Immune System

 Protect and defend us against germs and pathogenic m.o (micro-organism)

 Keeping people healthy and preventing infections.

Immune Response- the body defense against infectious organism and other
invader.
 Organ of the Immune System
1. Tonsils and adenoids
2. lymph nodes
3. lymphatic vessels
4. thymus - + cells
5. Spleen – contains WBC - destroy and controlling the blood supply
6. Payer 5 patches
7. Bone marrow- leukocytes- circulates through the body

Immunity- body protection against diseases

3 types of Immunity
1. Innate Immunity = natural immunity (skin)
2. Adaptive Immunity= vaccination/ A.K.A. active immunity
3. Passive Immunity= barrowed from other sources

Endocrine System
Endocrine Gland= secretes without a duct
Exocrine Gland= secretes and travel through a duct

Endocrine Gland Major

1. Thyroid Gland
2. Parathyroid Gland
3. Adrenal Gland
4. Pancreas
5. Sex Glands
6. Pituitary Gland
-Hormones= regulates- thyroid- metabolism
- adrenal- emergency
- sex gland- sex characteristics
Hormones= a chemical substance
  Made by gland
 Scaled directly into the blood stream
 Acts as chemical messenger
 Exhales a body activity
 Contrast by regulation
2 types of leukocytes
Phagocytes= one on responsible by chewing invader/ m.o.
Lymphocytes= to along the body and record invaders
B-cells - made anti-bodies that attracts bacteria and toxic
T-cells – destroys cancerous cells (suicidal)

What is the skeletal system?

The skeletal system is your body’s central framework. It consists of bones and connective
tissue, including cartilage, tendons, and ligaments. It’s also called the musculoskeletal
system.

What does the skeletal system do?

The skeletal system has many functions. Besides giving us our human shape and features, it:

 Allows movement: Your skeleton supports your body weight to help you stand and
move. Joints, connective tissue and muscles work together to make your body parts
mobile.
 Produces blood cells: Bones contain bone marrow. Red and white blood cells are
produced in the bone marrow.
 Protects and supports organs: Your skull shields your brain, your ribs protect your
heart and lungs, and your backbone protects your spine.
 Stores minerals: Bones hold your body’s supply of minerals like calcium and vitamin
D.

What are the parts of the skeletal system?

The skeletal system is a network of many different parts that work together to help you
move. The main part of your skeletal system consists of your bones, hard structures that
create your body’s framework — the skeleton. There are 206 bones in an adult human
skeleton. Each bone has three main layers:

 Periosteum: The periosteum is a tough membrane that covers and protects the

outside of the bone.
 Compact bone: Below the periosteum, compact bone is white, hard, and smooth. It
provides structural support and protection.
  Spongy bone: The core, inner layer of the bone is softer than compact bone. It has
small holes called pores to store marrow.

The other components of your skeletal system include:

 Cartilage: This smooth and flexible substance covers the tips of your bones where
they meet. It enables bones to move without friction (rubbing against each other).
When cartilage wears away, as in arthritis, it can be painful and cause movement
problems.
 Joints: A joint is where two or more bones in the body come together. There are
three different joint types. The types of joints are:
o Immovable joints: Immovable joints don’t let the bones move at all, like the
joints between your skull bones.
o Partly movable joints: These joints allow limited movement. The joints in
your rib cage are partly movable joints.
o Movable joints: Movable joints allow a wide range of motion. Your elbow,
shoulder, and knee are movable joints.
 Ligaments: Bands of strong connective tissue called ligaments hold bones together.
 Tendons: Tendons are bands of tissue that connect the ends of a muscle to your
bone.

What are some common conditions that can affect the skeletal system?

Many conditions can affect the bones, joints, and tissues that make up the skeletal system.
Some happen as a result of disease or injury. Others develop due to wear and tear as you
get older. Conditions that may affect the skeletal system can include:

 Arthritis: Age, injury, and medical conditions such as Lyme disease can lead

to arthritis, a painful wearing down of joints.
 Fracture: Disease, a tumor, or trauma can put stress on a bone, causing it to break.
 Osteosarcoma: Cancer that forms in the bones can cause tumors that may weaken
and break bones.
 Osteoporosis: Bone loss caused by not getting enough calcium can lead to fragile
and brittle bones, known as osteoporosis.
 Sprains and tears: Age, disease and trauma can cause connective tissue to
overstretch and tear.

How can I keep my skeletal system healthy?

To keep your skeletal system strong and healthy, you should:

 Get plenty of vitamin D and calcium in your diet (try milk, yogurt or almonds) to keep
bones strong.
 Drink plenty of water to help keep tissues healthy.
 Exercise regularly to strengthen bones and joints.
 Stay at a healthy weight to avoid putting extra pressure on your bones and cartilage.
 Wear protective gear during contact sports such as football and hockey.
  Be cautious on stairs to avoid falls.

What happens when you break a bone?

Your healthcare provider will classify a fracture based on the way the bone breaks. Types of
fractures include:

 Stable (closed): The ends of the broken bones line up.

 Stress fracture: Overuse causes a crack in the bone.
 Open (compound): The broken bone breaks the skin.

If you break a bone, you’ll need an imaging test called an X-ray so your doctor can identify
the type of fracture. Depending on the severity of the break, you’ll need to immobilize it
(prevent it from moving) in a cast or brace for three to eight weeks. Broken bones can take
several months to heal completely

What are the parts of the nervous system?

The nervous system has two main parts:

 The central nervous system is made up of the brain and spinal cord.

 The peripheral nervous system is made up of nerves that branch off from the spinal
cord and extend to all parts of the body
 The nervous system transmits signals between the brain and the rest of the body,
including internal organs. In this way, the nervous system’s activity controls the
ability to move, breathe, see, think, and more.1
  The basic unit of the nervous system is a nerve cell, or neuron. The human brain
contains about 100 billion neurons. A neuron has a cell body, which includes the cell
nucleus, and special extensions called axons (pronounced AK-sonz)
and dendrites (pronounced DEN-drahytz). Bundles of axons, called nerves, are found
throughout the body. Axons and dendrites allow neurons to communicate, even
across long distances.

 Different types of neurons control or perform different activities. For instance, motor
neurons transmit messages from the brain to the muscles to generate movement.
Sensory neurons detect light, sound, odor, taste, pressure, and heat and send
messages about those things to the brain. Other parts of the nervous system control
involuntary processes. These include keeping a regular heartbeat, releasing
hormones like adrenaline, opening the pupil in response to light, and regulating the
digestive system.

When a neuron sends a message to another neuron, it sends an electrical signal down the
length of its axon. At the end of the axon, the electrical signal changes to a chemical signal.
The axon then releases the chemical signal with chemical messengers
called neurotransmitters (pronounced noor-oh-TRANS-mit-erz) into
the synapse (pronounced SIN-aps)—the space between the end of an axon and the tip of a
dendrite from another neuron. The neurotransmitters move the signal through the synapse
to the neighboring dendrite, which converts the chemical signal back into an electrical
signal. The electrical signal then travels through the neuron and goes through the same
conversion processes as it moves to neighboring neurons.

The nervous system also includes non-neuron cells, called glia (pronounced GLEE-uh). Glia

perform many important functions that keep the nervous system working properly. For
example, glia:

 Help support and hold neurons in place

 Protect neurons
 Create insulation called myelin, which helps move nerve impulses
 Repair neurons and help restore neuron function
 Trim out dead neurons
 Regulate neurotransmitters

Nervous System

- Regulates behavior, maintain homeostasis controls sensory and motor function.

Nerve Cell/ Neurons

- The information and signal process of the body

Dendrite- carry impulses TOWARDS cell body

 Axons- carry impulses AWAY through the cell body

Types of NEURONS

Sensory- sense reception – CNS

Motor- CNS- muscles and organs

Interneurons- within the CNS

Brain- main control center of the coordination

Cerebrum- the center intelligence

Cerebellum- keeps the muscle coordinate

Medulla- controls and coordinate the activities of the internal organs

Cerebral Cortex- for learning, reasoning language and memory

Hypothalamus- thermos regulation of the body

SPINAL CORD

- Carries nerves impulses

- Controls involuntary actions

Somatic- movements of the body

AUTONOMIC- deals of the unisexual the body

THE BODY IN MOTION

Skeletal System- protects and support the parts determination of the body shape, blood
cells, production sites, calcium and phosphorous storage sites , bones and joints.

Sympathetic- actions

Parasympathetic- and balance

Bones
- Contains blood vessels, nerve cells

 Cartilages - cushions
 Ligament- attached one bones to another
  Tendons- connect bones to muscles
JOINTS- connect the bones
 Hinge joints
 Pivot
 Ball and socket
 Gliding
 Fixel

Introduction to the Muscular System

The muscular system is composed of specialized cells called muscle fibers. Their

predominant function is contractibility. Muscles, attached to bones or internal organs
and blood vessels, are responsible for movement. Nearly all movement in the body is the
result of muscle contraction. Exceptions to this are the action of cilia, the flagellum on
sperm cells, and amoeboid movement of some white blood cells.

The integrated action of joints, bones, and skeletal muscles produces obvious movements
such as walking and running. Skeletal muscles also produce more subtle movements that
result in various facial expressions, eye movements, and respiration.

In addition to movement, muscle contraction also fulfills some other important functions in
the body, such as posture, joint stability, and heat production. Posture, such as sitting and
standing, is maintained as a result of muscle contraction. The skeletal muscles are
continually making fine adjustments that hold the body in stationary positions. The tendons
of many muscles extend over joints and in this way contribute to joint stability. This is
particularly evident in the knee and shoulder joints, where muscle tendons are a
major factor in stabilizing the joint. Heat production, to maintain body temperature, is an
important by-product of muscle metabolism. Nearly 85 percent of the heat produced in the
body is the result of muscle contraction.

Muscle Types

In the body, there are three types of muscle: skeletal (striated), smooth, and cardiac.

Skeletal Muscle
Skeletal muscle, attached to bones, is responsible for skeletal movements.
The peripheral portion of the central nervous system (CNS) controls the skeletal muscles.
Thus, these muscles are under conscious, or voluntary, control. The basic unit is the
muscle fiber with many nuclei. These muscle fibers are striated (having transverse streaks)
and each acts independently of neighboring muscle fibers.

Smooth Muscle
Smooth muscle, found in the walls of the hollow internal organs such as blood vessels,
the gastrointestinal tract, bladder, and uterus, is under control of the autonomic nervous
system. Smooth muscle cannot be controlled consciously and thus acts involuntarily. The
non-striated (smooth) muscle cell is spindle-shaped and has one central nucleus. Smooth
muscle contracts slowly and rhythmically.

Cardiac Muscle
Cardiac muscle, found in the walls of the heart, is also under control of the autonomic
nervous system. The cardiac muscle cell has one central nucleus, like smooth muscle, but it
also is striated, like skeletal muscle. The cardiac muscle cell is rectangular in shape.
The contraction of cardiac muscle is involuntary, strong, and rhythmical.

Smooth and cardiac muscle will be discussed in detail with respect to their appropriate
systems. This unit mainly covers the skeletal muscular system.

Muscle Groups

There are more than 600 muscles in the body, which together account for about 40 percent
of a person's weight.

Most skeletal muscles have names that describe some feature of the muscle. Often several
criteria are combined into one name. Associating the muscle's characteristics with its name
will help you learn and remember them. The following are some terms relating to muscle
features that are used in naming muscles.

 Size: vastus (huge); maximus (large); longus (long); minimus (small); brevis (short).
 Shape: deltoid (triangular); rhomboid (like a rhombus with equal and parallel sides);
latissimus (wide); teres (round); trapezius (like a trapezoid, a four-sided figure with
two sides parallel).
 Direction of fibers: rectus (straight); transverse (across); oblique (diagonally);
orbicularis (circular).
 Location: pectoralis (chest); gluteus (buttock or rump); brachii (arm); supra- (above);
infra- (below); sub- (under or beneath); lateralis (lateral).
 Number of origins: biceps (two heads); triceps (three heads); quadriceps (four
heads).
 Origin and insertion: sternocleidomastoideus (origin on the sternum and clavicle,
insertion on the mastoid process); brachioradialis (origin on the brachium or arm,
insertion on the radius).
 Action: abductor (to abduct a structure); adductor (to adduct a structure); flexor (to
flex a structure); extensor (to extend a structure); levator (to lift or elevate a
structure); masseter (a chewer).

Respiratory System
Your respiratory system is the network of organs and tissues that help you breathe. This
system helps your body absorb oxygen from the air so your organs can work. It also cleans
waste gases, such as carbon dioxide, from your blood. Common problems include allergies,
diseases or infections.
What is the respiratory system?

The respiratory system is the network of organs and tissues that help you breathe. It
includes your airways, lungs and blood vessels. The muscles that power your lungs are also
part of the respiratory system. These parts work together to move oxygen throughout the
body and clean out waste gases like carbon dioxide.

What does the respiratory system do?

The respiratory system has many functions. Besides helping you inhale (breathe in) and
exhale (breathe out), it:

 Allows you to talk and to smell.

 Warms air to match your body temperature and moisturizes it to the humidity level
your body needs.
 Delivers oxygen to the cells in your body.
 Removes waste gases, including carbon dioxide, from the body when you exhale.
 Protects your airways from harmful substances and irritants

What are the parts of the respiratory system?

The respiratory system has many different parts that work together to help you breathe.
Each group of parts has many separate components.

Your airways deliver air to your lungs. Your airways are a complicated system that includes
your:

 Mouth and nose: Openings that pull air from outside your body into your respiratory
system.
 Sinuses: Hollow areas between the bones in your head that help regulate the
temperature and humidity of the air you inhale.
 Pharynx (throat): Tube that delivers air from your mouth and nose to the trachea
(windpipe).
 Trachea: Passage connecting your throat and lungs.
 Bronchial tubes: Tubes at the bottom of your windpipe that connect into each lung.
 Lungs: Two organs that remove oxygen from the air and pass it into your blood.

From your lungs, your bloodstream delivers oxygen to all your organs and other tissues.

Muscles and bones help move the air you inhale into and out of your lungs. Some of the
bones and muscles in the respiratory system include your:

 Diaphragm: Muscle that helps your lungs pull in air and push it out.
 Ribs: Bones that surround and protect your lungs and heart.

When you breathe out, your blood carries carbon dioxide and other waste out of the body.
Other components that work with the lungs and blood vessels include:
  Alveoli: Tiny air sacs in the lungs where the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide
takes place.
 Bronchioles: Small branches of the bronchial tubes that lead to the alveoli.
 Capillaries: Blood vessels in the alveoli walls that move oxygen and carbon dioxide.
 Lung lobes: Sections of the lungs — three lobes in the right lung and two in the left
lung.
 Pleura: Thin sacs that surround each lung lobe and
separate your lungs from the chest wall.

Some of the other components of your respiratory system

include:

 Cilia: Tiny hairs that move in a wave-like motion to

filter dust and other irritants out of your airways.
 Epiglottis: Tissue flap at the entrance to the trachea
that closes when you swallow to keep food and
liquids out of your airway.
 Larynx (voice box): Hollow organ that allows you to
talk and make sounds when air moves in and out.

Excretory System Definition

The excretory system consists of organs which

remove metabolic wastes and toxins from the
body. In humans, this includes the removal of urea
from the bloodstream and other wastes produced
by the body. The removal of urea happens in the
kidneys, while solid wastes are expelled from the
large intestine.

Overview

The excretory system in humans consists mainly of the kidneys and bladder. The kidneys
filter urea and other waste products from the blood, which are then added to the urine
within the bladder. Other organs, such as the liver, process toxins but put their wastes back
into the blood. It is up to the kidneys to filter the blood so that toxic substances do not
accumulate.

PARTS

1. Liver- breakdown/ detoxifies

2. Intestine- executes undigested food
3. Lungs- CO2- respiration
4. Skin- sweat gland

-Sebaceous gland- liquid

5. Urinary System

How animal survive?

Animals need food, water, shelter, and space to survive. Herbivores can live only where
plant food is available. Carnivores can live only where they can catch their food. Omnivores
can live in many places because they eat both plants and animals.
Herbivores
An herbivore is an organism that mostly feeds on plants. Herbivores range in size from tiny
insects such as aphids to large, lumbering elephants. Herbivores are a major part of the food
web; a description of which organisms eat other organisms in the wild.
Carnivores
A carnivore is an organism that mostly eats meat, or the flesh of animals. Sometimes
carnivores are called predators. Organisms that carnivores hunt are called prey. Carnivores
are a major part of the food web; a description of which organisms eat which other
organisms in the wild.

Omnivores

Omnivores are a diverse group of animals. Examples of omnivores include bears, birds, dogs,
raccoons, foxes, certain insects, and even humans. Animals that hunt other animals are
known as predators, while those that are hunted are known as prey. Since omnivores hunt
and are hunted, they can be both predators and prey.

The digestive system is made up of the gastrointestinal tract—also called the GI tract or
digestive tract—and the liver, pancreas, and gallbladder. The GI tract is a series of hollow
organs joined in a long, twisting tube from the mouth to the anus. The hollow organs that
make up the GI tract are the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine,
and anus. The liver, pancreas, and gallbladder are the solid organs of the digestive system.

The small intestine has three parts. The first part is called the duodenum. The jejunum is in
the middle and the ileum is at the end. The large
intestine includes the appendix, cecum, colon,
and rectum. The appendix is a finger-shaped
pouch attached to the cecum. The cecum is the
first part of the large intestine. The colon is next.
The rectum is the end of the large intestine.

Digestion is important because your body needs

nutrients from food and drink to work properly
and stay healthy. Proteins, fats, carbohydrates,
vitamins NIH external link, minerals NIH external
link, and water are nutrients. Your digestive
system breaks nutrients into parts small enough
for your body to absorb and use for energy,
growth, and cell repair.

 Proteins break into amino acids

 Fats break into fatty acids and glycerol
 Carbohydrates break into simple sugars