Land Slides Causes

CHAPTER 1
SYNOPSIS

Project Title

Land Slides Causes

1.2. Project Option

None

1.3. Internal Guide

Prof. Kedar.A.L

1.4. Problem Statement

Land Slides Causes

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CHAPTER 2
ABSTRACT

Landslides require a more sophisticated approach to conceptual analysis than that employed
for most other forms of hazard because they are polycausal phenomena. Three examples of
landsliding are examined. At Cuyocuyo, in the Peruvian Cordillera Oriental, slope instability is
virtually inevitable, but human intervention may be disturbing some very fragile natural equilibria.
At Calciano, in southern Italy, deforestation has resulted in a mudflow disaster, although man-
made factors are not the only causes at work.

Finally, in the Valle dell'Orco (also in southern Italy) demographic and agrarian change
have aided the partial metamorphosis of the catchment into a large-scale mudflow complex
(although the longer-term causes are natural, tectonic ones). These examples illustrate parts of the
continuum that extends from dominant natural to dominant anthropogenic landslide causes.
Human intervention has played a key role in stimulating the natural antecedents of landslides
occurring in the study areas. In part because of a failure to understand landslides as polycausal
phenomena, in which man-made causes effectively cannot-and should not-be separated from
natural ones, adequate landslide risk mitigation has not been premoted.

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CHAPTER 3
INTRODUCTION
Landslides are among the many natural disasters causing massive destructions and loss of lives
across the globe. According to a survey study by the International Landslide Centre at Durham
University, UK, 2,620 fatal landslides occurred between 2004 and 2010. These landslides
resulted in the death of over 32,322 people. The figure does not include landslides caused
by earthquakes. This research result is astonishing considering the number of people killed by
landslides. It is, thus, paramount to know the causes and warning signs of a potential landslide to
minimize losses.

A landslide, sometimes known as landslip, slope failure or slump, is an uncontrollable downhill

flow of rock, earth, debris or the combination of the three. Landslides stem from the failure of
materials making up the hill slopes and are beefed up by the force of gravity. When the ground
becomes saturated, it can become unstable, losing its equilibrium in the long run. That’s when a
landslide breaks loose. When people are living down these hills or mountains, it’s usually just a

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CHAPTER 4
CAUSES OF LAND SLIDES

While landslides are considered naturally occurring disasters, human-induced changes in

the environment have recently caused their upsurge. Although the causes of landslides are wide
ranging, they have 2 aspects in common; they are driven by forces of gravity and result from failure
of soil and rock materials that constitute the hill slope

Natural Causes of Landslides

CLIMATE

Long-term climatic changes can significantly impact soil stability. A general reduction
in precipitation leads to lowering of water table and reduction in overall weight of soil mass,
reduced solution of materials and less powerful freeze-thaw activity. A significant upsurge in
precipitation or ground saturation would dramatically increase the level of ground water. When
sloped areas are completely saturated with water, landslides can occur. If there is absence of
mechanical root support, the soils start to run off.

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Earthquakes

Seismic activities have, for a long time, contributed to landslides across the globe. Any moment
tectonic plates move, the soil covering them also moves along. When earthquakes strike areas with
steep slopes, on numerous occasion, the soil slips leading to landslides. In addition, ashen debris
flows instigated by earthquakes could also cause mass soil movement.

Weathering

Weathering is the natural procedure of rock deterioration that leads to weak, landslide-susceptive
materials. Weathering is brought about by the chemical action of water, air, plants and bacteria.
When the rocks are weak enough, they slip away causing landslides.

Erosion

Erosion caused by sporadic running water such as streams, rivers, wind, currents, ice and waves
wipes out latent and lateral slope support enabling landslides to occur easily.

Volcanoes

Volcanic eruptions can trigger landslides. If an eruption occurs in a wet condition, the soil will
start to move downhill instigating a landslide. Stratovolcano is a typical example of volcano
responsible for most landslides across the globe.

Forest fires

Forest fires instigate soil erosion and bring about floods, which might lead to landslides

Gravity

Steeper slopes coupled with gravitational force can trigger a massive landslide.

Human causes of landslides

Mining

Mining activities that utilize blasting techniques contribute mightily to landslides. Vibrations
emanating from the blasts can weaken soils in other areas susceptible to landslides. The weakening
of soil means a landslide can occur anytime.

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Clear cutting

Clear cutting is a technique of timber harvesting that eliminates all old trees from the area. This
technique is dangerous since it decimates the existing mechanical root structure of the area.

Effects of Landslides

1. Lead to economic decline

Landslides have been verified to result in destruction of property. If the landslide is significant, it
could drain the economy of the region or country. After a landslide, the area affected normally
undergoes rehabilitation. This rehabilitation involves massive capital outlay. For example, the
1983 landslide at Utah in the United States resulted in rehabilitation cost of about $500 million.
The annual loss as a result of landslides in U.S. stands at an estimated $1.5 billion.

2. Decimation of infrastructure

The force flow of mud, debris, and rocks as a result of a landslide can cause serious damage to
property. Infrastructure such as roads, railways, leisure destinations, buildings and communication
systems can be decimated by a single landslide.

3. Loss of life

Communities living at the foot of hills and mountains are at a greater risk of death by landslides.
A substantial landslide carries along huge rocks, heavy debris and heavy soil with it. This kind of
landslide has the capacity to kills lots of people on impact. For instance, Landslides in the UK that
happened a few years ago caused rotation of debris that destroyed a school and killed over 144
people including 116 school children aged between 7 and 10 years. In a separate event, NBC News
reported a death toll of 21 people in the March 22, 2014, landslide in Oso, Washington.

4. Affects beauty of landscapes

The erosion left behind by landslides leaves behind rugged landscapes that are unsightly. The pile
of soil, rock and debris downhill can cover land utilized by the community for agricultural or social
purposes.

5. Impacts river ecosystems

The soil, debris, and rock sliding downhill can find way into rivers and block their natural flow.
Many river habitats like fish can die due to interference of natural flow of water. Communities
depending on the river water for household activities and irrigation will suffer if flow of water is
blocked.

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CHAPTER 5
TYPES OF LAND SLIDES
• Falls

Falls are sudden movements of loads of soil, debris, and rock that break away from slopes and
cliffs. Falls landslides occur as a result of mechanical weathering, earthquakes, and force of
gravity.

• Slides

This is a kind of mass movement whereby the sliding material breakaways from underlying stable
material. The kinds of slides experienced during this type of landslide include rotational and
transitional. Rotational slides are sometimes known as slumps since they move with rotation.

Transitional slides consist of a planer or 2 dimensional surface of rupture. They involve landslide
mass movement following a roughly planar surface with reduced rotation or backward slanting.
Slides occur when the toe of the slope is undercut. They move moderately, and the consistency of
material is maintained.

• Topples

Topple landslides occur when the topple fails. Topple failure encompasses the forward spinning
and movement of huge masses of rock, debris, and earth from a slope. This type of slope failure
takes place around an axis near or at the bottom of the block of rock. A topple landslide mostly
lead to formation of a debris cone below the slope. This pile of debris is known as a Talus cone.

• Spreads

They are commonly known as lateral spreads and takes place on gentle terrains via lateral
extension followed by tensile fractures.

• Flows

This type of landslide is categorized into five; earth flows, debris avalanche, debris flow,
mudflows, and creep, which include seasonal, continuous and progressive.

Flows are further subcategorized depending upon the geological material, for example, earth,
debris, and bedrock.

The most prevalent occurring landslides are rock falls and debris flow.

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CHAPTER 6
MITIGATIVE MEASURES

Certain steps can be taken to reduce the risk or damage from the landslides:

▪ Demarcating landslide prone areas and accordingly plan the future development activities.

▪ Reduce the slope angle.

▪ Place additional supporting material at the foot of the slope.

▪ Reduce the load on the slope (rock, soil or artificial structures).

▪ Stabilize near-surface soil by preferably fast growing plants with sturdy root system

▪ Build thick retaining walls at the toe of the slope (high thin walls have been less successful)

▪ Decrease the water content or pore pressure of the rock or soil;

− By covering the surface completely with an impermeable material and diverting the surface
runoff above the slope.

− By providing surface drainage

− By drilling boreholes (horizontal) to increase sub-surface drainage.

▪ Driving of vertical piles into the foot of a shallow slide to hold the sliding block (on thin slides
and on low angle slopes).

▪ Use of rock bolts to stabilize rocky slopes (on thin slide blocks of very coherent rocks on low
angle slopes)

Post-Landslide Measures

▪ Clear the blocked drainage channels.

▪ Clear the debries, especially the huge rock boulders and tree trunks on the slopes.

▪ Stabilise the depositional area (characterized by loose soil, small rock boulders, etc.) by fast
growing trees/plants.

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CHAPTER 7
LANDSLIDE PREDICTION MAPPING

Landslide hazard analysis and mapping can provide useful information for catastrophic loss
reduction, and assist in the development of guidelines for sustainable land-use planning. The
analysis is used to identify the factors that are related to landslides, estimate the relative
contribution of factors causing slope failures, establish a relation between the factors and
landslides, and to predict the landslide hazard in the future based on such a relationship.[36] The
factors that have been used for landslide hazard analysis can usually be grouped
into geomorphology, geology, land use/land cover, and hydrogeology. Since many factors are
considered for landslide hazard mapping, GIS is an appropriate tool because it has functions of
collection, storage, manipulation, display, and analysis of large amounts of spatially referenced
data which can be handled fast and effectively.[37] Cardenas reported evidence on the exhaustive
use of GIS in conjunction of uncertainty modelling tools for landslide mapping.[38][39] Remote
sensing techniques are also highly employed for landslide hazard assessment and analysis. Before
and after aerial photographs and satellite imagery are used to gather landslide characteristics, like
distribution and classification, and factors like slope, lithology, and land use/land cover to be used
to help predict future events.[40] Before and after imagery also helps to reveal how the landscape
changed after an event, what may have triggered the landslide, and shows the process of
regeneration and recovery.[41]
Using satellite imagery in combination with GIS and on-the-ground studies, it is possible to
generate maps of likely occurrences of future landslides.[42] Such maps should show the locations
of previous events as well as clearly indicate the probable locations of future events. In general, to
predict landslides, one must assume that their occurrence is determined by certain geologic factors,
and that future landslides will occur under the same conditions as past events.[43] Therefore, it is
necessary to establish a relationship between the geomorphologic conditions in which the past
events took place and the expected future conditions.[44]
Natural disasters are a dramatic example of people living in conflict with the environment. Early
predictions and warnings are essential for the reduction of property damage and loss of life.
Because landslides occur frequently and can represent some of the most destructive forces on earth,
it is imperative to have a good understanding as to what causes them and how people can either
help prevent them from occurring or simply avoid them when they do occur. Sustainable land
management and development is also an essential key to reducing the negative impacts felt by
landslides.
GIS offers a superior method for landslide analysis because it allows one to capture, store,
manipulate, analyze, and display large amounts of data quickly and effectively. Because so many
variables are involved, it is important to be able to overlay the many layers of data to develop a
full and accurate portrayal of what is taking place on the Earth's surface. Researchers need to know
which variables are the most important factors that trigger landslides in any given location. Using
GIS, extremely detailed maps can be generated to show past events and likely future events which
have the potential to save lives, property, and money.

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CHAPTER 8
PREHISTORIC LANDSLIDES

• Storegga Slide, some 8,000 years ago off the western coast of Norway. Caused
massive tsunamis in Doggerland and other countries connected to the North Sea. A
total volume of 3,500 km3 (840 cu mi) debris was involved; comparable to a 34 m
(112 ft) thick area the size of Iceland. The landslide is thought to be among the largest
in history.
• Landslide which moved Heart Mountain to its current location, the largest continental
landslide discovered so far. In the 48 million years since the slide occurred, erosion has
removed most of the portion of the slide.
• Flims Rockslide, ca. 12 km3 (2.9 cu mi), Switzerland, some 10000 years ago in post-
glacial Pleistocene/Holocene, the largest so far described in the alps and on dry land
that can be easily identified in a modestly eroded state.[47]
• The landslide around 200 BC which formed Lake Waikaremoana on the North
Island of New Zealand, where a large block of the Ngamoko Range slid and dammed
a gorge of Waikaretaheke River, forming a natural reservoir up to 256 metres (840 ft)
deep.
• Cheekye Fan, British Columbia, Canada, ca. 25 km2 (9.7 sq mi), Late Pleistocene in
age.
• The Manang-Braga rock avalanche/debris flow may have formed Marsyangdi Valley
in the Annapurna Region, Nepal, during an interstadial period belonging to the last
glacial period.[48] Over 15 km3 of material are estimated to have been moved in the
single event, making it one of the largest continental landslides.
• A massive slope failure 60 km north of Kathmandu Nepal, involving an estimated 10–
15 km3.[49] Prior to this landslide the mountain may have been the world's 15th
mountain above 8000m.

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CHAPTER 9
HISTORICAL LANDSLIDES

• The 1806 Goldau landslide on September 2, 1806

• The Cap Diamant Québec rockslide on September 19, 1889
• Frank Slide, Turtle Mountain, Alberta, Canada, on 29 April 1903
• Khait landslide, Khait, Tajikistan, Soviet Union, on July 10, 1949
• A Magnitude 7.5 earthquake in Yellowstone Park (August 17, 1959) caused a landslide
that blocked the Madison River, and created Quake Lake.
• Monte Toc landslide (260 million cubic metres, 9.2 billion cubic feet) falling into
the Vajont Dam basin in Italy, causing a megatsunami and about 2000 deaths, on
October 9, 1963
• Hope Slide landslide (46 million cubic metres, 1.6 billion cubic feet) near Hope,
British Columbia on January 9, 1965.[50]
• The 1966 Aberfan disaster
• Tuve landslide in Gothenburg, Sweden on November 30, 1977.
• The 1979 Abbotsford landslip, Dunedin, New Zealand on August 8, 1979.
• The eruption of Mount St. Helens (May 18, 1980) caused an enormous landslide when
the top 1300 feet of the volcano suddenly gave way.
• Val Pola landslide during Valtellina disaster (1987) Italy
• Thredbo landslide, Australia on 30 July 1997, destroyed hostel.
• Vargas mudslides, due to heavy rains in Vargas State, Venezuela, in December, 1999,
causing tens of thousands of deaths.
• 2005 La Conchita landslide in Ventura, California causing 10 deaths.
• 2007 Chittagong mudslide, in Chittagong, Bangladesh, on June 11, 2007.
• 2008 Cairo landslide on September 6, 2008.
• The 2009 Peloritani Mountains disaster caused 37 deaths, on October 1.[51]
• The 2010 Uganda landslide caused over 100 deaths following heavy rain
in Bududa region.
• Zhouqu county mudslide in Gansu, China on August 8, 2010.[52]
• Devil's Slide, an ongoing landslide in San Mateo County, California
• 2011 Rio de Janeiro landslide in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil on January 11, 2011, causing
610 deaths.[53]
• 2014 Pune landslide, in Pune, India.
• 2014 Oso mudslide, in Oso, Washington
• 2017 Mocoa landslide, in Mocoa, Colombia

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CHAPTER 10
CONCLUSION

Landslides are one of the major disaster which effects 15% of the landmass.

• It leads to destruction of life and property.

• Disaster management of landslides is a very important step towards reducing the effects of the
event.

• Disaster management should be practiced by all individuals as well as community in pre, post
disaster situations.

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CHAPTER 11
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