 and 𝐹𝑦

τ = r 𝐹𝑦 since (𝐹𝑦 = F Sin θ)

τ = r F sin θ …………. (ii)

The vector form of the torque will be:

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𝜏 = 𝑟 × ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹

Magnitude of Torque = Moment Arm x Magnitude of force

Direction of torque is
Torque → positive if directed outward from paper
Torque → negative if directed inward from paper

Applications of Torque:
Enlist yourself

EQUILIBRIUM:
A body is said to be in equilibrium if it is:
1. At rest
2. Moving with uniform velocity
A body in equilibrium possesses no acceleration.

Types of Equilibrium:
There are two types of equilibrium given below.

Static Equilibrium:
The equilibrium of bodies at rest is called static equilibrium.
Example:
1. A book lying on a table
2. A block hung from a string

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Dynamic Equilibrium:
The equilibrium of bodies moving with uniform velocity is called
dynamic equilibrium.
Example:
1. The jumping of a paratrooper by a parachute is an example of
uniform motion.
2. The motion of a small steel ball through a viscous liquid.

Conditions of Equilibrium:
There are two conditions of equilibrium given below.

1. First Condition of Equilibrium:

“A body will be in equilibrium if the net sum of all the forces acting on it is zero.”

Let ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹1 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹2 … … … ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐹𝑛 be ‘n’ number of external forces acting on a body. The first
condition of equilibrium states that:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹1 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹2 + … … … . + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝑛 = 0

∑𝑛𝑖=1 ⃗F = 0
If we resolve the force F into its components Fx and Fy then according to first
condition:
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0
∑ 𝐹𝑌 = 0

2. Second Condition of Equilibrium:

The condition states that:

“The body is said to in rotational equilibrium, if the vector sum of the torques acting
on it is zero”.
𝜏1 , ⃗⃗⃗⃗
If ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝜏2 , ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝜏3 , … … ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝜏𝑛 are the torques acting on a body, then

𝜏1 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝜏2 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝜏3 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝜏4 … … + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝜏𝑛 = 0

∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝜏⃗ = 0

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Worksheet for practice:

⃗ where 𝐴 = 6𝑖̂ + 6𝑗̂ − 3𝑘̂ and 𝐵

1. Find the angle between the vectors 𝐴 and 𝐵 ⃗ =
2𝑖̂ + 3𝑗̂ − 6𝑘̂. (Ans: 40.36o)

2. Two vectors of magnitude 10 units and 15 units are acting at a point. The
magnitude of their resultant is 20 units. Find the angle between them.
(Ans: 75.5o)

3. If 𝑃⃗ = 2𝑖̂ − 𝑘̂ and 𝑄 ⃗ = 5𝑗̂, find;

(i) |⃗⃗𝑃| (ii) |⃗⃗⃗𝑄| ⃗
(iii) 𝑃⃗ + 𝑄 ⃗ − 𝑃⃗
(iv) 𝑄 ⃗
(v) 𝑃⃗. 𝑄

4. Given ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑟1 = 2𝑖̂ − 2𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂, 𝑟 ⃗⃗⃗⃗2 = 3𝑖̂ − 4𝑗̂ − 3𝑘 ̂ , ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ̂

𝑟3 = 4𝑖̂ + 2𝑗̂ + 2𝑘
Find; (i) |𝑟⃗⃗⃗1 + ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑟3 | (ii) |⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑟2 + ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑟3 | (iii) |2𝑟⃗⃗⃗1 − 3𝑟⃗⃗⃗2 − 5𝑟⃗⃗⃗3 |
(Ans: (i) √97 (ii) 2√6 (iii) √630)

5. Given 𝐴 = 𝑖̂ + 2𝑗̂ + 3𝑘̂ and 𝐵 ⃗ = 2𝑖̂ + 4𝑗̂ − 𝑘̂.

⃗|
Find: (i) |3𝐴 − 𝐵 ⃗
(ii) 𝐴 × 𝐵 ⃗
(iii) Angle between 𝐴 & 𝐵
(Ans: (i) √105 (ii) −14𝑖̂ + 7𝑗̂ (iii) 70o)
2
6. ⃗ | + (𝐴 . 𝐵
Prove |𝐴 × 𝐵 ⃗ )2 = 𝐴2 𝐵2

7. If one of the rectangular components of a force of 100 N is 50 N. Find the other

component. (Ans: 86.60 N)

8. An object moves along a straight line from (3, 2, -6) to (14, 13, 9) when a
uniform force 𝐹 = 4𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 3𝑘̂ acts on it. Find the work done and the angle between
force and displacement. (Ans: 100 units, 24.83o)

9. Find the area of a parallelogram, if its two sides are formed by the vectors 𝐴 =
2𝑖̂ − 3𝑗̂ − 𝑘̂ and 𝐵
⃗ = 𝑖̂ + 4𝑗̂ − 2𝑘̂ (Ans: √230)

10. If one of the rectangular components of a force of 50 N is 25 N; find the value

of the other. (Ans: 48.30 N)

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