Disciplinary Academic

Body of Biology
Learning Unit
Biology in Healthcare
STAGE 3
Support, Movement, Transport and
Defense
January-June 2024
Formative purpose:
Applies knowledge of organ systems related to support, movement, transportation,
and defense, their structure, and general functioning, as well as the identification of
risk factors in the skeletal, muscular, integumentary, circulatory, lymphatic, and
immune systems for making decisions that allow him/her to adopt and maintain a
healthy lifestyle, using critical and reflective thinking.

Basic Disciplinary Competencies of Experimental Sciences

12. The student decides on his/her health care on the basis of knowledge of his/her body,
its vital processes and the environment he/she belongs to.
13. The student relates the levels of chemical, biological, physical and ecological
organization of living systems.
Contents
● Skeletal system

● Muscular system

● Integumentary system

● Circulatory system

● Immune system
SKELETAL SYSTEM
The bone or skeletal system is
defined as three types of tissues
connected in an extraordinarily
functional way: bones, ligaments
and cartilage.
The HUMAN BODY, the bones and muscles (to study)
)https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yDfzkVgGtko

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yDfzkVgGtko
Structure and function
● Bones, are the sturdiest elements of the body, they protect internal organs and
provide support and structure to our bodies.
● The Ligaments, a connective tissue, its function is to connect bone to bone.
● The cartilage has several functions, such as to reduce friction between bones, or
give support to different organs to make them more functional.
● An adult individual has 206 bones, while children have 300, this difference is
because some bone pieces fuse together.
Estructura y función
● Bones comprise two types of tissue: Compact and Spongy..
● Compact tissue is dense, smooth and solid. It comprises thin, circular layers that, in
their formation, leave a small, highly organized network of channels that connect and
function as a pathway for blood vessels and nerves, which transport substances to
the bone.
● The spongy bone, is an interconnected network of plates called bony trabeculae, the
spaces are filled by red bone marrow that contains blood stem cells, which can give
rise to erythrocytes, leukocytes, or platelets.
Bones are made of cells:
○ Osteons, also called the Haversian system, made up of concentric layers of bone
lamellae. In the center of the osteon there is a canal, the Haversian canal, through
which blood vessels, lymphatic vessels and nerves circulate.
○ Osteocytes: are mature bone cells connected by small channels that allow them to
exchange nutrients and ions from the veins.

○ Osteoblasts: are called "mason" cells, which have the function of forming or
synthesizing bone. These cells produce a mixture of proteins, consisting of
collagen, elastin and carbohydrates.
○ Osteoclasts: cells that constantly break down or destroy the bone, this cycle of
construction and remodeling occurs because calcium constantly enters and leaves
the bones.
 Structure and function
The axial skeleton is the body's vertical axis, which runs from the head to the
feet, and allows us to stand on an axial axis, and it is formed by the bones
necessary to maintain verticality.
From the head, where the skull, that protects the brain, and the bones of the
face stand out, bones house the first organs of the digestive system, and give us
particular features.
The axial skeleton comprises 80 bones.

The appendicular skeleton is the skeleton of the hanging joints, such

as the shoulders and arms. It comprises the bones of the upper and
lowers limbs or extremities, plus the pelvic and shoulder girdles, which
connect these limbs to the axial skeleton.

They total 126 bones.

 Structure and function
The main functions of the skeletal system are:
● Movement: The skeletal system acts with the muscular
system to maintain or change the position of body parts.
● Support: Bones support muscles.
● Protection: Bones function as compartments that insulate
and protect soft organs, such as the skull and thorax.
● Mineral storage: Bones are repositories and stores of
calcium and phosphorus, minerals essential for many vital
functions.
● Haematopoietic function: Formation of erythrocytes.
Muscular system
• Approximately one third of a person's body mass is muscle.

The muscular system is primarily responsible for every movement of our body, from outstanding sporting
achievements in speed, jumping and strength to the flirtation of the wink of the eye. Muscles are critical in
digestive functions and in regulating blood pressure.
There are three types of muscle tissue in the body. They all can produce movement through
contraction and relaxation; some we can move voluntarily, such as the biceps, and others,
such as the heart, produce involuntary movements. The three types of muscle are skeletal,
smooth, and cardiac.

Types of
muscles
 Structure and function
Skeletal muscle
It is called this way because it is connected by tendons to the bones; they are responsible for the movement of the
skeleton and, consequently, for the body's movement. Each skeletal muscle in our body is an organ made up of
thousands of muscle cells, blood vessels and nerves.
In total, we have 600 skeletal muscles in our body. Most muscle tissue comprises skeletal muscle, composed of
long, thin cells called muscle fibers.

Smooth muscle
Muscular tissue is made up of much smaller cells than skeletal muscle and has a smooth appearance, hence its
name. This continuity makes its color whitish, as it does not have the striations in its cytoplasm and each cell has
only one nucleus in the center. It is impossible to have voluntary control over these muscles, as they are governed
by the part of the nervous system responsible for the regulation of the involuntary functions of the organism. They
are in different organs such as the stomach, intestines and esophagus. These involuntary movements are
because the walls of these organs consist mainly of muscle.

Heart muscle
This muscle, also called myocardium, is only found in the heart and is made up of striated muscle cells that have
one or two nuclei. The heart muscle contracts involuntarily, its shape, although striated, is much more branched
than the cells of skeletal muscles. The myocardium can contract without stimulation via signals from the nervous
system.
 Diseases and conditions
Cramping
Cramps are involuntary muscle contractions happening over skeletal muscles that always move voluntarily. They are painful muscle
spasms that remain for minutes if not taken care of. They are fairly common to occur in the thighs and calves, especially in people who practice
sports. However, in inactive persons, the real culprit of cramps is the lack of potassium; this ion is necessary for the correct transmission of
nerve impulses to the muscles and other tissues. Gentle stretching and massaging in the affected area can help a cramped muscle to release its
contracture..

Muscle strains
Also known as sprain, muscle strain is an overstretching of the joint ligaments that occurs when an excessive effort is applied to the joints.
The most common reactions to this are inflammation and pain.

Muscle strains present different levels:

● Muscle strain grade 1: It is a stretch without breakage.

● Muscle strain grade 2 or second grade: There is a partial tear of the ligaments surrounding the joint.
● Muscle strains grade 3: Occurs when there is a rupture of the connective tissue; it is the most severe case.

Luxation
It is the dislocation of articulation in a way that it produces a loss of contact between the bone structure and the articulation surface. It is
commonly described as a bone getting out of its place. We have to keep in mind that a luxation does not imply a breakage of the bone, even if
it tends to cause damage to the nerves or ligaments

Muscle tear
A muscle fiber tear, also known as muscle tearing, is a muscle injury where the fibers that make up the muscle break, which causes a very
intense pain that forces the person who suffers from it to suspend any activity since, when contracting the muscle, the injured area tensioned.
 Infections by bacteria
Tetanus
Tetanus is a disease caused by a bacterium called Clostridium tetani, which mobilizes through the central
nervous system, producing a toxin that causes the contraction of the body's muscles, including those of
the face.
Tetanus is contracted by the infection from an open wound, for this reason, it is associated with cutting
oneself with rusty metals. In reality, it does not matter if the object is rusty or not, the important thing is
to take proper care of any kind of penetrating wound so that it does not become infected.
The bacterium Clostridium tetani can be found in the form of a spore in the soil, feces, mouth, or
intestine of some animals; the best way to evade this disease is via vaccination and its reinforcement
every ten years. Currently, there is no cure for tetanus

Tetanus is a disease, non-contagious, toxic infectious

that attacks human and animals and can be found
worldwide.
 Infections by bacteria
Botulism
Botulism is a tetanus-like disease caused by an infection of the Clostridium botulinum bacteria, which
produces a toxin that attacks the body's nerves; it is also called the "sausages' poison" since this
bacterium often proliferated in poorly prepared and unhealthy meat foods.
Nowadays, the most common way in which a Clostridium botulinum infection can be acquired is still
through poorly handled foods.
The symptoms of botulism are double or blurred vision, drooping eyelids, facial fatigue, nausea, vomiting,
and abdominal pain.
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
The skin is the largest organ in the human body
Integumentary system
The skin is the largest organ of the body, it is the limit that separates our body from the outside world (or external
surface). It is related to almost all the body's systems; and its main functions are:
To protect the body from external pollutants, such as solar radiation, and chemical, physical and biological
compounds.
It is a temperature-regulating system and is responsible for tactile sensitivity.
It is directly related to the bone system. With the help of the sun, the body releases vitamin D into the skin, which
encompasses all the compounds responsible for helping the bones to absorb calcium from food.
To prevent water loss.

An adult's skin measures two square meters and represents 6% of our body weight.
In its thinnest part, our eyelids, it barely has a thickness of half a millimeter; on the contrary, the palms of our hands
and the soles of our feet are the thickest part of the skin, where it reaches a thickness of half a centimeter. The skin
consists of two main parts: the epidermis, which is external and thin, and the dermis, which is internal and thick.
Under the dermis exists a subcutaneous layer of fat called the hypodermis, which attaches the dermis to the
organs.
 Structure and function
Epidermis
The epidermis' cells are constantly replaced; they flatten, lose their nucleus and die, then they are discarded
from our body in the form of fine powder; approximately between 30 and 40 thousand skin cells are disposed
per minute.

The epidermis is made up of different types of cells:

● Keratinocytes are the most common and numerous cells; They produce a fairly tough waterproof protein
called keratin, which helps the skin's surface to show this characteristics.

● Langerhans cells are phagocytes (eaters of other cells) that consume harmful bacteria, which usually attack
the skin, and warn the immune system in this process.

● Melanocyte cells produce a dark brown pigment called melanin; this pigment is transferred to keratinocytes
to help color the skin.

● The scarcest cells, Merkel cells, are located in the deepest layer of the epidermis, where they make contact
with sensory nerve endings; they are responsible for indicating to the brain different aspects of tactile
sensations.
 Structure and function
Dermis
The layer below the epidermis is known as the dermis; it is tissue formed by collagen and elastic fibers.
These sebaceous glands produce an oily substance that traps and eliminates harmful bacteria.
However, these body parts can be lubricated using the sweat glands; that's the reason why, in times of
stress, when all the glands are usually active, it's common for the hands to start sweating.

Within the skin, there are also hair follicles, from which the hairs are born, and they are made up by
keratin cells rooted in the skin by a shaft.
Diseases
● Acné
Acne can affect people at any age, not only teenagers. It is characterized by white and black dots, inflammation, and redness on the skin.
A bacterium is the main responsible for acne; it lives on the skin and has an inoffensive appearance, but when combined with an
ambience with a lack of air, it transforms the healthy sebum of the skin in organic acids that attack the enzymes that act as brakes for
skin inflammation, causing swelling in the form of pimples. Once these brakes are deactivated, an explosion of chemicals produced by the
cells occurs, exacerbating the inflammation that causes acne.

● Skin cancer
Prolonged exposure to the sun's rays can lead to premature aging and a significant increase in the risk of skin cancer; the rays
penetrate the dermis, damaging its collagen and elastin fibers, and the fibers clump together giving a rough texture to the skin, it can
also damage the blood vessels of the dermis, causing swelling. Sometimes these vessels dilate permanently, leading to a condition
called telangiectasia or spider veins.

There are three types of skin cancer: basal cell carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma and melanoma.

○ Basal cell carcinoma usually appears in the form of a slightly transparent lump on the skin. It occurs most often in the areas of
the skin that are frequently exposed to the sun, such as the face, hands, and neck.
○ Squamous cell carcinoma is a type of skin cancer that develops in the squamous cells, the cells that make up the middle and
external layers of the skin, especially on the epidermis.While it's not lethal, it can cause severe complications when it grows; it
can spread in an invasive way and cause the amputation of the zone where it has appeared.
○ Melanoma is the most severe of skin cancers; it develops in the melanocytes that produce melanin and causes irregular dark
blemishes on the skin; it is responsible for most skin cancer-related deaths. It has the lowest probability of recovery, especially if
detected at an advanced stage. Its treatment consists mostly of chemo therapies to stop the growth of cancerous cells.
The circulatory system
 Structure and Function
The circulatory system's name comes from the Greek word kardia, which means heart, and the Latin word
vasculum, which means vessel. The cardiovascular system is made up of three main elements: the heart, the blood
vessels, and the blood itself.

The heart is a muscular pump the size of a closed fist; each time the heart contracts and expands generates enough
pressure to send blood through the whole body.

The blood vessels are tubes with different diameters that transport the blood.

The blood is a liquid that transports nutrients, waste, platelets, blood plasma, and blood cells.

Circulatory system functions:

● It transports nutrients from the digestive system and the storage regions to all body cells.
● It transports oxygen from the respiratory system to all body cells and eliminates carbon dioxide.
● It eliminates metabolic waste from the cells to the excretory organs.
● It transports hormones and keeps the hydrosaline balance of the body.
● It defends the body from unknown organisms and regulates the body temperature of homeothermic animals.
 Structure and Function
The atria and ventricles
The heart is divided into four compartments known as the atria and the ventricles.
● The atria are the superior compartments in charge of receiving blood from the veins; the
right atrium receives blood from two large veins, the superior vena cava and the inferior vena
cava. The left atrium receives blood coming from the lungs.
● The ventricles, just under the atria, communicate with them and receive blood from the veins.
The ventricles receive blood from the atria and are connected to the arteries, from which
blood goes back after the muscular contractions of the myocardium (its beating). The right
ventricle is connected to the pulmonary valve and sends blood to the lungs, and the left
ventricle sends it to the aortic valve connected to blood circulation in general.
 Blood vessels
There are three types of blood vessels: arteries, veins, and capillaries.
The arteries transport blood from the heart; they carry blood that gets out of it into the rest of the body. Most arteries transport oxygenated
blood, except for the pulmonary artery, which carries blood rich in carbon dioxide to the lungs. Because arteries connect to the ventricles, every
time there is a muscular contraction in the heart, they contract too; that is why we can check the heart's rate from them.

The most important arteries are:

● The pulmonary artery: It comes out of the right ventricle and carries venous blood into the lungs for oxygenation.
● The aorta: It's the thickest artery in the body; it comes out of the left ventricle and ascends only to descend through the esophagus,
branching in its trajectory to irrigate all organs and tissues of the body.
● The farthest away from the heart, the thinnest the artery, until they become so small they are called arterioles.

Veins

Veins carry blood from the organism into the heart; they send it back to the heart. All veins transport blood with carbon dioxide, the by-product
of cellular metabolism.

Capillaries

When arterioles enter the tissue, they divide into innumerable microscopic vessels called capillaries, the smallest and thinnest of the blood
vessels, so narrow that blood cells have to make a single line to cross them.

Capillaries allow the exchange of oxygen and waste in the blood and the cells of the tissue, that's why capillaries are close to almost all the
organism's cells.
Blood
• The blood transports oxygen and nutrients to all body parts so they can keep functioning. Blood also
carries carbon dioxide and other kinds of waste to the lungs, kidneys, and digestive system for their
disposal.
• Cells that make up the blood fluid
• Plasma: is a semi-transparent liquid composed mostly of water; around 55% of total blood is plasma. Its
primary function is to transport blood cells, platelets, and hundreds of other substances.
• Red blood cells of erythrocytes: In about a minute, about 140 million red blood cells are produced to
replace the old ones and those who have died; in one drop of blood, there are about 200 million red blood
cells, the red color of this cell comes from a protein called hemoglobin, which is responsible for
transporting oxygen to cells to perform their metabolic functions.
• White blood cells or leukocytes: There are five types of leukocytes: neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils,
lymphocytes, and monocytes. White blood cells are fundamental for the organism's defense; they are
responsible for destroying most pathogens.
• Platelets or thrombocytes, play a fundamental role in coagulation; they prevent us from bleeding when
there is a wound that breaks the blood vessels.
 Diseases
Presión arterial
It is the force that blood exerts on the walls of blood vessels after it has been pumped by the heart.
Blood pressure is higher during systole, when the ventricles of the heart contract to expel blood and
pump it through the arteries; this is called systolic pressure. On the other hand, blood pressure is
lower during ventricular diastole, which occurs when the heart is relaxed between beats and is called
diastolic pressure.

A healthy adult's blood pressure values should be below 120/80 mm Hg. The first number is the
systolic pressure, while the smallest represents the diastolic pressure.
Hypertension
Occurs when systolic blood pressure values are equal to or greater than 140 mm Hg and diastolic blood
pressure is equal to or greater than 90 mm Hg. Is also called the "silent killer" because it has no symptoms;
however, it is a risk factor for the development of diseases such as atherosclerosis, myocardial infarction,
kidney damage, and strokes.

Atherosclerosis
It is a cardiovascular disease in which the arteries become thicker and harden; it is complicated by high levels
of cholesterol or triglycerides in the blood, as these tend to accumulate in the walls of the arteries.

Heart arrhythmia
The heart beats at a certain rate that oscillates between 60 and 100 beats per minute. An arrhythmia occurs
when the rhythmic sequence of the heart presents an alteration. If the heartbeat is faster than normal, very
slow, or irregular, it is called an arrhythmia. And they can put the life of the person who suffers from it at risk.

Myocardial infarction
Occurs when there is a lack of blood supply to a part of the heart muscle caused by an acute and total
obstruction of one of the coronary arteries that feed it; it is the leading cause of death of both men and
women worldwide.
 Immune system
We use the word immunity to talk about the body’s response to infectious disease. The immune
system function is to protect the body of potentially harmful microorganisms and chemicals; either
eliminating them, limits the range of its damage or keep them at bay to prevent the from entering the
body. The immune system is made of white blood cells, protein antibodies, organs such as skin,
thymus, ganglia, spleen and lymphatic system.

The immune system defends us; it

acts as a protective barrier against
pathogens.
To understand better the immune system we divide it in: innate and adaptive immune systems.

Innate immunity, also called natural immunity, is essential for the body's defense in the first
minutes or hours after infection, that’s to say, it’s more related to speed than specificity. It’s made
of:
● Physical barriers: the skin (first line of defense, is nonspecific) mucosa of the digestive,
respiratory and genitourinary tracts.
● Physiological secretions: tears, gastric juice, vaginal secretions, urine.
● General reactions: cough, sneezes.

The adaptive immune system. This system can adapt itself to protect us from any invader since,
even if the innate immune system is pretty effective, it's not always enough against some viruses.
Immunologists determined that the reason why the persons that were vaccinated weren't
susceptible to smallpox was due to a protein, which they called antibodies. The reason why these
antibodies were created was that the immune system had already been in contact with an antigen.
 Lymphatic System

The lymphatic system defends us from microorganisms and

originates in multiple organs, which form and develop the
immune system located throughout the human body. To
protect us in any body part the immune system needs a
pathway like the circulatory system and this is called the
lymphatic system, a network of tissues, vessels and organs
that carry a colorless fluid called lymph. This fluid comprises
white blood cells (immune system cells), proteins, fats, and
salts.

We will separate the organs of the immune system into two

groups:

1) Primary lymphatic organs and

2) Secondary lymphatic organs