SH1631

Natural Hazards: Mitigation and Adaptation

Natural hazard - a natural process and event that is a potential threat to human life and property
o Geologic Hazards
o Hydrometeorological Hazards
o Coastal Hazards
Disaster - a hazardous event that occurs over a limited time span in a defined area. Criteria for a
natural disaster are:
o 10 or more people killed
o 100 or more people affected
o A state of emergency is declared
o International assistance is requested
If any of these applies, an event is considered a natural disaster.
Catastrophe – a massive disaster that requires significant expenditure of money and a long time
(often years) of recovery to take place

Important Concepts
· Geologic cycle - a collective term used to describe the complex interactions between the
component sub-cycles of tectonic, rock, hydrologic and biogeochemical cycles
o Tectonic cycle – involves the creation, movement, and destruction of tectonic plates. It
is responsible for the production and distribution of rock and mineral resources
invaluable to modern civilization, as well as hazards such as volcanoes and earthquakes.
o Rocks cycle – the largest of the geologic sub-cycles, and is linked to other sub-cycles.
The rock cycle is a fundamental concept that depicts the ever changing transition
through geologic times of the three (3) main types of rocks: igneous, sedimentary, and
metamorphic.
o Hydrologic cycle – the movement of water from the oceans to the atmosphere and back
again to the oceans
o Biogeochemical cycle –the transfer or cycling of a chemical element or elements
through the atmosphere (the layer of gases surrounding the earth), lithosphere (Earth’s
outer rock layer), hydrosphere (oceans, lakes, rivers, and ground water), and biosphere
(the part of the earth where life exists). For example, carbon (in form of CO2) is exhaled
by animals, enters the atmosphere and is then taken up by plants.

GEOLOGIC HAZARDS
A geological hazard is a natural geologic event that can endanger human lives and threaten human
property.
1. Earthquakes
2. Landslides
3. Volcanic Eruptions

Earthquakes
· Across the globe, people feel an estimated one million earthquakes a year. However, few of
these quakes are noticed and even fewer are considered major earthquakes.

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· An earthquake is the trembling of the Earth’s surface that occurs when the energy in the form
of strain in rock layers is released. Some earthquakes are associated with volcanic eruptions
while most occur because of plate tectonics.
o Basic Earthquake Features:
· Epicenter – place on the surface of the earth above where the ruptured rocks broke up
to produce an earthquake
· Focus – point of initial breaking or rupturing within the earth
· Hypocenter – directly below the focus
o Earthquakes are measured and compared by:
· Intensity - effects of ground motion on people and structure
· Magnitude - amount of energy an earthquake released
· Moment magnitude – indicates the size of the earthquake with a decimal number. It is
determined from an estimate of the area that raptured along a fault plane during the
quake, the amount of movement slippage along the fault, and the rigidity of the rocks
near the focus of the quake.
- Currently used by most news reporters
· Ritcher Scale – developed by famous seismologist Charles Ritcher
- Still used by some news reporters

· Effects of earthquakes and linkages with other natural hazards:

o Shaking and ground rupture - the immediate effects of a catastrophic earthquake which are
violent ground shaking accompanied by wide-spread surface rupture and displacement of the
Earth’s surface.
o Liquefaction – during earthquakes, intense shaking can cause near-surface layer of water-
saturated sand to change rapidly from solid to a liquid.

Source: www.teachingboxes.org
These apartment buildings collapsed as a result of liquefaction of sandy sediment beneath
Niigata, Japan in 1964. (Figure 3.24; Keller, E. & DeVecchio, D. (2012). Natural Hazards
Third Edition)
o Regional changes in land elevation – vertical deformation of land surface. The deformation
includes both regional uplift and subsidence of the Earth’s surface. These changes in elevation
can cause substantial damage in coastal areas and along streams can raise or lower groundwater
table.

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o Landslides – most closely linked natural hazards to earthquakes. Earthquakes are one of the
most common triggers for landslides in hilly and mountainous areas. Landslides triggered by
earthquakes can be extremely destructive and cause great loss of life.
o Fires – shaking of the ground and surface displacements can break electrical power and natural
gas lines, thus starting fires. The threat from fire is even greater because firefighting equipment
may be damaged; streets, roads, and bridges may be blocked; and essential water mains broken.
o Disease – caused by loss of sanitation and housing, contaminated water supplies, disruption of
public health services, and the disturbance of the natural environment

Landslides
· A landslide is a downslope movement of a mass of rock, debris, earth, or soil (soil being a mixture
of earth and debris). A slope is a slant or incline on a land surface. The forces that produce
landslides are determined by the interactions of several variables: the type of earth material on the
slope, topography and slope angle, climate, vegetation, water, and time.
o Earth material – mineral composition, degree of cementation or consolidation, the presence
of zones of weaknesses (natural breaks in the consistency of earth materials such as layering
of sedimentary and metamorphic layering or they may be zones along which the earth has
moved before such as an old landslip surface or geographic fault).
o Topography and slope angle – Topographic relief refers to the height of the hill or the
mountain above the land below. The steeper the slope, the greater the driving force.
o Climate – weather that is typical in a place over a period of years or decades. For landslides,
the type of climate influences the amount and timing of water that infiltrates and erodes a slope
and the type of slope vegetation.
o Vegetation – all the plants or plant life in a place. This provides a protective cover that cushions
the impact of the falling rain to a slope, which prevents erosion. Vegetation also adds weight
to a slope.
o Water – affects slope stability in three (3) ways:
1. Shallow soil slips and debris flows, develop during rainstorms when slopes
become saturated;
2. Some landslides develop months or even years following a deep infiltration of
water into a slope; and
3. Water erosion of the base of a slope decreases its stability.
o Time – weathering of rocks through time reduces their strength. This is caused by the chemical
reaction of water in contact with soil and rocks near the earth’s surface

· Man-made factors of vulnerability to landslides:

o Intense deforestation; soil erosion
o Construction of human settlement in landslide prone areas
o Roads or communication lines in mountain areas
o Building with weak foundation
o Buried pipelines
o Lack of understanding of landslide hazards, lack of warning system

· Effects of landslides and linkages with other natural hazards:

o People and property hit with or buried in falling debris
o Homes, roads, and utilities that have been constructed on the top or side of a hill may be
damaged.

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o Flooding upstream from a landslide that blocks a river and the transmission of disease from
fungal spores disturbed by landslides
o Earthquakes, volcanoes, storms, and fires all have the potential to cause landslides
o Landslides may be responsible for flooding if they form an earthen dam across a river.
o A large landslide may also cause tsunamis or widespread flooding if it displaces water out
of a lake or bay

Volcanic Eruptions
· Volcanic eruptions are one of Earth's most dramatic and violent agents of change.
· They pose significant geologic hazards because their eruptions and associated activities can
affect large areas and go on for extended periods of time.
· Volcanic activity is directly related to the plate tectonics, with most volcanoes located near the
plate boundaries.
· Volcanic activity is caused by spreading and sinking of lithospheric plates at plate boundaries
that interact with other earth materials that produce magma.
o Magma - molten rock under the earth’s crust
o Lava - molten rock erupted by a volcano to the earth’s surface
o Vent – opening of a volcano through which lava and other volcanic materials are extruded
onto the surface
· The Ring of Fire is an area where large number of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions occur
in the basin of the Pacific Ocean. In a 40,000-km (25,000 mi) horseshoe shaped, it is associated
with nearly continuous series of oceanic trenches, volcanic arcs, and volcanic belts and/or plate
movements.

Source: newsimg.bbc.co.uk

· Classifications of volcanoes according to activity:

o Active - currently erupting or showing signs of unrest (earthquakes, gas emissions)
o Dormant – currently not active, but could become active again
o Extinct – considered unlikely to erupt again

· An eruption happens when magma, gases, or steam break through vents in the Earth's surface.
A mild eruption may simply discharge steam and other gases, or quietly expel lava. A strong

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eruption can consist of violent explosions that send great clouds of gas-laden debris into the
atmosphere, or may consist of explosions that blast sideways from a collapsed portion of the
volcano.
Mitigation and Adaptation for Geologic Hazards
Earthquakes
· Earthquake hazard reduction program – Initiative may come from government officials
or the National Disaster Risk Reduction Management Council. Goals of the program are as
follows:
o Develop an understanding of the earthquake source
o Determine earthquake essential
o Predict effects of earthquakes
o Apply research results
o Location of critical facilities (Hospitals, evacuation centers, fire station, etc.)
o Structural protection
o Education
o Increased insurance and relief measures
o Personal adjustments before, during and after an earthquake
o Before:
- A home safety check could increase the probability that you and your property
survive a large earthquake. Include checking chimneys and foundations for
reinforcement and the security of large objects, such as water heaters, that
might fall over in an earthquake.
o During:
- Teach your family to “drop, cover, and hold on,” which means to “drop” to
the ground; take “cover” under a sturdy desk, table, or bed away from falling
objects; and “hold on” to something until the shaking stops.
o After:
- After the shaking stops, you may feel dizzy and sick. Take several deep
breaths, look around, and then leave the building, carefully watching for fallen
and falling objects.
- Do not leave the building until the shaking stops. More injuries occur when
people attempt to move to a different location inside a building or try to leave.
- Turn off main gas lines and do not light matches or lighters.
- Move to an open area, away from fallen power lines and buildings or trees that
might fall during after-shocks.
Landslides
· Identify areas in which landslides are likely to occur
· Education/ Warn people of impending landslides
· Design slopes or engineering structures to prevent them
· Control landslides after they have started moving
· Avoid development on sites where landslides are occurring or likely to occur.
· Evacuation/ Relocation

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Volcanic Eruptions
· Forecasting – done by the Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology
· Education and Evacuation - Information concerning how people perceive a volcanic
hazard is limited. People live near volcanoes for a variety of reasons:
o They were born there and in the case of some islands, all land is volcanic.
o The land is fertile and good for farming.
o People are optimistic and believe an eruption is unlikely.
o They cannot choose where they live—for example, they may be limited by economics.
The Geohazard Mapping and Assessment Program
· An on-going priority program of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources
(DENR), which is being implemented by the Mines and Geosciences Bureau (MGB). Its
main objective is to identify areas in the country which are susceptible or vulnerable to
various geologic hazards. The program also seeks to provide information to various
stakeholders in order to lessen or mitigate the impact of these events. The program has
accomplished determining landslide and flood prone areas.
· The developed map can be accessed and navigated at the Mines and Geosciences Bureau’s
website: http://gdis.denr.gov.ph/mgbviewer/

HYDROMETEOROLOGICAL HAZARD
Hydrometeorological hazard is a process or phenomenon of atmospheric, hydrological or
oceanographic nature that can endanger human lives and threaten human property.
1. Cyclones 3. Flooding
2. Monsoons 4. Tornado

Cyclones
· Coined form the Greek word meaning “coil of snake”
· An area or center of low atmospheric pressure characterized by rotating winds
· Tropical Cyclones – form over warm tropical or subtropical ocean water, typically between
5° and 20° latitude
· Extratropical Cyclones - develop over land or water in temperate regions between 30° and
70° latitude
· Cyclone intensity – indicated by the cyclone’s sustained wind speeds and lowest atmospheric
pressure
· Terminology for strong tropical cyclones depending on geographic location:
Hurricanes
§ In the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans
§ After a Caribbean word for evil god of winds and destruction
Typhoons
§ in the Pacific Ocean west of International Dateline
§ after a Chines word for “scary wind” or “wind from four directions”
· A tropical cyclone is a general term for large thunderstorm complexes rotating around an
area of low pressure that has formed over warm tropical or subtropical ocean water.
o Low intensity tropical cyclones are called tropical depressions and tropical storms.
o High intensity tropical cyclones are hurricanes/typhoon.

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· To be classified as a hurricane/typhoon, a tropical cyclone must have sustained winds of at

least 119 km per hour somewhere in the storm. Hurricanes/typhoons require a tremendous
amounts of heat to develop and generally form only where the sea surface temperature is at
least 26°C.

· From tropical disturbance to a hurricane/typhoon:

Tropical Tropical Hurricane/

Tropical Storm
disturbance depression typhoon

o Tropical disturbance – a large area of unsettled weather that is typically 200 to 600
km in diameter and has an organized mass of thunderstorms that persists for more than
24 hours.
o Tropical depression – a tropical disturbance may become a tropical depression if
winds increase and spiral around the area of disturbed weather to form a low-pressure
center.
o Tropical storm – once maximum sustained wind speeds increase to 63 km per hour,
the depression is upgraded to a tropical storm and receives a name.
o Hurricane/typhoon – if winds of a tropical storm increase in speed, it becomes a
hurricane/ typhoon.

· Features of a Hurricane/ Typhoon

o Rainbands – clouds that spiral around the hurricane/typhoon
o Eyewall – innermost band of clouds that has the most intense winds

· Effects of Cyclones:
o Flooding, thunderstorms, tornadoes
o Storm surge, heavy rains, and high winds

Monsoon
· A climate that has an apparent seasonal shift of prevailing winds between winter and
summer, notably in tropical Asia, Australia, Africa, and the Indian Ocean.
· Also refers to regions where there is a clear alteration between winter dry and summer rainy
seasons.
· Monsoon rainfall is the life-blood of more than half the world’s population, for whom
agriculture is the source of livelihood. Extensive research is being conducted to increase
our understanding of monsoon predictability. This has the potential to provide significant
socio-economic returns by maximizing the benefits of monsoon rainfall and reducing the
impact of extreme events.
· Two (2) types of monsoon winds experienced in the Philippines:
o Northeast Monsoon – from November to February. Gives cold temperatures and
causes much rainfall over the eastern coast of the Philippines.
o Southwest Monsoon – from July to September. Responsible for a great amount of
rainfall during our wet season.
· Trade winds – generally come from the east. The trade winds prevail during the rest of the
year whenever the NE monsoons are week.

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Flooding
· The natural process of a river’s overbank flow is termed flooding.
· Most river flooding is related to the amount and distribution of precipitation in the drainage
basin, the rate at which the precipitation soaks into the earth, and how quickly the surface
runoff from the precipitation that reaches the river.
· Terms related to flooding:
o River – any natural stream of water that flows in a channel with defined banks
(larger stream)
o Stream – any body of water that flows in channel
o Drainage Basin – region drained by a single stream or river. Each stream has its
own drainage basin that collects rain and other precipitation.
o Runoff - water from rain or snow that flows over the surface of the ground into
streams
· Types of Flooding:
o Flash floods – produced by intense rainfall of short duration over a relatively small
area
o Downstream floods – cover a wide area and are usually produced by storms of long
duration that saturate the soil and produce increased runoff
· Effects of flooding:
o Primary effects: injury, loss of life; damage caused by swift currents, debris, and
sediment to farms, homes buildings, railroads, bridges, roads, and communication
systems.
o Secondary effects (caused by disruption and malfunction of services and systems
because of flood): short term pollution of rivers, hunger and disease, and
displacement of persons who have lost their homes.
Tornado
· A small-diameter column of violently rotating air developed within a convective cloud and
in contact with the ground.
· These whirling atmospheric vortices can generate the strongest winds known on earth: wind
speeds in the range of 500 km per hour have been measured in extreme events.
· The occurrence and formation of tornadoes are products of instability within the earth’s air
masses and wind systems. Wind speeds and destructiveness are measured through the
Enhanced Fujita Scale of tornado intensity.
· Waterspouts – tornadoes that form overwater

Mitigation and Adaptation for Hydrometeorological hazard

· Cyclones, Monsoons, and Tornadoes:
o Accurately forecast storms and issue advisories to warn people in their path.
o Building codes should be adhered
o Evacuation procedures should be set up
o Hazard preparedness, such as short-term activities that individuals and communities
once they have been warned of severe weather
o Education
o Insurance programs

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· Floods:
o The Geohazard Mapping and Assessment Program (As discussed on landslides mitigation
and adaptation)
o Construction of physical barriers such as concrete flood walls.
o Channelization – straightening, deepening, widening, clearing, and lining existing
streams.
o Relocating people from floodplains/ flood prone areas
o Education
§ Preparing for a flood:
· Check with your local flood control agency to see if your property is at risk from
flooding
· Make up a flood kit, including a flashlight, blankets, raingear, battery powered radio,
first-aid kit, rubber gloves, and key to personal documents. Keep documents upstairs if
possible.
· Talk about possible flooding with your family and housemates. Consider writing a flood
plan, and store these notes with your flood kit.
§ When you learn a flood warning has been issued:
· Be prepared to evacuate.
· Observe water levels and stay tuned to a radio and television news and weather reports.
· Move people, pets, and valuables upstairs or to a higher ground.
· Do as much as possible in daylight. If electricity fails, it will be hard to do anything.
· Keep warm and dry. A flood can last longer than you think, and it can get cold. Take
ward clothes, blankets, a Thermos, and food supplies.

COASTAL PROCESSES
· Coastal landforms are created by a wide variety of coastal processes. There are two (2) major
processes:
o Erosion – is defined as “the group of processes whereby debris or rock material is loosened
and dissolved” (Thomas and Goudie, 2000). Coastal erosion is caused by destructive waves
wearing away the coast. It continues to produce considerable property damage that requires
human adjustment.
o Accretion – is “the gradual increase in the area in of land as a result of sedimentation”
(Thomas and Gouldie, 2000).
Types of Coastal Hazard
Waves
· Waves are generated by offshore winds, sometimes thousands of kilometers from where the
waves reach the shoreline.
· Rogue waves – gigantic and extremely dangerous waves. As waves move away from their
point of origin, they sort themselves into sets of similarly sized waves. Occasionally, a rogue
wave will appear that is much larger than the rest. Rogue waves can strike the shore and
somewhere in the open ocean. This type of wave may reach a height of 100 ft.
Sea Level Change
· The change in sea level is caused by a number of processes, some operate locally and others
affect all the world’s oceans.

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o Eustatic sea level – also known as global sea level. It is controlled by processes that affect
the overall volume of water in the ocean and the shape of the ocean basins. Eustatic sea
levels over decades increases hazards from storm surge and coastal erosion.
o Relative sea level – the position of the sea at the shore which is influenced by both the
movement of the land and the movement of the water. Rapid changes in relative sea level
contribute in coastal flooding and hazardous near shore currents.
Storm surge
· Storm surge is the local rise of sea level that results primarily from water that is pushed toward
the shore by wind that swirls around a storm. There are two (2) mechanisms that cause the
storm surge during an intense cyclone: (1) stress exerted by wind on the water surface; and (2)
low atmospheric pressure in the storm that pulls the sea surface.
· A storm surge is not an advancing wall of water as movies interpret it; instead, it is a continual
increase in sea level as storm approaches landfall.
Saltwater intrusion
· Saltwater intrusion is the induced flow of saltwater into freshwater aquifers caused by
groundwater over-pumping.
· Terms in Saltwater Intrusion:
o Groundwater - the water beneath the surface of the ground, consisting largely of surface
water that has seeped down: the source of water in springs and wells.
o Aquifer - any geological formation containing or conducting ground water, especially one
that supplies the water for wells, springs, etc. Aquifers are naturally replenished by
precipitation and surface waters that saturate into the ground.
· Saltwater intrusion happens when groundwater levels in aquifers are depleted faster than the
can recharge.
· The encroaching seawater will encounter an area known as the zone of dispersion, where the
freshwater and saltwater mix and form an interface. The result is that freshwater supplies
become contaminated with saltwater.
· Effects of Saltwater Intrusion
o The limited potable drinking water supply in areas affected by saltwater intrusion
o Salinity in irrigation water can be detrimental to agriculture, reducing yields, and killing
crops with low tolerance to salt
Mitigation and Adaptation of Coastal Hazards
· Evacuation plans and shelters – Whereas most governmental agencies, planners, and policy
makers have an adequate perception and understanding of storm surges, many individuals do
not. The public knowledge of storm surges, anticipation to future storm surges, and willingness
to accept adjustments caused by the hazard are highly variable.
· Relocating people from coastal erosion and storm surge prone areas – could be an initiative
by the government or residents of storm surge prone areas.
· Education - educational effort could include the public distribution of pamphlets and videos,
workshops and trainings for the engineers, architects and the people of the community; and the
availability of information on the internet.
· Prevention and Control of Saltwater intrusion – Reducing pumping or using time-share
pumping from a number of wells; relocating wells or redesign the well field.
Reference:
Keller, E. & DeVecchio, D. (2012). Natural hazards third edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.

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