Natural Hazards,

Mitigation,and
Adaptation
Geological Hazards
Geological Hazards

 A geological hazard is a condition or event that may cause harm to

property and life as a result of a geological process such as
earthquake, volcanic eruption, or landslide.
Earthquake
 An earthquake is the sudden shaking of the ground caused by the release of energy from accumulated stress along
the geologic faults or by volcanic activity. It may cause collapse of buildings, tsunamis, landslides, and ground-level
changes
 An earthquake is ground shaking caused by the sudden and rapid movement of one block of rock slipping past
another along fractures in Earth’s crust called faults. The energy generated by an earthquake radiates outward in
the form of seismic waves from the source of the quake, called the hypocenter, or focus
 The three basic types of seismic waves generated by an earthquake are P waves, S waves, and surface waves. P
and S waves travel through Earth’s interior, and surface waves are transmitted along the surface (see Figure 6.1). Of
the three wave types, P waves have the greatest velocity and, therefore, reach the seismograph station first.
Surface waves arrive at the seismograph station last.
Seismographs are
instruments that detect
and record seismic waves.
The recordings made by
seismographs are called
seismograms.
Seismograms are used to
determine the time and
location of earthquakes.
These records also allow us
to study the nature of
Earth’s interior.
Earthquake Hazards
Earthquake hazards are events associated with an earthquake that may cause adverse
effects on organisms and their environment.

 Ground shaking
 Ground displacement
 Liquefaction
 Tsunami
 Fire
Earthquake Hazards
 Ground shaking refers to the vibration of the land surface during an earthquake.
The intensity of the vibration depends on the magnitude of the earthquake and
the distance from the epicenter. Ground shaking may cause partial or total
collapse of buildings and structures.
Earthquake Hazards
 Ground displacement or surface rupture is the horizontal or vertical displacement
of the ground surface along the fault zone. It affects smaller area compared to
ground shaking. However, it severely damages buildings and structures located
adjacent to the faults.
Earthquake Hazards
 Liquefaction is the transformation of solid rocks and soil to a liquid‐like state
during ground shaking. When it occurs, large rigid structures may tilt or sink into
the liquefied deposits.
Earthquake Hazards
 Tsunami is a set of long, high ocean waves caused by an earthquake or other
disturbance under the sea. It causes flooding and destruction of structures near
the shorelines.
Earthquake Hazards
 Fire is caused by rupture of gas lines during ground shaking and displacement. It
poses threat of explosions which may cause death and destruction of property.
Bohol Earthquake.
 On October 15, 2013, a devastating earthquake happened in the province of Bohol.
Its recorded magnitude was 7.2. The ground shaking and displacement caused
major damage of several government buildings, schools, and houses. At least 93
people had been reported dead after the earthquake.
Volcanic Eruption
 Volcanic eruption happens when materials such as magma, ash, and gas are released from a volcano due to a buildup of
pressure inside. The effects of an eruption can be on a local scale affecting the areas near the volcano (e.g. lava flow
reaches nearby towns) or on a global scale (e.g. volcanic ash particles on air change global temperature).
Volcanic Eruption Hazards
Volcanic eruption hazards are events associated with a volcanic eruption that may
cause adverse effects on organisms and their environment.

 Lahar
 Pyroclastic fall
 Volcanic gases
 Tephra falls
Volcanic Eruption Hazards
 Lahar is a mixture of volcanic debris and water that flows at the
slopes of the volcano. It destroys infrastructures, buries towns and
crops, and fills river channels.
Volcanic Eruption Hazards
 Pyroclastic fall is a mass of hot, dry pyroclastic material (mixture of
ash and dust) and hot gases. It moves rapidly along the ground
surface. It buries towns and causes burns, injury, and damage upon
impact.
Volcanic Eruption Hazards
 Volcanic gases are vapors released during an eruption. Some of
these gases, such as hydrogen sulfide (HS) and sulfur dioxide (SO2),
are poisonous. They cause respiratory damage and death.
Volcanic Eruption Hazards
 Tephra falls are rock fragments and lava blobs ejected by a
volcano. They damage structures, break power lines, kill vegetation,
and cause respiratory damage.
Mount Pinatubo Eruption
 Mount Pinatubo erupted on June 15, 1991. This eruption deposited about 5 km3 of
rock fragments and volcanic ash on the volcano’s slopes. When a heavy rain fell on
that day, the rocks and ashes were washed down into the surrounding lowlands in
large, fast-moving mudflows called lahar. Lahar caused more destruction in the
lowlands than the eruption itself.
Landslide
 A landslide, also called landslip, occurs when earth materials (rocks, debris, and soil) move downwards along a
slope. It may be caused by earthquakes or heavy rainfall. It can also be aggravated by human activities such as
deforestation, blasting, and construction
Landslide Hazards
Landslide hazards are events associated with a landslide that may cause
adverse effects on organisms and their environment.

 Mud flow
 Earthflow
 Rock fall
Landslide Hazards
 Mud flow is the flow of mud and rock. It may pick up trees, houses,
and cars as it moves down the slope. It may block bridges and
tributaries causing flood along its path.
Landslide Hazards
 Earthflow is the downward flow of fine-grained materials, such as
clay, fine sand, and silt. It is slower than mudflow, but it inflicts the
same damage.
Landslide Hazards
 Rock fall is the sliding, toppling, or falling of rocks along a slope. It disrupts
road traffic in mountainous regions. When it hits a structure or vehicle, it
causes damage depending on the size of the rock and the force of impact.
Southern Leyte Landslide 2006
 A massive landslide happened on February 17, 2006 in Southern
Leyte. The landslide caused widespread damage and loss of life. It
was followed by heavy rainfall and a minor earthquake. The official
death toll was 1126.
Key Points

 A geological hazard is a condition or event that may cause harm to

property and life as a result of a geological process such as
earthquake, volcanic eruption, or landslide.
 An earthquake is the sudden, rapid shaking of the surface of the
Earth. It may cause ground shaking, ground displacement,
liquefaction, tsunami, and fire.
 Volcanic eruption happens when materials such as magma, ash,
and gas are released from a volcano due to a buildup of pressure
inside. It may bring about lahar, pyroclastic fall, volcanic gases, and
tephra fall.
 A landslide occurs when earth materials (rocks, debris, and soil)
move downwards along a slope. It may bring about mud flow,
earthflow, and rock fall.
Understanding Geological Hazard
Maps
Geological Hazard Maps

 A geological hazard map is a map indicating the areas that are

vulnerable to hazards caused by earthquakes, volcanic eruptions,
and landslides. It is a tool used by scientists and local government
authorities to anticipate any hazard that a geological event may
bring. It also helps the public be informed and prepared for the
geological hazard.
How do you read a geological
hazard map?
 The map title indicates what type of information is being presented by
the map. For example, the title “tsunami-prone areas” indicates that
the map presents the places along the coastal areas that are prone to
tsunami hazards.
 Symbols are the points, lines, shapes, and colors used on the map. For
example, a line may indicate faults or tsunamis while a triangular shape
may represent a volcano. The legend tells you specifically what these
symbols mean.
 Sources. Make sure that the source of your map is a credible institution.
Hazard maps are produced by government agencies like PhiVolcS
(Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology), DOST (Department
of Science and Technology), and DENR (Department of Environment
and Natural Resources). Private research institutes like the Manila
Observatory also generate maps. With the use of the Internet, these
maps can be viewed online on their websites.
Earthquake Hazard Map
Based on the legend, the
different locations are colored
depending on the number of
earthquake hits for the past 30
years. For example, Baguio City
(Benguet), which is found in the
northern part of Luzon,
experienced 76-100
earthquakes. Meanwhile, Puerto
Princesa City (Palawan), which is
in the Southwest of Luzon,
experienced fewer earthquakes.
Earthquake Hazard Map
The top ten provinces that are
most prone to earthquakes are:

1. Surigao Del Sur

2. La Union
3. Benguet
4. Pangasinan
5. Pampanga
6. Tarlac
7. Ifugao
8. Davao Oriental
9. Nueva Vizcaya
10. Nueva Ecija
Earthquake Hazard Map
Surigao del Sur, along with Davao Oriental,
are earthquake-prone because they are
located along the Philippine Trench and
because of nearby active fault lines.
Deep-focus earthquakes that are
experienced in La Union and Pangasinan
are due to the Manila Trench, while
shallow earthquakes in these areas
together with Nueva Vizcaya, Nueva Ecija,
and Benguet are generally due to their
location along the Philippine Fault Zone.
Although Ifugao experienced fewer
earthquakes in the past, it is still very
vulnerable to future earthquakes.
Tsunami Hazard Map
The following map shows the places
along the coastal areas in the Philippines
that are prone to tsunami hazards.
Cyan, magenta, and yellow lines
indicate the potential of the tsunami
and the tsunami generators. When the
earthquake occurs in the Philippines,
then tsunami is locally generated. On
the other hand, an earthquake that
occurs outside the country may be a
foreign tsunami generator for the
Philippines
Tsunami Hazard Map
Majority of the coastal areas in Luzon
(with the exception of Palawan and
northern islands) have a high tsunami
potential with historical tsunami records.
Meanwhile, the coastal places in the
Visayas region also show tsunami
potential mostly from local generators
with a small percent of foreign
generators. Furthermore in the
Mindanao region, high tsunami potential
is also evident in the mainland area
while the small islands located in the
southwest show tsunami potentials by
local generators
Tsunami Hazard Map
Tsunamis that are locally generated are
more dangerous than those that are
generated by foreign or distant sources
because they may reach a nearby
shore in few minutes. There may not be
enough time for tsunami warning centers
to issue a warning. People living near the
coast with high risk of locally generated
tsunami must be alert when there is a
reported earthquake in their area. They
must observe unusual ocean changes
and listen to loud ocean roars. They must
evacuate immediately when they sense
these natural tsunami warning signs.
Map of the Distribution of
Volcanoes
Below is the map showing the distribution
of volcanoes all over the Philippines.
These volcanoes are classified as active
(red), potentially active (orange), and
inactive (gray). Places where active and
potentially active volcanoes are prone
to hazards of volcanic activities or
volcanic eruptions.
For example, Mayon Volcano situated in
Albay in the Bicol Region, is known not
only for its perfect cone, but also for its
volcanic activities. It has 49 recorded
eruptions as of 2013. The areas
surrounding the volcano are highly
affected by volcanic hazards. On the
contrary, Palawan is not vulnerable to
volcanic eruption hazards since there
are very few volcanoes near the area
and all of them are inactive.
Earthquake-Induced Shallow
Landslides Map
Places that have landslide hazards are
presented in the map below. The legend
tells you the levels of the danger of the
occurrence of landslide. For example,
majority of the provinces in the Northern
Luzon is considered a high-danger zone.
These include mountainous areas like
Abra, Benguet, Ifugao, Kalinga, and Mt.
Province. On the other hand, Palawan
shows no present risk in landslides.
Key Points

 A geological hazard map is a map indicating the areas that are

vulnerable to hazards caused by earthquakes, volcanic eruptions,
and landslides. It helps the public be informed and prepared for the
geological hazard.
 You must take note of the title, symbols and legend, and source
when studying a geological hazard map.
 Geological hazard maps of the Philippines include maps that
present the earthquake-prone areas, tsunami-prone areas,
distribution of volcanoes, and earthquake-induced shallow
landslides.

Coping with Geological Hazards
What should you do before, during, and after geological
hazards brought by earthquakes?
Before an
Earthquake
 Develop a disaster plan. Determine
the “safe places” in your house. A
safe place could be under a sturdy
table or against an interior wall
away from windows or tall furniture.
 Practice "drop, cover, and hold on"
in the safe place. Drop under a
sturdy desk or table, take cover,
and hold on.
 Take training on first aid from your
local Red Cross chapter. Also, learn
how to use a fire extinguisher.
 Discuss earthquake with your family
and/or housemates. Everyone
should know what to do in case the
disaster strikes.
 Prepare an emergency supply kit. It
must include non-perishable food,
water, first aid kit, clothes, a battery-
operated radio, flashlights, and
extra batteries.
During an
Earthquake
• Wherever you are, take cover
immediately.
• If you are indoors, drop on the
ground, take cover under a
sturdy thing like a table, and hold
on until the earthquake stops.
Stay away from windows, tall
furniture, and light fixtures.
Shattered glass and heavy
objects may hurt you.
• If you are outdoors, go to an
open area away from buildings,
trees, streetlights, and power
lines.
• If you are in a vehicle, pull over
to a safe place, avoiding
anything that can collapse. Stay
inside the vehicle with your seat
belt fastened until the shaking
stops.
After an
Earthquake
• Check yourself for injuries.
• Help injured or trapped persons if you can.
• Be prepared for aftershocks. Aftershocks are
smaller earthquakes that follow the main
earthquake and can cause further damage to
weakened buildings.
• Clean up spilled medicines, bleaches, and
gasoline immediately.
• Open cabinet doors cautiously. Contents may
have been shifted during the shaking.
• Listen to the radio or television for more
information from authorities.
• Stay out of damaged buildings.
• If you are in a coastal area, move to a higher
ground. The earthquake may trigger tsunamis.
• If you are in a mountainous area or near unstable
slopes, be aware of landslide. Soil and rocks may
be loosened by the earthquake.
What should you do before, during, and after geological
hazards brought by volcanic eruptions?
Before a Volcanic
Eruption
• Prepare an emergency supply kit. It
must include non-perishable food,
water, first aid kit, clothes, a battery-
operated radio, flashlights, and
extra batteries. Also, include masks
and a pair of goggles for each
member of the family.
• Make an emergency plan. Each
member of the family must know
what to do and how to contact
one another when the disaster
strikes.
• Learn about your community's risk
from hazards of volcanic eruptions.
• For government institutions, set-up
an exclusion zone around a
volcano for safety and crowd
control. An exclusion zone is a
location where specific activities
are prohibited.
During a Volcanic After a Volcanic
Eruption Eruption
• Follow the evacuation orders • Stay in the evacuation center until the
issued by government officials
and evacuate immediately to authorities say that it is safe to go back home.
avoid flying debris, hot gases,
volcano blast, and lava flow. • Help in cleaning and checking the damages
brought by volcanic eruption hazards.
• Be aware of mudflows and lahar.
The danger of these hazards • When cleaning ashes or mudflows at home,
increases near tributaries. They use a dust mask to cover your nose and mouth.
can flow faster than you can
walk or run. Look upstream when Seek advice from the authorities regarding the
crossing a bridge and do not disposal of volcanic ash in your community.
cross it when a mudflow is
approaching. •
• Use a dust mask or hold a damp
cloth over your nose and mouth
to prevent inhaling volcanic
gases. Also, cover your skin to
protect yourself from ashfall.
• If you are unable to evacuate,
remain indoors with doors,
windows, and ventilation closed
until the ash settles.
• Listen to the radio for the latest
emergency information.
What should you do before, during, and after geological
hazards brought by landslides?

Before a Landslide During a Landslide After a Landslide

• Have your parents ask for a
ground assessment of your
property.
• Know the patterns of storm-
water drainage near your home.
Note where runoff water
converges, and avoid these
places during a storm.
• Learn about the emergency
response and evacuation plans
for your area during a landslide.
• When you suspect imminent
landslide danger, contact the
emergency response team of
your community immediately.
Evacuate immediately and
inform neighbors who might be
at risk.
• Consider relocation if living in an
area vulnerable to landslides.
• Stay alert and awake. Many • Stay away from the landslide area.
landslide fatalities occur • Listen to local radio for the latest emergency
when people are sleeping. information.
• Stay away from the path of • Check for injured or trapped persons near the
any landslide hazards. If you landslide, without entering the area. Direct the
rescuers to their locations.
suspect imminent danger,
evacuate immediately.
• Replant the damaged ground as soon as
possible to avoid landslides in the future.
• If caught in a rock fall and
escape is not possible, roll
into a ball to protect your
head.
What are other practical ways to cope with geological
hazards caused by earthquakes, volcanic eruption, and
landslides?
Key Points

 Many geological hazards cannot be prevented. However, through

careful planning and preparation, damage to property and loss of
life can be avoided.
 Everyone in the family must know what to do before, during, and
after geological hazards brought by earthquakes, volcanic
eruptions, and landslides.
Human Activities that Trigger Landslides
Landslides may be triggered by natural processes such as heavy rainfall and
earthquakes. They can also be triggered and aggravated by human activities such as
the following:

 Clearcutting
 Slash-and-burn
 Mining and quarrying operations
 Construction activities
Human Activities that Trigger Landslides
 Clearcutting is a method done by logging companies to cut down
every marketable tree from a selected area to harvest timber.
Deforestation or removal of trees that hold water and topsoil may
cause landslides.
Human Activities that Trigger Landslides
 Slash-and-burn or kaingin system is a method that cuts down and
burns off the existing vegetation. It is a form of deforestation
because the land is converted to other uses.
Human Activities that Trigger Landslides
 Mining and quarrying operations use explosives in their blasting
techniques to break rocks and gather ore deposits. They cause land
areas to slide due to the vibrations from the blast.
Human Activities that Trigger Landslides
 Construction activities such as building of roads and railways may
interfere or change the natural drainage of water. When there is
heavy rainfall or flood, water may then move to a different path
which may saturate slopes and cause landslides.
Ways to Lessen the Occurrence of Landslides
 Instead of clearcutting, selective cutting can be adopted by logging companies to
allow old trees to remain. This method cuts down mature or inferior kind of trees to
encourage the growth of the remaining trees in the forest.
 Do alley-cropping instead of slash-and-burn method. Alley-cropping is a method of
simultaneously growing an agricultural crop with a tree crop, retaining soil fertility.
 Plant more trees with strong root structures that hold the soil together.
 The government must set mining rules based on the evaluation of slope stability and
landslide threat in the mining areas. Mining companies must follow these rules. In
case of disobedience, temporary or permanent suspension of mining operations must
be implemented.
 Avoid construction on steep slopes. As this is not entirely possible, evaluation of the
area for land development should be performed by engineers and geologists.
 Construct proper drainage away from the slope to control water accumulation and
to avoid slope instability.
 During construction, do not add an unnecessary weight of fill materials to avoid
overloading. Also, check broken or leaking pipes because oversaturation of soil with
water can trigger landslides.
Key Points

 Human activities can increase landslide risks. They include

clearcutting, mining and quarrying, bad agricultural practices, and
construction activities.
 Suggestions to lessen landslides include planting more trees,
controlling water in the slope, practicing good agricultural methods,
and avoiding construction on steep slope
Hydrometeorological Hazards
Hydrometeorological Hazards

 A hydrometeorological hazard is a condition or an event that may

cause harm to property and life as a result of a hydrometeorological
process such as tropical cyclone, monsoon, flood, and ipo-ipo.
Tropical Cyclone
 A tropical cyclone is a rapidly rotating low-pressure system that forms over tropical oceans. It is called typhoon in the
Philippines. The typhoons entering the Philippine Area of Responsibility (PAR) are given a local name by the Philippine
Atmospheric, Geophysical, and Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA). This agency monitors and disseminates
information about weather disturbances.
Tropical Cyclone Hazards
Tropical cyclones or typhoons bring about hazards that may cause adverse
effects on organisms and their environment.

 Flood
 Strong Sustained Wind
 Landslide
 Stormsurge
Tropical Cyclone Hazards
 A flood is an overflow of water over a normally dry land. Due to heavy
rainfall brought by a typhoon, the water levels in dams and rivers increase.
The water then overflows to nearby land areas. A flood can damage
houses, buildings, and bridges. Flash flood, which is a sudden, rapid
flooding, may cause drowning and fatal injuries.
Tropical Cyclone Hazards
 A strong sustained wind is often brought by a typhoon. It can
damage or destroy vehicles, buildings, bridges, fields, and
plantations.
Tropical Cyclone Hazards
 A landslide is the movement of a mass of rocks, soil, and debris
down a slope. It can be triggered by heavy rainfall.
Tropical Cyclone Hazards
 A storm surge is an abnormal rise of sea water due to a typhoon. It is
created when water is being pushed toward the shore by the force
of the winds moving in a circular manner. It ravages beaches and
coastal areas.
Super Typhoon Yolanda
 Super Typhoon Yolanda (International name Haiyan) was one of the most powerful
typhoons ever recorded. It caused massive destruction in the Philippines on
November 9, 2013. Strong winds, heavy rainfall, and storm surges caused widespread
damage to properties and loss of lives. About 6000 people died and 28 000 were
injured because of the typhoon.
Monsoon
 A monsoon is a seasonal prevailing wind in the South and Southeast Asia. It brings a different kind of weather depending on
where it comes from. When it blows from the southwest between May and September, it brings rainy weather. When it blows
from the northeast between October and April, it brings dry weather. In the Philippines, the southwest monsoon brings about
heavy rainfall.
Southwest Monsoon Hazards
A monsoon may bring about the same hazards caused by a typhoon. It may
cause heavy rainfall, strong wind, landslide, and flood.

 Heavy rainfall and strong wind can damage residential and

industrial buildings. It can also destroy agricultural crops.
 A landslide may happen when the soil becomes saturated with
water due to heavy rainfall. The soil and rocks from the slope can
move down and destroy many properties along the way.
 A flood may occur due to heavy rainfall that saturates the soil and
causes an overflow of water to dry land areas.
Marikina River
 On August 1 to 8, 2012, the southwest monsoon (Habagat) caused typhoon-like
damage in Metro Manila and nearby provinces. Heavy rainfall caused the Marikina
River to overflow, triggered a landslide, and caused the collapse of roads and
bridges. The floods and rain left 95 people dead and damaged 8000 houses.
Ipo-ipo
 An ipo-ipo (tornado) is a violently spinning wind on land that appears like a funnel-shaped cloud. It can destroy
large buildings, uproot trees, and hurl vehicles
Ipo-ipo Hazards

 The strong whirling wind can lift and hurl objects it encounters no
matter how heavy the object is. It causes destruction of houses,
buildings, dams, and bridges. The lifted objects may also cause
injuries and death upon impact.
Key Points

 A hydrometeorological hazard is a condition or event that may cause

harm to property and life as a result of a hydrometeorological process
such as tropical cyclone, monsoon, flood, and ipo-ipo.

 A tropical cyclone is a rapidly rotating low-pressure system that forms

over tropical oceans. It may bring about strong winds, flood, landslide,
and storm surge.
 A flood is an overflow of water over a normally dry land.
 A monsoon is a seasonal prevailing wind in the South and Southeast
Asia. In the Philippines, the southwest monsoon may bring about heavy
rainfall, landslide, and flood.
 A tornado or ipo-ipo is a violently spinning wind on land that appears
like a funnel-shaped cloud. The strong whirling wind brought by a
tornado can lift and hurl objects it encounters.
Understanding
Hydrometeorological Hazard Maps
Hydrometeorological Hazard Map
 A hydrometeorological hazard map is a map indicating the areas
that are vulnerable to hazards caused by tropical cyclones, floods,
and ipo-ipo. Recall that in studying a hazard map, you have to note
the title, source, legend, and symbols. They guide you in
understanding the information presented by the map.
Risk to Typhoons Map
• A tropical cyclone (also called bagyo in the
Philippines) is the generic term for any intense
circulating weather system over tropical oceans.
When it originates from the Pacific Ocean, it is
called a typhoon. It may bring about hazards
such as heavy rainfall, strong wind, flood, and
landslide.
• The Philippines is located on the western rim of
the Pacific Ocean, an active area for typhoon
formation because of the vast expanse of deep,
warm ocean water. Because of its location, the
country experiences an average of 20 typhoons
per year, about nine of them make landfall.
Aside from its location, it is also comprised of
more than 7000 islands, so there are plenty of
coasts and shorelines that could be directly hit by
strong winds and heavy rainfall.
• Because the Philippines is hit by many typhoons
in a year, it is important to study which areas in
the country are at high risk. Below is the map of
the country along with the colors indicating the
level of risk to typhoons.
Risk to Typhoons Map
• The dark blue areas on the map are those that
have high risks of being hit by typhoons. For
example, the smaller islands in the northern part,
including Batanes, have very high risk to
typhoons. In fact, these islands are hit by
typhoons almost all year round. Also, Albay in the
Bicol region has very high risk to typhoons. It is
often the first area that is hit by typhoons that
move along a westward path.
• On the other hand, those that are colored green
have medium risks, and those that are yellow
and tan have low risks to typhoons. For instance,
Mindoro (located in Southern Luzon) has medium
risk, Bohol (in the Visayas) has low risk, and
Bukidnon (and most of Mindanao region) has
very low risk to typhoons.
Flood Susceptibility Map

 Flood is the overflow of a large amount of water beyond its normal

confines. It is a hydrometeorological hazard that can be caused by
heavy rainfall brought by a typhoon or the Southwest monsoon. It
causes damage to infrastructure and poses threats to the health of
residents living in the area.
 Unlike the typhoon risk map which presents the level of risk of
different provinces to typhoons based on their location to the
typhoon route, flood maps are more area-specific. A flood
map represents past scenarios of flood events in the specific area
due to the overflow of a nearby water resource.
DOST-Project NOAH

 Project NOAH is the Philippines' main disaster risk reduction and

management program. It was initially launched by the Department
of Science and Technology (DOST). It has released hazard
vulnerability maps to help concerned agencies involved in disaster
prevention and mitigation. Included in their maps are flood
susceptibility maps
How to use Project NOAH
1. Open the website http://noah.dost.gov.ph/#/.
How to use Project NOAH
2. Click on the icon Flood
How to use Project NOAH
3. In Find a place… type location ex. Aringay, La Union
How to use Project NOAH
Provincial, Municipal and Barangay Boundaries can be shown in the map
Key Points

 A hydrometeorological hazard map is a map indicating the areas

that are vulnerable to hazards caused by tropical cyclones, floods,
and ipo-ipo.
 In studying a hazard map, you have to note the title, source,
legend, and symbols.
 The risk to typhoons map presents the level of risk of different
provinces to typhoons based on their location to the typhoon route.
 A flood map represents past scenarios of flood events in the specific
area due to the overflow of a nearby water resource.
 Project NOAH has released hazard vulnerability maps to help
concerned agencies involved in disaster prevention and mitigation.
Coping with Hydrometeorological
Hazards
Here are the practical ways you can do before, during, and
after a tropical cyclone or monsoon:
Before the Tropical
Cyclone or
Monsoon
• Prepare an emergency supply kit. It
must include non-perishable food,
water, first aid kit, clothes, a battery-
operated radio, flashlights and extra
batteries, and a whistle.
• Make sure you have an adequate
supply of non-perishable food and
clean water at home.
• If you live in a place that is in the path
of the cyclone or monsoon, close all
doors and windows.
• Check your drainage system at home.
An efficient drainage system will lessen
the chance of flooding and leaks.
• Check to see if there is a need to fix
roofs, ceilings, doors, and windows.
• Frequently listen to the weather reports.
• Charge up emergency lights, electronic
communication devices such as
cellphones, and power banks. There is a
high probability of power outage due
to strong winds and heavy rainfall.
• Identify a safe area for evacuation.
During the
Tropical Cyclone
or Monsoon
• Closely monitor weather reports
for updated information on the
tropical cyclone (storm signal
numbers or storm surge advisory)
or monsoon.
• If you are in an area being
directly hit by the hazard, stay
indoors as much as possible.
• Evacuate when necessary and
bring your emergency supply kit.
• In case of a threat of a storm
surge, evacuate to a place
higher than 500 meters from the
coast.
During the
Tropical Cyclone
or Monsoon
• If your house was heavily damaged, ask
for the advice of authorities regarding its
safety and stability. Do not go inside the
house if you are uncertain of its
condition.
• Check gas, water, and electrical lines for
any damage.
• Beware of animals such as snakes that
may have entered your house.
• Wear protective gears when cleaning up
debris.
• Some roads may be closed due to flood.
If you come upon a barricade or a
flooded road, turn around and use
another route.
•
Here are the practical ways you can do before, during, and
after a flood:
Before the Flood
• Create a family disaster plan.
Designate a contact person who
can be reached and discuss where
you will meet if family members are
separated.
• Closely monitor weather reports for
information on the possibility of
flooding.
• Identify a safe place for evacuation
and alternative routes that are not
prone to flooding.
• If a flash flood warning is issued in
your area, evacuate to a safe
place immediately.
• If flood alert is issued in your area,
move valuables and furniture to
higher levels and disconnect
electrical appliance.
• Prepare and emergency kit and
supplies like food and water.
During the Flood After the Flood
• If you see any signs of flood, turn off • Have an electrician inspect your house
the main source of electricity and go
to a higher place such as the second wirings and electrical outlets before using
floor or attic. them.
• Do not wade along flooded areas to • Clean up your house. Dispose of things
keep yourself from having water-
borne diseases. that may be used by mosquitoes to
breed like water vase and anything that
• In case you need to pass through the
flood, wear protective gears such as can hold stagnant water.
boots and raincoats.
• Follow any evacuation orders. • Boil water before drinking because it
• Watch out for live wires or any may have been contaminated.
electrical outlet submerged in water.
• Do not go or return to flooded areas until
• If you are inside a vehicle and water the authorities say that it is safe to do so.
rises around it, leave it immediately.
Climb to higher ground as quickly as
possible.
• If you see someone falls or is trapped
in flood water, do not go after the
victim. Throw the victim a floatation
device such as tire, large ball, or ice
chest. Then ask help from a trained
rescuer.
Here are the practical ways you can do before, during, and
after an ipo-ipo:
Before an Ipo-ipo
• Know the safe places where you can
hide when there is an ipo-ipo. The
safest place is underground. If your
house does not have a basement, a
small room in the middle of the house
away from the windows is best.
• Pay attention to weather reports
about the possible occurrence of
an ipo-ipo. Familiarize yourself with
the warning sign. An ipo-ipo is often
accompanied by strong typhoons.
Watch out for clouds that begin to
rotate in a circular pattern.
• Create a family disaster plan.
Designate a contact person who can
be reached and discuss where you
will meet if family members are
separated.
• Prepare and emergency kit and
make sure that there is an ample
supply of food and water.
During an Ipo-ipo After an Ipo-ipo
• If you are inside a house, move to • Check yourself for injuries.
a safe place. Get under a steady
piece of furniture, such as a heavy • Check for injured or trapped persons.
table. Hold onto it and protect Help if you can, but do not move them
unless they are in immediate danger of
your head.
further injury.
• If you are inside a vehicle, get out
• Wear protective gears when walking
and seek a safe shelter.
and working through the debris.
• If you are outdoors and there is no
shelter to hide, lie down in a low
area with your hands over your
head and neck. Always watch out
for flying debris.
• If you are inside a high-rise
building, move to a room on the
lowest floor
Key Points

 It is important to know what to do before, during, and after a

hydrometeorological hazard.
 Create a family disaster plan and educate everyone on what to do
during and after the occurrence of the hazard.
 Be calm when the hazard strikes and carry out the disaster plan.
 Continue practicing safety procedures even after the occurrence
of the hazard.
 Emergency numbers of government offices or NGOs which can
respond immediately should be noted and kept handy.
Coastal Processes
Coastal Processess

 Coastal processes are naturally-occurring processes that bring

alterations to the coastal zones. They are interactions of marine,
physical, meteorological, geological, and biological events.
Waves

 Waves are created by the energy of the wind on the sea. The wind
causes water particles to rotate and produce waves. Large waves
are usually formed during storms and typhoons. The height and
energy of the waves vary on wind speed, duration of the wave,
fetch, and water depth. Fetch is an area of a water wave where the
wind blows in a constant direction. The higher speed, longer
duration, wide fetch, and deeper wave have more energy than
other types of wave.
Types of Waves

 Constructive waves have low energy and have a stronger swash (a

wave that approaches the coast) than backwash (a wave that
recedes from the coast). They are responsible for material
depositions.
 Destructive waves have a higher height and energy. They are
significant forces of change in the coasts. In destructive waves, the
backwash is much stronger than the swash. Because of this, the
coast has a higher tendency of erosion. Strong destructive waves
can carry a great load of sediments that could significantly alter the
coastal landscape.
Tides

 Tides are temporary fluctuations in sea levels due to gravitational

forces between the sun, the moon, and the earth. They carry less
energy to the coasts but occur more often than waves. High
tides occur when water levels are at their highest while low
tides occur when water levels are at their lowest.
 Low-lying locations get submerged in seawater during high tide
leading to submersion. Repeated exposure of the coasts to
submersion can loosen materials and cause erosion in the long run.
Sea Level Rise

 Faster sea level rise has been observed in the recent years. This is
due to the warming of the sea and melting of glaciers. The rise in
sea level has become more permanent. This warming of the sea
and melting of glaciers are due to enhanced greenhouse effect
brought about by carbon emissions from various human activities.
Islands and even some countries are in danger of being submerged
underwater if the sea levels continue to increase. Sea level changes
threaten low-lying areas to experience submersion permanently
Crustal Movements

 Continents and landmasses have been formed and continuously

shaped by the movement of tectonic plates. These plates move
because of the accumulated stress within the Earth's crust releasing
energy and forming different landmasses. Coastal areas can be
changed by the movement of these plates.
 Crustal movements can cause erosion, submersion, and saltwater
intrusion along coasts. Its major effect is erosion followed by
submersion as a subsequent effect. It can also cause low-lying areas
and islands adjacent to oceans or seas to sink. Saltwater may also
enter freshwater basins if crustal movements would cause cracks in
the coastlines.
Storm Surge

 Storm surge occurs when the wind from tropical cyclones cause sea
water levels to be unusually higher than high tide levels. It can go as
high as 20 feet or more above the normal sea level. It is more likely
to occur on coasts with gentle slopes than those with steep slopes.
 Some locations experience submersion during storm surge, which is
not experienced during high tides. Erosion is also more likely to
happen because of the additional actions of waves during storm
surge. Inland groundwater sources experience saltwater intrusion.
This happens when the seawater reaches the coastal areas and
gets into groundwater and other freshwater resources.
Key Points

 Coastal processes are natural events that affect the features of coasts
and nearby areas.
 The three primary effects of coastal processes are erosion, submersion,
and saltwater intrusion.
 Tides cause an increase or a decrease in sea levels. Locations with
increased sea level (high tide) are exposed to the dangers of
submersion. Constant submersion can also lead to erosion.
 The rise in sea levels causes submersion of low-lying areas.
 Crustal movements cause erosion, submersion, and saltwater intrusion.
 Storm surge endangers areas near coasts to submersion. Erosion can
also occur because of wave action on storm surges. Saltwater intrusion
can also happen if the seawater reaches wells and reservoirs of
freshwater.
Coping with Coastal Erosion,
Submersion, and Saltwater
Intrusion
Coastal Protections
Some structures and methods can help protect the coasts from erosion and
submersion. They are usually constructed along the coasts.

 Seawalls and bulkheads are structures that are built parallel to

shores that protect the coasts from wave actions.
 Groynes and jetties are structures that are built perpendicular to
shores to prevent coastal erosion by promoting beach build-up as
they trap sand.
 Breakwaters are offshore structures that protect coasts from parallel
waves and in turn, prevent erosion and submersion.
 Beach nourishment is a method where a large amount of sand is
added to the coasts. This will create a new beach or widen an
existing one. However, this method is costly which deters
communities to use it.
 Sandbags are used to counteract waves that hit the shores. They
also diminish the effect of a storm surge that can cause submersion.
Reducing Coastal Erosion
Aside from coastal protection, different ways can be done to reduce the impact of
coastal erosion. Some of them are less expensive than constructing structures along
the coasts.
 Development of infrastructures must be constructed in safe
distances from the coasts.
 Beach dewatering involves pumping out water from the shores to
prevent erosion.
 Artificial seaweeds can be placed in the water near the coasts to
reduce the speed of current that promote erosion.
 Ban of mining activities near coasts prevents erosion caused by
mining.
 Plant cover and vegetation around coasts aid in protecting coasts
from erosion.
Coping with Saltwater Intrusion
The following methods help in dealing with saltwater intrusion.

 Monitoring and assessment ensure effective management of

saltwater intrusion cases.
 Regulations from governing units aid in coping with saltwater
intrusion. Structures must be regulated to have a safe distance from
the sea to prevent excessive groundwater extraction from the
reservoir that contributes to saltwater intrusion.
 Artificial recharges pump freshwater to the reservoir to prevent
saltwater from intruding through the coasts.
 Barriers can be constructed along coasts to prevent further
advancement of saltwater if already present.
Mitigation of the Impacts of Land
Development, Waste Disposal, and
Construction on Coasts
Mitigation of the Impacts of Land Development,
Waste Disposal, and Construction on Coasts

 Human activities such as land development, waste disposal, and

construction cause different changes in coastal features. It is vital
that impacts of these activities be prevented or mitigated to help
the coasts in withstanding coastal processes.
Coastal Land Development

 Coastal land development is due to the demand in space, structures, and

facilities that are used for various human needs. It aggravates the effects of
coastal processes. It increases the incidents of sand mining and sediment run-
off that contribute to coastal erosion. In addition, the increase in establishments
leads to higher demand for freshwater which then contribute to saltwater
intrusion.
 Several ways must be employed to control the impact of land development on
coasts. In the Philippines, PD 1586 has established the implementation
of Philippine Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA). EIA allows the
determination of the possible environmental consequences of implementing a
project, and it also plans possible preventive and enhancing methods for
mitigation of the determined risks. EIA points out the dangers before, during, and
after development. Meanwhile, environmental risk assessments (ERAs) are done
in an ongoing project and help identify and evaluate the effects on the
ecosystem of any hazards caused by land development. Developments must
also have blueprints that ensure that coasts are preserved, infrastructures are
used efficiently, and the development itself has a beneficial use for the
community. Lastly, controlling activities of development must be employed to
ensure the protection of coasts from strain.
Waste Disposal

 The increase in development and population may lead to

increased amounts of waste disposed of in a coastal area. The
wastes are sometimes disposed of in landfills built near the coasts.
The construction of these landfills not only causes land and water
pollution to the coastal area but also amplifies the effects of coastal
erosion and results in saltwater intrusion.
 Effective solid waste management planning and
implementation must be carried out by the residents and users of
coastal areas. Managing solid wastes at the community level
prevents coastal deterioration. Industrial wastes must also be
properly managed and not released in coastal areas.
Construction

 Constructions on coasts are consequences of the increasing land

development in the area. If done haphazardly, these constructed
infrastructures can cause more harm to the coast.
It is crucial that these structures are built at a safe distance from the
coasts. This ensures both the structures’ and coasts’ safety.
Structures must also have strong foundations to withstand the
coastal harshness so that they will not deteriorate. It is also
suggested that the buildings be elevated so as not to impact
directly the coastal soil and for their protection against coastal
processes. If possible, reinforcing building envelopes should be
considered to protect the infrastructure and land from coastal
threats. Building envelopes are structures that separate interior from
exterior, like walls, doors, roofs.
Some Demonstration activities for
Faults, Fold, Earthquake and
Tsunami
What is a fault?
Demo 1: A Fault-y Setup
Procedure
Demo 2
How do faults produce earthquakes?
Activity: Stick ‘n’ Slip
Earthquakes and Tsunamis
Activity: Tsunami