CHAPTER 6 Other Related Geological Hazards Causes of Landslide

Geological hazards are natural phenomena that cause major problems all over the world. Landslides occur when the slope changes from a stable to an unstable condition. A
The expansion and development of cities lead to an increase in impact and damage due to change in the stability of a slope can be caused by a number of factors, acting together or
geological hazards. In general, most of the geological hazards are related to natural alone.
conditions, although some may be due to human activities. Natural causes of landslides include:
o Earthquakes & Volcanic eruptions  Groundwater (pore water) pressure acting to destabilize the slope
– common geological hazards causing massive devastation  Loss or absence of vertical vegetative structure, soil nutrients, and soil structure
Other Geological Hazards and their Causes [defined by US Geological Science (USGS)] (e.g., after a wildfire)
 Erosion of the toe of a slope by rivers or ocean waves
Ȣ Rainfall-Induced Landslide  Weakening of a slope through saturation by snow melt, glaciers melting, or heavy
Landslide – a massive outward and downward movement of slope forming rains
materials. The term landslide is restricted to movements of rocks and soil masses.  Earthquakes adding leads to barely stable slope
Theses masses may range in size up to entire mountainsides. Their movements may  Earthquake-caused liquefaction destabilizing slopes
vary in velocity.  Volcanic eruptions
A landslide is initiated when a section of a hill slope or sloping section of a
Houses and vehicles are buried under debris of logs and earth close to the shore of
seabed is rendered too weak to support its own weight. This is generally triggered Real town, Quezon province on 06 December 2004 following the flash flood and landslides.
1 by other natural hazards such as prolonged, heavy rainfall or by other sources of Thousands were left homeless and about 1400 dead and missing from the twoSquidinger
storms.
www.gettyimages.com
water which increase the water content of the slope materials.
Landslide as a geological Landslides are also aggravated by human activities such as:
hazard is caused by earthquake or
volcanic eruption. Susceptibility of  Deforestation
hill slope is developed as a result of Cultivation destabilize the already fragile slopes
denudation of mountainsides which Construction
removes the trees or ground cover  Vibrations from machinery or traffic
that holds the soil, or alteration of  Blasting (e.g. as miners normally do)
the surface of the ground like  Earthwork which alters the shape of a
grading for roads or building slope, or which imposes new loads on an
constructions. existing slope
 In shallow soils, the removal or deep-
An aerial view shows the extent of the landslide that buried rooted vegetation that binds colluvium to
the whole village of Ginsaugon, St. Bernard town in Southern Leyte
province in central Philippines. Saturday, Feb.18, 2006
bedrock (e.g. kaingin farming
www.chinadaily.com.cn system)
Use of substandard construction materials was
identified as one of the culprits of the tragedy. Source:
slideshare.net
  Construction works, agricultural or forestry activities (e.g. logging) which change the
amount of water infiltrating the soil

Effects of Landslides

Landslides cause property damage, injury and death and adversely affect a variety of
Types of Sinkholes (Source: US Geological Services – USGS)
resources. For example, water supplies, fisheries, sewage disposal systems, forests,
dams and roadways can be affected for years after a slide event. o Dissolution Sinkholes
The negative economic effects of landslides include the cost to repair structure, loss Dissolution of the limestone or dolomite is the most intensive where the
of property value, disruption of transportation routes, medical costs in the event of water first contacts the rock surface. Aggressive dissolution also occurs where flow
injury, and indirect costs such as lost timber and lost fish stocks. Water availability, is focused in pre-existing openings in the rock, such as along joints, fracture, and
quantity and quality can be affected by landslides. Geotechnical studies and engineering bedding planes, and in the zone of water-table fluctuation where groundwater is in
projects to assess and stabilize potentially dangerous sites can be costly. contact with the atmosphere. (See illustration below)
1999 Cherry Hill Subdivision Landslide Rainfall and surface water
2006 Southern Leyte Mudslide percolate through joints in the
limestone. Dissolved carbonate
Ȣ Sinkholes rock is carried away from the
2 Sinkholes are common where the rock below the land surface is limestone, surface and a small Squidinger
depression
carbonate rock, salt beds, or rocks that can be naturally dissolved by groundwater gradually form.
circulating through them.as the rock dissolves, spaces and caverns develop
underground. On exposed carbonate
Sinkholes are dramatic because the surfaces, a depression may
land usually stays intact for a while until the focus surface drainage,
underground spaces just get too big. If there accelerating the dissolution
is not enough support for the land above the process. Debris carried into the
spaces then a sudden collapse of the land developing sinkhole may plug
surface can occur. These collapses can be the outflow, ponding water and creating wetlands.
small, or they can be huge and can occur o Cover-subsidence sinkholes
where a house or road is on top.
Cover-subsidence sinkholes tend to develop gradually where the covering sediments
150-meter-wide sinkhole in Benguet swallows 5 are permeable and contain sand. In areas where cover material is thicker or sediments
houses and threatens 500 others.. strangesounds.org
contain more clay, cover-subsidence sinkholes are relatively uncommon, are smaller, and
Sinkholes can vary from a few feet to hundreds of acres and less than 1 to more than 100 may go undetected for long periods. (See illustration below)
feet deep. Some are shaped like shallow ______ or saucers whereas other have vertical
walls; some hold water from natural ponds.

o Cover-collapse sinkholes
Cover-collapse sinkholes may develop abruptly (over a period of hours) and cause
catastrophic damages. They occur where the covering sediments contain a significant
amount of clay. Over time, surface drainage, erosion, and deposition of sinkhole develop
into a shallower bowl-shaped depression. (See illustration below)
3 Squidinger
Sinkholes can be human-induced
New sinkholes have been correlated to land-use practices, especially from
groundwater pumping and from construction and development practices. Sinkholes can also
form when natural water-drainage patterns are changed and new water-diversion systems
are developed. Some sinkholes form when the land surface is changed, such as when
industrial and runoff-storage ponds are created. The substantial weight of the new material
can trigger an underground collapse of supporting material, thus causing a sinkhole.
Signs of Impending Geological Hazards
The following are some of the observable signs that a landslide is possible to occur in a
particular area:
A. Landslide
1. Earlier Landslide as an indicator
Observing old landslides is a good indication that the area has unstable geology, and
that more landslides are likely in the future. Multiple landslide events in the same place can
be retrogressive, piecemeal, or reactivated.
A reactivated landslide is where something changed at an old, semi-stable landslide,
triggering a new failure at the same location. By looking around area a whole lot of old
landslide scraps and deposits are seen, this is a pretty good indication that even if a
particular landslide doesn’t reactivate, the underlying geology makes the whole region
unstable and susceptible to landslides.
2. Tension Cracks
Tension cracks are created by the stress of geological material pulling apart. They
often mark the eventual landslide scarp, the top edge of the failure zone. They can be
identified as road segments that constantly need long, thin, patches, or out in the wild as
actual cracks in the ground. Tension cracks above an existing landslide can hint at a future
reactivation. However, if tension cracks are found on flat ground, they’re still being created
by extensional stress, but are more likely related to a fault than a landslide.
3. Things Moving
Observable movement and deformation of things are also indicators of an
impending landslide. The most common among these is that trees are bending up in a J-
curve as a sign that the ground slips out from under them.
A patch of angled forest on a slope or J-curved trees somewhere can be a good
indicator that a ground is less solid than it seems. While so far the motion has been slow,
the slope could catastrophically collapse as a rapid landslide, especially if you find tension
cracks farther uphill.
Inside structures, signs of slow shifting can be floors tilting, doors no longer closing
property, or broken utilities. Creaking and cracking can also be warning signs.
4. Water Doing something Different
Another warning sign for a landslide is changes in water flow. The sudden arrival of
water in a spring, seep, or wet ground somewhere that is usually dry indicates that
 something changed, and this change is not to be trusted. The sudden disappearance of  Cracks in interior walls
water is just as ominous. Water levels in a creek suddenly dropping can be due to an  Cracks around door and window frames
upstream obstruction like a landslide dam that will break and send a debris flow rushing  Cracked gout between tiles
downstream.  Cracked tiles
 Stair step cracks in blocks or bricks
A debris flow is a very wet, very mobile landslide, where water is loaded with trees,
 Uneven floors, warping or hardwood, bulging or sagging sections
mud, rock, and everything else caught in the torrent. Low water level precedes the arrival of
 Doors or windows that don’t open or close easily
the debris flow surge.
 Cracks in sheetrock near door or windows
This lists doesn’t cover every possible sign of an impending landslide, nor deos
All homes are subject to some settling characteristics. Any of these signs could
everything on this list immediately lead to a landslide. Listed are warning signs to help
exists without the presence of a sinkhole. However, the presence of one or more of
people recognize when it’s time to hire an expert to assess a slope’s stability, or to make
these signs calls for further careful observation and an abundance of caution.
people more aware that something is wrong.
Precautionary Measures
Natural signs of impending natural hazards like earthquakes, tsunamis and volcanic
eruptions were already discussed in the preceding chapters. Sinkhole formation cannot really be predicted, but there are things people can
watch out for and precautions that can be taken.
B. Sinkholes
1. Watch for signs of water disappearing from the surface (for example, the sudden
Sinkholes rarely strike without giving some warning in the surrounding environment
4 loss of a steam or retention pond). Squidinger
or in a nearby home. Here are some signs to watch for they may indicate a problem about
2. If a sinkhole occurs in an area of traffic, barricade it to prevent motorists or
the present and imminent danger of sinkhole:
pedestrians from getting too close to it. Remember that the size can continue to
 Trees or fence posts that tilt or fall increase, so barricade it with ample room to spare.
 Foundations that slant 3. Check fields before undertaking machine-related activities, such as haying or
 New small ponds that appear after rain harvesting.
 Cracks in the ground 4. Keep tractors and heavy machinery far enough away from the sinkhole, since the
 Sudden drainage of a pond ground near the edge can easily give way. It is recommended that machinery stay at
 Rapid appearance of a hole in the ground least as far from the edge as the hole is deep.
 Dips, depressions, slopes that appear in a yard 5. Sinkholes will be more prevalent during times of increased and rapid rainfall, such as
 Deep patches of grass or plants with the type of rains occurring during a hurricane.
 Sinkholes in the neighborhood 6. Call emergency hotlines and advise them of the sinkhole and of the hole which is
 Wilted vegetation in a limited area near utility lines or in a roadway.
 Well water that is discoloured or contaminated with debris 7. Restrict access to the hole.
 Cracking or bulking of home’s concrete slab 8. Don’t get to close to or go down into the hole.
 Presence of odd bugs like slugs and centipedes in the home 9. Do not allow unauthorized or inexperienced persons to investigate the sinkhole.
 Earthy odor in home after rain
Mitigation Strategies to Prevent Loss of Lives and Properties in Case of Landslide
 New or widening cracks
 Separation between walls and ceilings of floors  What to do BEFORE a Landslide
 1. It’s good to secure clearance from the Mines and Geosciences Bureau The following are examples of Geological Hazard Maps. Learn how to
(MGB) on status of possible landslides. interpret these maps as part or preparation and precautionary measures to avoid or
2. Help prepare the members of the family for evacuation upon the mitigate the effects these different hazards may cause.
direction of proper authorities.
1. Earthquake-triggered Landslide Susceptibility Map
3. Maintain a list of contact numbers during emergencies.
4. Participate in planting grasses to cover slopes or in building riprap to
prevent soil erosion.
5. Participate in regular drills on evacuation procedures.
6. Help promote public awareness and involvement on landslide
mitigation.
7. Help develop family preparedness and evacuation plan.

 What to do DURING a Landslide

1. Evacuate immediately if warned of an impending landslide or mudflow.
2. Stay away from the path of landslide debris, or seek refuge behind a
sturdy tree or boulder.
3. Get out of house as soon as possible when rumbling sounds are heard
5 from upstream or the trembling of the ground is felt, indicating a Squidinger
possible mudflow.
4. Run across a slope, not downwards.

 What to do AFTER a Landslide

1. Examine thoroughly the damaged parts and utilities of the house before
re-occupying it.
2. Stay away from the landslide area. There may be danger of additional
landslides.
3. Help check with caution injured and trapped persons within the
landslide area and direct rescuers to their locations.
4. Listen to local radio or television stations for the latest emergency
information.
5. Help in seeking advice of a geotechnical expert to evaluate landslide
hazards or design corrective measures to reduce landslide risk.

Geological Hazard Map

 A map prepared by the MGB and DENR that color codes the areas in the Philippines that are
susceptible to flooding and landslides. Source: blog.wsj.com

Process flow of shallow landslide susceptibility mapping using SINMAP

Source: blog.noah.dost.gov.ph
6 Squidinger

Landslide Hazard Map of Leyte on Project NOAH website

Source: blog.noah.dost.gov.ph
 ------------------------------------SUMMARY-----------------------------------

Aside from earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, which are the most common
geological hazards, there are other elated hazards that may also bring destruction to life
and property. These are the following: landslides, avalanches, sinkholes, flash floods,
mudflows and erosions.

Most of these hazards are sudden phenomena, which mean, that it is hard for
an ordinary person and having no technical knowledge, to predict their occurrence.
However, after some studies and technical observations, experts were able to observe
some signs, specifically for an impending landslide or signs that an area is a potential

7 sinkhole. Recognizing these signs will give a person or a group great advantage as to Squidinger
how the risk of a landslide or sinkhole could be reduced or mitigated.