CHAPTER 6

OTHER RELATED GEOLOGICAL HAZARDS

Introduction

Geological hazards are natural phenomena that cause major problems all over the
world. The expansion and development of cities lead to an increase in impact and
damage due to geological hazards. In general, most of the geological hazards are
related to natural conditions, although some may be due to human activities. Aside from
earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, which are the common geological hazards causing
massive devastation, there are other related hazards that may also cause minor to
major destruction to people and community.

Objectives:

At the end of the chapter, the students will be able to:

1. Discuss the different geological hazards.
2. Analyze the causes of geological hazards.
3. Recognize signs of impending geological hazards.
4. Interpret different geological maps.
5. Apply mitigation strategies to prevent loss of lives and properties.

Overview
A geological hazard is one of several types of adverse geological conditions capable of
causing damage or loss of property and life. These hazards consist of (1) sudden
phenomena and (2) gradual or slow phenomena.
Sudden Phenomena includes:
1. Avalanches (snow, rock, or air and snow) and its runout.
2. Earthquakes and earthquake-triggered phenomena such as tsunamis.
3. Forest fires leading to deforestation
4. Geomagnetic storms
5. Ice jams on rivers or glacial lake outburst floods below a glacier
6. Landslides
7. Mudflows (avalanche-like muddy flow of soft/wet soil and sediment materials,
narrow landslides)
8. Pyroclastic flows
9. Rock falls, rock slides, and debris flows
10. Volcanic eruptions, lahars and ash falls
Gradual or slow phenomena includes:
1. Alluvial fans (e.g. at the exit of canyons or side valleys)
2. Caldera development (volcanoes)
3. Geyser deposits
4. Ground settlement due to consolidation of compressible soils or due to
hydrocompactive soils
5. Ground subsidence, sags and sinkholes
 6. Liquefaction (settlement of the ground in areas underlain by loose saturated
sand/silt during an earthquake event)
7. Sand dune migration
8. Shoreline and stream erosion
9. Thermal springs

Definition of Terms
1. Landslide
 A geological phenomenon which includes a wide range of ground movement,
such as rock falls, deep failure of slopes and shallow debris flows, which can
occur in offshore, coastal and onshore environments.

Landslide that Buried the Whole Village of Guinsaugon, St. Bernard Town in Southern Leyte on
Feb. 18, 2006

2. Sinkhole
 cavities in the ground that form when water erodes an underlying rock layer.
 pits in the ground that form in areas where water gathers without external
drainage
 Sinkhole in Benguet in October, 2015 that Swallowed 5 Houses and Threatened 500 Others.

Landslide
 The term landslide is restricted to movements of rocks and soil masses. These
masses may range in size up to entire mountainsides. Their movements may
vary in velocity. A landslide is initiated when a section of a hill slope or sloping
section of a sea bed is rendered too weak to support its own weight. This is
generally triggered by other natural hazards such as prolonged, heavy rainfall or
by other sources of water which increase the water content of the slope
materials.
 Or Susceptibility of hill slope to landslide is developed as a result of denudation
of mountainsides which removes the trees or ground cover that holds the soil, or
alteration of the surface of the ground like grading for roads or building
constructions.
 Natural Causes of Landslides
1. Groundwater (pore water) pressure acting to destabilize the slope
2. Loss or absence of vertical vegetative structure, soil nutrients, and soil
structure (e.g. after a wildfire)
3. Erosion of the toe of a slope by rivers or ocean waves
4. Weakening of a slope through saturation by snow melt, glaciers melting, or
heavy rains
5. Earthquakes adding loads to barely stable slope
6. Earthquake-caused liquefaction destabilizing slopes
7. Volcanic eruptions
 Human Activities that Cause Landslides
1. Deforestation, cultivation and construction, which destabilize the already
fragile slopes
2. Vibrations from machinery or traffic
3. Blasting (e.g. as miners normally do)
4. Earthwork which alters the shape of a slope, or which imposes new loads on
an existing slope
5. In shallow soils, the removal of deep-rooted vegetation that bind colluvium
(material which accumulates at the foot of a steep slope) to bedrock (e.g.
kaingin farming system)
 6. Construction works, agricultural or forestry activities (e.g. logging) which
change the amount of water infiltrating the soil.
 Effects of Landslides
o Landslides cause property damage, injury and death and adversely affect a
variety of resources. For example, water supplies, fisheries, sewage disposal
systems, forests, dams and roadways can be affected for years after a slide
event.
o The negative economic effects of landslides include the cost to repair
structures, loss of property value, disruption of transportation routes, medical
costs in the event of injury, and indirect costs such as lost timber and lost fish
stocks. Water availability, quantity and quality can be affected by landslides.
Geotechnical studies and engineering projects to assess and stabilize
potentially dangerous sites can be costly.

Effect of Landslide in Cherry Hill Subdivision in Antipolo on Aug. 3, 1999

 Signs of an Impending Landslide

1. New cracks or bulges in the ground, on pavements or floors
2. Soil moving away from foundations
3. Telephone poles, trees, retaining walls or fences leaning at odd angles
4. Decks and patios tilting towards the main house
5. A rapid increase in turbidity (being cloudy, opaque, or thick with suspended
matter) of water in rivers, creeks or other natural water sources
6. A rumbling sound that increases in volume (particularly noticeable as the
landslide nears).

Family Emergency Preparedness Plan Before, During, and After a

Landslide

Before During After

Participate in regular drills Evacuate immediately if Examine thoroughly the
on evacuation procedures. warned of an impending damaged parts and utilities
landslide or mudflow. of the house before re-

Help prepare the members
of the family for evacuation
upon the direction of
proper authorities.
Maintain a list of contact
numbers during
emergencies.
occupying it.
Stay away from the path of Stay away from the
landslide debris, or seek landslide area. There may
refuge behind a sturdy tree be danger of additional
or boulder. landslides.
Get out of the house as Help check with caution
soon as possible when injured and trapped
rumbling sounds are heard persons within the
from upstream or the landslide area and direct
trembling of the ground is rescuers to their locations.
felt, indicating a possible
mudflow.

Participate in planting Run across a slope, not Listen to local radio or TV

grasses to cover slopes or downwards. stations for the latest
in building riprap to prevent emergency information.
soil erosion.
Help promote public Help in seeking the advice
awareness and of a geotechnical expert to
involvement on landslide evaluate landslide hazards
mitigation. or design corrective
measures to reduce
landslide risk.
Help develop family
preparedness and
evacuation plan.

Mitigation Strategies to Prevent Loss of Lives and Properties from Landslide

Hazards
1. Restricting Development in Landslide-Prone Areas
o Land use planning is one of the most effective and economical ways to
reduce landslide losses by avoiding the hazard and minimizing the risk. This
is accomplished by removing or converting existing development or
discouraging or regulating new development in unstable areas.
2. Codes for Excavation, Construction, and Grading
o Excavation, construction, and grading codes have been developed for
construction in landslide-prone areas. There is no nationwide uniform code to
ensure standardization. Instead, state and local government agencies apply
design and construction criteria that fit their specific needs.
3. Protecting Existing Development
o Stability of a slope can be increased by removing all or part of a landslide
mass, or by adding earth buttresses placed at the toes of potential slope
failures. Restraining walls, piles, caissons, or rock anchors, are commonly
used to prevent or control slope movement. in most cases, combinations of
these measures are used.
 4. Monitoring and Warning Systems
o monitoring and warning systems are utilized to protect lives and property, not
to prevent landslides. However, these systems often provide warning of slope
movement in time to allow the construction of physical measures. Site-
specific monitoring techniques include field observation and the use of
various ground motion instruments, trip wires, radar, laser beams, and
vibration meters. Data from these devices can be telemetered for real-time
warning.
5. Landslide Insurance and Compensation for Losses
o landslide insurance would be a logical means to provide compensation and
incentive to avoid or mitigate the hazard. Landslide insurance coverage could
be made a requirement for mortgage loans. Controls on building,
development, and property maintenance would need to accompany the
mandatory insurance. Insurance and appropriate government intervention can
work together, each complementing the other in reducing losses and
compensating victims.

Sinkholes
 Sinkholes are common where the rock below the land surface is limestone,
carbonate rock, salt beds, or rocks that can naturally be dissolved by
groundwater circulating through them. As the rock dissolves, spaces and caverns
develop underground.
 Sinkholes are dramatic because the land usually stays intact for a while until the
underground spaces just get too big. If there is not enough support for the land
above the spaces then a sudden collapse of the land surface can occur. These
collapses can be small, or they can be huge and can occur where a house or
road is on top.
 Sinkholes can vary from a few feet to hundreds of acres and from less than 1 to
more than 100 feet deep. Some are shaped like shallow bowls or saucers
whereas others have vertical walls; some hold water and form natural ponds.
 Types of Sinkholes
1. Dissolution Sinkholes
o In this type of sinkhole, there is little soil or vegetation over the limestone
or other bedrock. Water from rain and runoff slowly trickles through
crevices in the bedrock, dissolving it. As a result, a depression gradually
forms. Dissolution sinkholes sometimes become ponds if the depression
gets lined with debris, trapping water inside. Dissolution sinkholes happen
slowly and are generally not dangerous, but one that becomes a pond
can drain suddenly if water makes it through the protective bottom layer.
2. Cover-Subsidence Sinkholes
o These sinkholes happen in areas where sand covers the bedrock. The
sand filters down into openings in the rock, gradually causing the land
surface to sink. Continued erosion increases the size of the depression.
Like dissolution sinkholes, cover-subsidence sinkholes happen slowly.

3. Cover-Collapse Sinkholes
o In these cases, the bedrock is covered by a layer of clay. Beneath this
ground cover, however, water dissolves an underground cavern.
Gradually, ground sediments begin to erode, or spall, into the cavern
from the bottom. The ground continues to crumble from beneath until
only a thin layer remains between the surface and the underground
opening. When that layer collapses, the sinkhole opens up suddenly,
swallowing any structures on top.
 4. Man-Made Sinkholes
o These sinkholes are the result of a variety of practices, from drilling to
mining to changes in water diversion systems to broken pipes.
o Sinkholes can also form when natural water-drainage patterns are
changed and new water-diversion systems are developed.
o Some sinkholes form when the land surface is changed, such as when
industrial and runoff-storage ponds are created. The substantial weight of
the new material can trigger an underground collapse of supporting
material, thus causing a sinkhole.

Sinkholes as a Result of Sewer Repair that Went Wrong

 Effects of Sinkholes
o The effects of a sinkhole vary depending on where and how it was formed.
Natural sinkholes can form on land and in the ocean as well. When they
are formed on land, they can change the general topography (the study of
the shape and features of land surfaces) of the area and divert streams of
underground water. If they form suddenly in areas with heavy population,
 they can cause a lot of damage to human life and property. Some holes
are formed due to the leak in underground storm drains and sewer
systems. When they collapse, the damage can be seen for many miles
due to the repairs that become necessary.
o They can be dangerous to the foundations of the building. Toxic chemicals
beneath the earth can come up and may pollute the groundwater.
Sinkholes occur commonly in Florida as the state has many underground
voids and drainage systems carved from the carbonate rocks.
o Natural sinkholes cannot be prevented, as they are bound to occur.
However, the ones caused due to human negligence can be prevented in
time. Practices such as maintaining the underground systems and
plumbing are the best to make sure that a sudden deep hole does not
appear in the middle of a city.

Effect of Sinkholes

 Signs of an Impending Sinkhole

1. Trees or fence posts that tilt or fall
2. Foundations that slant
3. New small ponds that appear after rain
4. Cracks in the ground
5. Sudden drainage of a pond
6. Rapid appearance of a hole in the ground
7. Dips, depressions, slopes that appear in a yard
8. Dead patches of grass or plants
9. Sinkholes in the neighborhood
10. Wilted vegetation in a limited area
11. Well water that is discolored or contaminated with debris
12. Cracking or buckling of home’s concrete slab
13. Presence of odd bugs like slugs and centipedes in the home
14. Earthy odor in the home after the rain
15. New or widening cracks
16. Separation between walls and ceiling of floors
17. Cracks in interior walls
18. Cracks around door and window frames
19. Cracked grout between tiles
20. Cracked tiles
 21. Stair step cracks in blocks or bricks
22. Uneven floors, warping of hardwood, bulging or sagging sections
23. Doors or windows that do not open or close easily
24. Cracks in sheetrock near doors or windows
 Precautionary Measures for Sinkholes
1. Watch for signs of water disappearing from the surface (e.g. the sudden loss
of a steam or retention pond).
2. If a sinkhole occurs in an area of traffic, barricade it to prevent motorists or
pedestrians from getting too close to it. Remember that the size can continue
to increase, so barricade it with ample room to spare.
3. Check fields before undertaking machine-related activities, such as haying or
harvesting.
4. Keep tractors and heavy machinery far enough away from the sinkhole, since
the ground near the edge can easily gave way. It is recommended that
machinery stay at least as far from the edge as the hole is deep.
5. Sinkholes will be more prevalent during times of increased and rapid rainfall,
such as with the type of rains occurring during a hurricane.
6. Call emergency hotlines and advise them of the sinkhole and of the hole
which is near utility lines or in a roadway.
7. Restrict access to the hole.
8. Don’t get too close to or go down into the hole.
9. Do not allow unauthorized or inexperienced persons to investigate the
sinkhole.

Geological Hazard Maps

 Geologic maps display the arrangement of geologic features of a particular area.

These features can include such things as types of rocks, faults, minerals, and
groundwater. From studying a geologic map the user can better understand
possible dangers like the potential for floods or earthquakes, and help locate
important deposits of energy resources, such as water, oil, natural gas, and
minerals. Through the use of letters, colors, lines, and symbols, geologic maps
help the user gain a better understanding of Earth's makeup.
 Elements of Geologic Maps
o Geologic maps use color to represent various types of geologic features or units (a
particular type of rock with a known age range). Geologic units are indicated by
colors that can range from yellows and reds to purples and browns. Not only are
geologic units assigned a color but also a set of letters. The set is usually composed
of an initial capital letter followed by one or two lowercased letters. The capital letter
represents the age of the geologic unit. The lower-cased letters indicate the geologic
unit's name or the type of rock of which it is comprised.

 Contact and Fault Lines

o When two geologic units are located next to each other, the place where they
meet is called a contact. The two main types of contacts are depositional
contacts and faults. Depositional contacts are created when geologic units
are composed under, over, or next to each other. The place where they meet
 is called a depositional contact and is indicated by a thin line. Geologic units
can be moved over time by faults. Faults are cracks or fractures in Earth's
crust (outer portion of Earth's surface) caused by the movement of land
masses, called plates, on either side of the fault line. When plates move
suddenly, the result is an earthquake. A fault line (a thick line with the same
geologic unit on both sides of the line) indicates geologic units that have been
moved by faults after they have been formed.
 Types of Geological Maps
1. Topographic Maps
o These are detailed, accurate graphic representations of features that appear
on the Earth's surface. These features include: cultural: roads, buildings,
urban development, railways, airports, names of places and geographic
features, administrative boundaries, state and international borders, reserves.

Topographic Map of the Philippines

2. Cross-Sectional Maps
o These show a side-view of a segment line drawn on a
topographic map. A cross-section helps see how the terrain lies.
A cross-section shows the shape of a feature (such as a mountain)
viewed from the side, as if cut through with a knife.
 Example of a Cross-Sectional Map
3. Structural Map
o The identification and characterization of structural expression.
Structures include faults, folds, synclines and anticlines and
lineaments. Understanding structures is the key to interpreting crustal
movements that have shaped the present terrain. Structures can
indicate potential locations of oil and gas reserves by characterizing
both the underlying subsurface geometry of rock units and the amount
of crustal deformation and stress experienced in a certain locale.
 Structural Map of the Philippines
Sample Geologic Maps of the Philippines
Map Showing the Distribution of Rainfall in the Philippines
Flow and Landslide Susceptibility Map
ASSESSMENT

1. Discuss briefly the two geological hazards mentioned in this chapter.

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2. Explain the causes of each geological hazard.

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3. Explain the effects of sinkholes.

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4. Identify the mitigation strategies in preventing loss of lives and properties.

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5. How are sinkholes formed?

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6. What is a geologic map? How does it differ from other maps?

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 7. Search and read the account of the two major landslides that occurred in the
Philippines, namely, the 1999 Cherry Hill Subdivision Landslide and the 2006
Southern Leyte Mudslide. Analyze the causes and effects of these two
landslides.
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8. Prepare your own Family Emergency Plan in case of a landslide.
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Chapter 6 – Other Related Geological

1. Quebral, Villamor S. EdD. Disaster Readiness and Risk Reduction, 2016.
2. Commission on Higher Education, Disaster Readiness and Risk Reduction – Teaching Guide for
Senior High School, 2016.
3. Bagolong, Saidamin P. et. al., Disaster Readiness and Risk Reduction, 2016.
4. Anahao, Joel D., Disaster Readiness and Risk Reduction Teacher’s Handbook
5. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/293206494_Landslides_Causes_types_and_effects
6. livescience.com/44123-what-are-sinkholes.html
7. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/sinkhole/
8. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006_Southern_Leyte_mudslide#/media/
File:Southern_Leyte_mudslide_2006_pic01.jpg
9. https://sg.news.yahoo.com/sinkhole-gobbles-house-benguet-000000651.html
10. https://rappler.com/newsbreak/iq/list-deadly-landslides-philippines
11. https://www.livescience.com/44123-what-are-sinkholes.html
12. http://www.geohazards.com/are-there-different-types-of-sinkholes/
13. https://www.heliconusa.com/types-of-sinkholes/
14. https://pipespy.com/blog/sinkhole-causes-bad-plumbing/
15. https://www.encyclopedia.com/earth-and-environment/geography/geography-general/
geologic-map
16. https://study.com/academy/lesson/geologic-maps-topographic-cross-sectional-structural.html
17. http://www.globalcitymap.com/philippines/philippines-topography-map.html
18. http://www.jaconline.com.au/downloads/sose/2004-09-x-section.pdf
19. https://www.nrcan.gc.ca/maps-tools-and-publications/satellite-imagery-and-air-photos/
remote-sensing-tutorials/structural-mapping-terrain-analysis/9345
20. https://carmelaochea.wordpress.com/2018/01/24/interpreting-geohazard-maps/
https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Philippines-annual-rainfall-and-relative-humidity-
distribution-Original-Drawing-is_fig14_263618685