NERVOUS SYSTEM

Nervous system

The nervous system is the part of an animal's body that coordinates its voluntary and
involuntary actions and transmits signals to and from different parts of its body.

Animals with a defined head possess a two-part nervous system:

1. the central nervous system (CNS) consists of the animal's brain and spinal

cord

2. the peripheral nervous system (PNS) consists of all the nerves that travel from

the CNS to the rest of the animal's body

How the nervous system works

The nervous system contains two main categories or types of cells: neurons and glial cells.

The nervous system receives the stimuli, sends messages about the stimuli to different parts of
the body, interprets what the stimuli mean to the organism’s existence, and coordinates the
organism’s response or reaction to the stimuli.

The receptor - effector mechanism is the simplest system that allows a simple organism’s body
to coordinate its reaction to a stimuli.

Insects and worms have ganglia, highly developed neurons, which are true message centers,
and from which central nervous system evolved.

In other vertebrates and humans, the nervous system comprised the central nervous system
and the peripheral nervous system.

The nervous system is defined by the presence of a special type of cell, called
the neuron, also known as a "nerve cell". Neurons have special structures that allow

them to send signals rapidly and precisely to other cells. They send these signals in

the form of electrochemical waves travelling along thin fibers called axons, which cause
chemicals called neuro-transmitters to be released at junctions called synapses. A cell that
receives a synaptic signal from a neuron may be excited, inhibited, or otherwise modulated. The
connections between neurons can form neural circuits and also neural networks that generate
an organism's perception of the world and determine its behavior.

Along with neurons, the nervous system contains other specialized cells called glial cells which
provide structural and metabolic support. Among the most important functions of glial cells are
to support neurons and hold them in place; to supply nutrients to neurons; to insulate neurons
electrically; to destroy pathogens and remove dead neurons; and to provide guidance cues
directing the axons of neurons to their targets.Glial cells are the most abundant cell types in the
central nervous system. Types of glial cells include oligodendrocytes, astrocytes, ependymal
cells, Schwann cells, microglia, and satellite cells.

Parts and Functions of the Brain :

1. cerebral cortex – analyzes data, learn new information, form thoughts, make

decisions

2. corpus collosum - communication between the left and right hemisphere

3. frontal lobe – cognition and memory

4. hypothalmus – controls maintenance functions such as eating

5. temporal lobe – auditory reception and interpretation

6. pituitary gland – master endocrine gland

7. pons – controls arousal and regulates respiration

8. medulla – controls heartbeat and breathing

9. spinal cord – controls simple reflexes

10.parietal lobe – body orientation

11.thalamus – relays messages between lower brain centers and cerebral cortex

12.cerebellum – coordinates voluntary movement and balance

Skeletal System

Skeletal system is the system of bones, associated cartilages and joints of human body.
Together these structures form the human skeleton. Skeleton can be defined as the hard
framework of human body around which the entire body is built. Almost all the hard parts of
human body are components of human skeletal system. Joints are very important because they
make the hard and rigid skeleton allow different types of movements at different locations.

Functions of human skeleton:

Human skeleton performs some important functions that are necessary for survival of human
beings.

1. STRENGTH, SUPPORT AND SHAPE: It gives strength, support and shape to

the body. Without a hard and rigid skeletal system, human body cannot stand upright,
and it will become just a bag of soft tissues without any proper shape.
2. PROTECTION OF DELICATE ORGANS: In areas like the rib cage and skull, the
skeleton protects inner soft but vital organs like heart and brain from external shocks.
Any damage to these organs can prove fatal, therefore protective function of skeleton is
very important.
3. LEVERAGE FOR MOVEMENTS: Bones of the human skeleton in all parts of body
provide attachment to the muscles. These muscles provide motor power for producing
movements of body parts. In these movements the parts of skeleton acts like levers of
different types thus producing movements according to the needs of the human body.
 4. PRODUCTION OF RED BLOOD CELLS: Bones like the sternum, and heads of tibia
have hemopoeitic activity (blood cells production). These are the sites of production of
new blood cells.

Main parts of skeleton

There are two main parts of the skeleton:

1. Axial skeleton - includes the skull, the spine and the ribs and sternum ; has 80 bones

● Skull - includes bones of the cranium, face, and ears (auditory ossicles)
● Hyoid - U-shaped bone or complex of bones located in the neck between the

chin and larynx

● Vertebral Column - includes spinal vertebrae

● Thoracic Cage -includes ribs and sternum (breast bone)

2. Appendicular skeleton - includes the bones of the limbs, the shoulder girdle, and

pelvic girdle ;has 126 bones

● Pectoral Girdle - includes shoulder bones (clavicle and scapula)

● Upper Limbs - includes bones of the arms and hands
● Pelvic Girdle - includes hip bones
● Lower Limbs - includes bones of the legs and feet

Skeleton Components

The skeleton is composed of fibrous and mineralized connective tissues that give it firmness
and flexibility. It consists of the following :

1. Bone - a type of mineralized connective tissue that contains collagen and calcium

phosphate, a mineral crystal. Calcium phosphate gives bone its firmness.

Bone tissue may be compact or spongy. Bones provide support and

protection for body organs.

2. Cartilage - a form of fibrous connective tissue that is composed of closely packed

collagenous fibers in a rubbery gelatinous substance called chondrin.

Cartilage provides flexible support for certain structures in adult humans

including the nose, trachea, and ears.

3. Tendon - a fibrous band of connective tissue that joins bones and other connective

tissues together at joints.

4. Ligament - a fibrous band of connective tissue that is bonded to bone and connects
bone to bone..

5. Joint - a site where two or more bones or other skeletal components are joined

together.

Animal locomotion and its importance

Locomotion is any of a variety of movements or methods that animals use to move from one
place to another. Some modes of locomotion are self-propelled, e.g., running, swimming, and
flying. There are also many animal species that depend on their environment for transportation,
a type of mobility called passive locomotion, e.g., rolling (some beetles). Animals move to find
food, a mate, a suitable habitat, to escape predators and for survival.

Different media for locomotion

Animals move through four types of environment : aquatic (in or on water ) , terrestrial (on
ground or other surface), fossorial (underground), and aerial (in the air).