landslide types and classification

OIKOS > landslide > mechanism >landslide types

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z Introduction
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z A landslide is a geological phenomenon which includes a wide
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z range of ground movement, such as rock falls, deep failure of slopes
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z and shallow debris flows. The term therefore describes a movement
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z of a mass of rocks or soil from a higher point to a lower one. A
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z complete definition of a landslide event could be the following:
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"movement of soil or rock controlled by gravity, superficial or deep,
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with movement from slow to rapid, but not very slow, which
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involves materials which make up a mass that is a portion of the
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slope or the slope itself". Although gravity acting on an over
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steepened slope is the primary reason for a landslide, there are
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other contributing factors affecting the original slope stability:
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9 erosion by rivers, glaciers, or ocean waves create over
steepened slopes;
9 rock and soil slopes are weakened through saturation by
snowmelt or heavy rains;
9 earthquakes create stresses that make weak slopes fail;
9 volcanic eruptions produce loose ash deposits, heavy rain, and
debris flows;
9 vibrations from machinery, traffic, blasting and even thunder
may trigger failure of weak slopes
9 excess weight from accumulation of rain or snow, stockpiling of
rock or ore, from waste piles, or from man-made structures may
stress weak slopes to failure and other structures
9 groundwater pressure acting to destabilize the slope in shallow
soils, the removal of deep-rooted vegetation that binds the
colluvium to bedrock.

The used classification factors

Various scientific disciplines have developed taxonomic
classification systems to describe natural phenomena or individuals,
like for example, plants or animals. These systems are based on
Huge debris flow in Sarno, Southern Italy
specific features like shape of organs or nature of reproduction.
Differently, in landslide classification, there are great difficulties due to the fact that landslide events are not
perfectly repeatable; usually being characterised by different causes, movements and morphology, and
involving different soil materials. For this reason, landslide classifications are based on different factors,
sometimes very subjective. In the following the criteria most commonly used in the classification systems are
shown:
Type of movement
This is the most important criteria, even if uncertainties and difficulties can arise in the identification of
movements, being the mechanisms of some landslides often particularly complex. The main movements are
falls, slides and flows, but usually topples, lateral spreading and complex movements are added to these.
Involved material
Rock, earth and debris are the terms generally used to distinguish the materials involved in the landslide
process. For example, the distinction between earth and debris is usually made by comparing the
percentage of coarse grain size particles. If the weight of the particles with a diameter greater than 2mm is
less than 20%, the material will be defined as earth; in the opposite case, it is debris.
Activity
The classification of a landslide based on its activity is particularly relevant in the evaluation of future events.
The recommendations of the WP/WLI of 1993 define the concept of activity with reference to the spatial and
temporal conditions, defining the, the distribution
and the style. The first term describes the information
regarding the time in which the movement took place,
permitting information to be available on future
evolution, the second term describes, in a general way,
where the landslide is moving and the third term
indicates how it is moving.
A4) Movement velocity
This factor has a great importance in the landslide hazard
evaluation. A velocity range is connected to the different
type of landslides, on the basis of observation of case
history or site observations.

Types and classification

In the following table shows a schematic landslide classification adopting the classification of Varnes 1978
and taking into account the modifications made by Cruden and Varnes, in 1996. Some integration have been
made by using the definitions of Hutchinson (1988) and Hungr et al 2001.

Type of movement Type of material

Bedrock Engineering soils
Predominantly Predominantly coarse
fine
Rockfall Earth fall Debris fall
Falls
Topples Rock topple Earth topple Debris topple

Slides Rotational Rock slump Earth slump Debris slump

Translational Few Rock block Earth block Debris block slide

units slide slide Debris slide
Many Earth slide
units

Rock slide

Lateral spreads Rock spread Earth spread Debris spread

Flows Rock flow Earth flow Debris flow
Rock Debris avalanche
avalanche
(Deep creep) (Soil creep)
Complex and compound Combination in time and/or space of two or more
principal types of movement

References
ƒ CAINE, N., 1980. The rainfall intensity-duration control of shallow landslides and debris flows. Geografiska
Annaler, 62A, 23-27.

ƒ COATES, D. R. (1977) - Landslide prospectives. In: Landslides (D.R. Coates, Ed.) Geological Society of
America, pp. 3-38.

ƒ COROMINAS, J. and MOYA, J. 1999. Reconstructing recent landslide activity in relation to rainfall in the
Llobregat River basin, Eastern Pyrenees, Spain. Geomorphology, 30, 79-93.
ƒ CRUDEN D.M., VARNES D. J. (1996) - Landslide types and processes. In: Turner A.K.; Shuster R.L. (eds)
Landslides: Investigation and Mitigation. Transp Res Board, Spec Rep 247, pp 36-75.

ƒ HUNGR O, EVANS SG, BOVIS M, and HUTCHINSON JN (2001) Review of the classification of landslides of the
flow type. Environmental and Engineering Geoscience, VII, 221-238.

ƒ HUTCHINSON J. N.: Mass Movement. In: The Encyclopedia of Geomorphology (Fairbridge, R.W., ed.),
Reinhold Book Corp., New York, pp. 688-696, 1968.

ƒ HARPE C. F. S.: Landslides and related phenomena. A Study of Mass Movements of Soil and Rock. Columbia
Univo Press, New York, 137 pp., 1938.

ƒ KEEFER, D.K. (1984) Landslides caused by earthquakes. Bulletin of the Geological Society of America 95,
406-421.

ƒ VARNES D. J.: Slope movement types and processes. In: Schuster R. L. & Krizek R. J. Ed., Landslides, analysis
and control. Transportation Research Board Sp. Rep. No. 176, Nat. Acad. oi Sciences, pp. 11-33, 1978.

ƒ TERZAGHI K. - Mechanism of Landslides. In Engineering Geology (Berkel) Volume. Ed. da The Geological
Society of America~ New York, 1950.

ƒ WP/ WLI. 1993. A suggested method for describing the activity of a landslide. Bulletin of the International
Association of Engineering Geology, No. 47, 53-57.

Glossary
click here to access a basic glossary on landslides.

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