Different Geological Hazards:
If the soil becomes too weak, it can
A geological hazard or geohazard is an adverse
geologic condition capable of causing widespread
damage or loss of property and life. These hazards are
geological and environmental conditions and involve
long-term geological processes. Wikipedia.
Landslides
The sliding or falling of rock, soil, or debris down
a slope, often triggered by heavy rainfall, earthquakes,
or human activity.
The three major causes of landslides are:
1. Geological factors: These include factors such as soil
type, slope angle, and the presence of faults or
fractures in the rock. Some types of soil, such as clay
or slit, are made prone to landslides than others.
Steeps slopes are also more prone to landslides
than gentle slopes, as the force of gravity pulling on
the soil is greater. Finally, the presence of faults or
fractures in the rock can weaken the soil and
increase the risk of landslides.
2. Environmental factors: These include natural factors
such a heavy rainfall, snowmelt, earthquakes,
volcanic eruptions, and changes in groundwater
levels. Heavy rainfall can saturate the soil and
reduce its stability, making landslides more likely.
3. Human factors: These include factors such as land
use, deforestation, and construction activities.
Clearing forests and vegetation can destabilize soil
and make it more prone to landslides. Similarly,
construction activities such as excavation, filling,
and grading can also destabilize slopes and increase
the risk of landslides. Human activities that alter
drainage patterns or groundwater levels can also
contribute to landslides.
It's worth noting that landslides are often the result of a
combination of these factors.
Rainfall-induced Landslides:
Rainfall-induced landslides are landslides that
are triggered by heavy rainfall. When rainwater seeps
into the soil, it can saturate the soil the strength and
stability of the soil.
no longer support the weight of the land above it, and a
landslide can occur.
Rainfall-induced landslides can occur in areas
with steeps, loose soil, and areas with a high-water
table. These types of landslides can be particularly
dangerous because they can occur suddenly and
without warning, and they can cause significant damage
to infrastructure and loss of life.
Factors that can increase the likelihood of
rainfall-induced landslides include heavy rainfall, rapid
snowmelt, poor drainage, deforestation, and human
activity such as construction on unstable slopes or
mining activities that destabilize the soil.
To mitigate the risk of rainfall-induced
landslides, various measures can be taken, including
slope stabilization, vegetation management, improving
drainage, and avoiding development on unstable slopes.
Additionally, early warning systems can be established
to provide timely alerts to residents and emergency
responders in areas prone to landslides.
These are several signs that can indicate an impending
rainfall-induced landslides. Some of these signs include;
1. Cracking or bulging of the ground: If you notice
cracks or bulges in the ground, it could be a sign
that the soil is becoming unstable, and a landslide
may occur.
2. Changes in water flow: If you notice changes in the
flow of water in stream or rivers, it could be a sign
that the soil is becoming saturated, and a landslide
may occur.
3. Sudden changes in water levels: If you notice
sudden changes in water levels in wells or springs, it
could be a sign that the soil is becoming saturated,
and a landslide may occur.
4. Tilting of trees or utility poles: If you notice that
trees or utility poles are tilting, it could be a sign
that the soil is becoming unstable, and a landslide
may occur.
5. Cracking or settling of foundations: If you notice
cracking or settling of foundation or retaining walls,
it could be a sign that the soil is becoming unstable,
and a landslide may occur.
6. Unusual sounds or odors: If you hear unusual
sounds such as cracking or rumbling, or notice
unusual odors as gas or sulfur, it could be a sign that
the soil is becoming unstable, and a landslide may
occur.
 or empty space below the ground. Sinkholes can range
in size from small depressions to large craters and can
If you notice any of these signs, it’s important to
occur suddenly or slowly over time.
take immediate action to protect yourself and your
property. You should evacuate the area immediately and
contact local authorities for guidance. Additionally, you
There are two types of sinkholes: natural sinkholes and
should avoid driving or walking on road that are prone
human-induced sinkholes.
to landslides during heavy rainfall or other hazardous
weather conditions. 1. Natural sinkholes occur when groundwater
dissolves rocks such as limestone, gypsum, or
salt, creating voids or cavities beneath the
These are various hazards than can occur, including: surface. Over time, the surface layer of soil or
rock can collapse into these voids, creating a
1. Earthquakes: Sudden shaking or vibrations of the
sinkhole.
earth’s surface caused by the movement of
2. Human-induced sinkholes can occur because of
tectonic plates.
activities such as mining, drilling, or
2. Volcanic eruptions: Outpouring of molten rock,
construction. When these activities disturb the
ash, and gas from the earth’s crust due to the
natural balance of the soil or rock layers, they
release or pressure and heat from the earth’s
can cause the surface layer to collapse into
mantle.
underlying voids or cavities.
3. Landslides: The sliding or falling or rock, soil, or
debris down a slope, often triggered by heavy
rainfall, earthquakes, or human activity.
Types of Sinkholes
4. Tsunamis: large ocean waves caused by seismic
activity, such as earthquakes or volcanic 1. Solution sinkholes – are common in areas that
eruptions, that can cause widespread damage have cover of soil on the surface of the ground
and loss of life. which exposes the bedrock to water erosion. As
5. Sinkholes: A depression or hole in the ground the bedrock erodes, particles collect in the
caused by the collapse of a surface layer, often spaces it leaves and a small depression is
due to the dissolution of underground rock. formed over a period, eventually forming a hole.
6. Avalanches: The sudden movement of snow, ice, The bedrock may collapse suddenly, or it may
or rock down a mountain slope, often triggered happen over time.
by weather conditions, such as heavy snowfall, 2. Cover Subsidence sinkholes – this occur when
or human activity. the bedrock is covered by oil and materials that
7. Floods: The overflowing of water onto land is are not well-knitted together. The soil in these
normally dry, often due to heavy rainfall, storms, areas is made mostly of clay or sand. Once the
or melting snow. bedrock starts to erode, the clay or sand starts
8. Wildfires: Uncontrolled fires that occur in forests, to enter through the cracks and settles into the
grasslands, or other natural areas, are often spaces left behind, creating a cavity on the
sparked by lightning, human activity, or dry surface of the soil.
weather conditions. 3. Cover Collapse sinkholes – occur when the
9. Tornadoes: Rotating columns of air that extend bedrock is covered by a deep layer of soil and
from the base of a thunderstorm cloud and can earth. A crack starts once the bedrock begins to
cause severe damage to building and other get eroded. Weak points begin to form within
structures. the bedrock that cannot support the weight
10. Hurricanes and cyclones: Intense tropical storms above it. The collapse occurs in an instant and
that can cause strong winds, heavy rainfall, storm can create large holes in a matter of minutes.
surges, and flooding, often resulting in
widespread damage and loss of life.

Sinkholes can be dangerous because they can occur

Sinkholes: suddenly and without warning. They can also cause
A sinkhole is a depression or hole in the ground significant damage to infrastructure, buildings, and
that forms when the surface layer collapses into a void roads. In addition, sinkholes can have a major impact on
the environment by altering water flow patterns and
affecting natural habitats.
To mitigate the risk of sinkholes, it is important to avoid
activities that can disturb the natural balance of the soil
or rock layers, such as Over pumping groundwater true.
Or excavating without proper precautions, and
constructing buildings or infrastructure on unstable soil
or rock formations. Additionally, early warning systems
can be established to provide timely alerts to residents
and emergency responders in areas to sinkholes.
Causes of geological hazards:
Geological hazards can have a variety of cause,
both natural and human induced. Here are some of the
most common causes of geological hazards:
1. Plate tectonics: the movement of tectonic plates
can cause earthquakes, tsunamis, and volcanic
eruption.
2. Volcanic activity: volcanic eruptions can cause
landslides, ash fall, and lahar (mudflows caused
by volcanic debris mixing with water).
3. Weathering and erosion: natural processes such
as weathering and erosion can cause landslides,
rockfalls, and soil erosion.
4. Ground activities: human activities such as
mining, drilling, and construction can cause
geological hazards such as earthquakes,
landslides, and sinkholes.
5. Human activities: human activities such as
mining, drilling, and construction can cause
geological hazards such as earthquakes,
landslides, and sinkholes.
6. Climate change: climate change can cause sea
level rise, which can increase the risk of coastal
flooding and erosion.
7. Meteorite impacts: large meteorite impacts can
cause seismic activity, tsunamis, and other
geological hazards.
Understanding the cause of geological hazards is
important to prevent or mitigate their impact on human
populations and infrastructures.
Signs of impending geological hazards:
There are several signs that can indicate an
impending geological hazard. However, the signs can
vary depending on the type of hazard. Here are some
common signs to watch out for:
1. Earthquakes: earthquakes are often preceded
by foreshocks, which are smaller earthquakes
that occur before the main evet. Other signs of
an impending earthquake unusual animal
behavior, changes in the water level of wells or
springs, and cracks in the ground.
2. Volcanic eruptions: signs of an impending
volcanic eruption can include increased seismic
activity, ground deformations, and gas
emissions. Other signs may include increased
temperatures in nearby streams or lakes,
changes in the composition of volcanic gases,
and the appearance of new cracks or fissures on
the volcano’s surface.
3. Landslides: signs of an impending landslide can
include cracks in the ground, tilting of trees or
utility poles, and sudden changes in the flow of
stream. In additions, previous landslides
unusual waves, and the sound of approaching
waves.
4. Tsunamis: tsunamis are often preceded by
earthquakes, but they can also be caused by
landslides or volcanic eruptions. Signs of an
impending tsunami include a sudden
withdrawal of the sea, unusual waves, and the
sound of approaching waves.
5. Sinkholes: signs of an impending sinkhole can
include the appearance of cracks in the ground,
depressions in the soil or pavement, and the
sudden disappearance of surface water.
If you observe any of these signs, it’s important to take
precautions and seek guidance from local authorities.
. The theory of fire extinguishment is based on
Ancient Greeks considered fire as one of
their major elements like water, earth, and air.
Unlike water, earth, and air, fire is known to be just
an event that happened when matter changes from
one form to another. Fire is the rapid oxidation of a
material in the exothermal chemical process of
combustion, releasing heat, light, and various
reaction products. This diagram below
demonstrates the fire triangle.
Figure 1. Fire Triangle is an illustration to help us
understand the three important elements needed
to start and sustain fire. Right amount of these
elements will let fire occur naturally.
1. Fuel is any material that can be burned such as
solid, liquid, or gas. Combustion takes place when
fuel is converted into gaseous state as moisture is
removed. This happens when vapor is escaping
from any combustible material.
2. Heat is an energy that flows through object.
Enough amount of heat free the vapor from solid
and liquid forms of fuel. The lowest temperature
needed to form an ignitable mixture in air near the
surface of the liquid is called the flash point. The
higher the flashpoint, the more difficult it is to
ignite the material. The ignition of fire to solid and
liquid fuels varies. Most solid combustible materials
ignite immediately. Other solid combustible
materials take time to ignite due to its density.
3. Oxygen is an element, estimated 21% of it can be
found in the air. During combustion process
chemical reaction takes place. Oxygen is released
and serves as an oxidizing agent for combustible
materials. Without an oxidizing agent like oxygen
there will be no fire even of heat and fuel are
present.
removing any of the elements in the fire triangle to
suppress the fire.
1. REMOVING THE HEAT. The goal here is to lower
the temperature with is usually accomplished by
adding water as an extinguishing agent. Other
extinguishing agents include chemical and
mechanical foams.
2. REMOVING THE FUEL. In mist cases, removing
the fuel from the fire is not a practical way of
extinguishing fire except when dealing with
flammable liquid fires, valves can be shut off
and storage vessels pumped to safe areas to
help eliminate the supply of fuel to the fire.
3. REMOVE THE OXYGEN. Air is mainly 21%
oxygen, and this is sufficient to support
combustion in most fire situations. Removal of
the air or oxygen can be accomplished by
separating it from the fuel source or by
displacing it with other gases like carbon
dioxide, nitrogen, and steam. Examples of
separation would be foam on a flammable
liquid fore, a wet blanket on a trash fire, or a
tight-fitting lid on a skillet fire. Foam does not
only lower temperature but also remove
oxygen.
Lesson 2: Analyze the different causes of fires and
observe precautionary measures and proper
procedures in addressing a fire incident.
Fire may start due to natural cause or human-made
incidents.
1. Natural causes of fire such as:
a. Lighting that strikes any combustible
material which can set trees on fire
that might eventually result to forest
fire or wildfire. This is the most
common natural cause of fire.
b. Volcanic activities could also cause
fire. During activity, it spews hot
gases, ash and lava and when these
hot materials get in contact with
flammable materials it might start a
wildfire.
 c. Spontaneous combustion is another
natural cause of fire. This happens
when a hydrocarbon substance
unexpected create fire without
apparent cause. Pyrophoric
substances ignite spontaneously in
air at or 54 Degrees Celsius or within
5 minutes after getting into contact
with air. Examples of pyrophoric
substances are iron sulfide,
plutonium, and uranium.
Sometimes, it is also due to combustion of dry fuel
such as sawdust, dried leaves, and grasses.
Spontaneous combustion can arise in the presence
of substances with low ignition temperature
(requires a not too high temperature to be ignited)
like hay, straw and other types of grasses. When
these dried grasses stacked together, it releases
heat and in the presence of oxygen and moisture or
even bacterial fermentation will spontaneously
produce fire.
II. Human-made causes of fire are those products of
human errors or machine failures. Wildfires or forest
fires caused by human activities such as machinery
sparks when cutting logs in the forest, cast-away
cigarette butts in dried grasses and sometimes due
to kaingin or even arson (human inflicted fire by
directly setting the area to burn).
Housefire is a fire incident that is generally caused
by human and machine error. The following are
common causes of housefire:
a) Cooking equipment. Pots and pans can be
overheated when a person gets distracted
while cooking or leaves cooking
unattended. This is the most common
cause of housefire.
These are the following things to do and not to do
in dealing with cooking fire:
Things to do to prevent cooking fire:
1. Do not leave your cooking unattended.
2. Keep handles of pots and pans turned in.
3. Don’t put anything that catches fire near
your stove or burner.
Things to do to control cooking fire:
1. Cover the fire by placing a lid over the pan.
2. Turn off the burner or stove.
3. In case of even fire, turn off the heat and
keep the door closed.
4. In case of microwave fire, unplug the power
source and keep the door closed.
b) Heaters. Portable heaters can cause fire
when it is placed near objects that can
easily burn like curtains and laundry
clothes.
c) Smoking in bedrooms. A cigarette that is
not put out properly can cause fire as the
cigarette butts can continuously burn in a
few hours. It can also immediately cause
fire.
Fires from smoking material can be prevented by
following these tips:
1. Do not smoke in bed or anywhere that you
might fall asleep.
2. If you smoke, do it outside.
3. Do not discard cigarettes in potted plants,
landscaping vegetarian or bark dust – they
can easily catch fire.
4. Use a deep, sturdy ashtray or a non-
combustible container that cannot be
tipped over.
5. Before throwing away butts or ashes, douse
in water or sand.
6. Never smoke in a home where oxygen is
used.
d) Candles. It is not actually a hazard but when
left unattended it can easily burst into flames and
cause fire.
The following are the safety tips on how to prevent
candle fire from happening.
1. Use candle holders that are stable to prevent
the candle from falling into the floor or near
something that is flammable or easily burn.
2. Keep candles at least 12 inches away from
anything that can burn.
3. Blow out candles when you leave the room or
go to bed; avoid the use of candles in rooms
where people may fall asleep.
4. Never burn a candle if medical oxygen or any
flammable substance is nearby.
e) Curious children. Kids can sometimes cause
fire out of curiosity, so they wanted to see
what would happen if they set fire to an object.
f) Faulty wiring. Hiring with insufficient wiring
can cause fires from electrical hazard. Signs that
you can observe if you have faulty wiring are
lights dim if you use another appliance; for an
appliance to work, you must disconnect
another; and fuse blow or trip the circuit breaker
frequently.
Fires caused by electricity can be prevented by the
following appropriate actions.
1. Avoid overloading outlets. One outlet is to one
high-wattage appliance at a time.
2. Don’t use an extension cord with a major
appliance like television, air conditioner and
refrigerator. Plug it in a major power outlet.
3. In case a fuse blows, or a circuit breaker trips
often, light became dim, or outlets or switches
became heated, call a qualified electrician to
inspect and fix the problem.
4. Before using a lamp bulb check the box or label
first; the wattage of the bulb should match the
recommendation set by the lamp manufacturer.
5. Power strips with circuit breakers can be useful
tools to temporarily plug several items into an
electrical outlet, but if used incorrectly they can
cause a fire. The use of power strips and multi-
plug outlets increases the draw of electricity
through your home’s wiring. Before creating
additional electrical demand, ensure that your
wiring is in good repair and capable of carrying
the additional load (Bitonio 2013).
6. Make sure your home has ground fault circuit
interrupters (GFCIs) in the kitchens, bathroom(s),
laundry, basement, and outdoor areas, to
reduce the risk of electric shock (Bitonio 2013).
7. Arc-fault circuit interrupts (AFCIs) should be
installed in you home to protect electrical
outlets, and prevent fires due to arcing (Bitonio
2013).
8. Do not place extension cords under carpets or
mattresses because it will heat up and cause
fire.
9. Do regular checking of electrical cords and
replace immediately if damaged.
g) Barbeques. This is a great outdoor activity or
one of the famous street foods in the
Philippines. Avoid doing this activity near
tablecloths, trees or even plants.
h) Flammable liquids. Petrol, kerosene, or other
methylated substances are the most common
flammable liquids found at home that can cause
fire it not properly stored. Always store in cool, dry
place.
i) Lighting. Lamp shades and light fittings can
build heat if they are very close to light bulbs. Too
much heat can eventually ignite the materials are
result to fore incident.
j) Arson or willful fire-raising.
Fire Safety Precautions

Good fire safety practice that you should follow
includes.
1. Keeping your workplace tidy and having a good
standard of housekeeping.
2. Regularly removing combustible waste,
including accumulations of dust.
3. Keeping ignition sources away from
combustible material or flammable liquids and
gases; and
4. Keeping use of flammable liquids to minimum
and closing containers when not in use.
Teachers, students, and other school personnel who
are at or near the fire’s point of origin, shall follow
the procedures outlined by the R.A.C.E. Fire
Response Procedure.
1. Rescue all stakeholders from direct danger.
Note: you will only try to RESCUE anyone on
immediate danger from the fire, if. It
does not endanger your life.
2. Alarm by pulling the closest fire station and
reporting the location of the fire. Sound the fire
alarm to warn people of the approaching
disaster and safely evacuate all stakeholders.
3. Confine the areas by closing all doors. A
“contained” fire is one with a complete
containment line around its perimeter. A fire
that’s “under control” has a full containment line
around it, and there has been a degree of
consolidation so fire escaping outside the lines
is unlikely.
4. Extinguish the fire if the fire is small. Evacuate all
personnel from the area if instructed to do so
by fire officials or school authorities to
extinguish a fire is to completely stop a fire.
What should you do during a fire incident?
1. Check the door.
Check if there is smoke coming from under the
door or if the door is hot to touch. It the door is
cool to touch, open it slowly and pass. It not,
keep it closed and stay in the room. Place wet
towels on the gaps to prevent fire and smoke
from coming in. having someone pop out of a
window and wave something bright, like a
flashlight or brightly colored cloth, to signal for
help. Once out od the room, use your building’s
emergency exit and evacuate immediately
without panic.
2. P.A.S.S.
To use a fire extinguisher, first Pull the pin in the
handle. Aim the nozzle at the base of the fire.
Squeeze the lever slowly and sweep from side
to side. Use a fire extinguisher if and only if it is
within reach, and only to put out small fires. If
the fire is big, leave!
3. Stay low!
Crawl and cover your nose and mouth. Smoke is
toxic and inhaling large amounts can render you
unconscious. Once you are outside, call the fire
department. Do not attempt to go back to the
burning building.
4. Stop, Drop, and Roll
If your clothes caught fire, do not panic, or
touch the flame as it could only spread the fire.
Stop moving, drop on the ground, and roll
around until the fire is put out. Doing this will
lessen injuries and put out the fire as quickly as
possible.
5. National Emergency Hotline 911
Nothing is better than being prepared. Before
fire happens, be aware of the fire exits in your
building and homes. Make sure you know the
emergency number for your town or city.
School Fire Safety Education
1. Educating and preparing students for a fire
emergency should be a priority.
2. Conduct expected and unexpected monthly
school fire drills in which everyone participates.
3. Inspect exits regularly to ensure stairways, doors
and windows are unblocked and working
properly.
4. Train students on how to respond to a fire alarm
during a school fire drill.
5. Know locations of the fire protection system, fire
alarm pulls stations and sprinklers.
6. Make sure every room has a map showing 2
exits.
7. Pair students with specific needs to an adult or
classmate for extra assistance.
8. Have a predetermined location where students
know to meet once they exit the building and
practice during a school fire drill.
9. Have a list to ensure every student is accounted
for.
10. Encourage parents to practice home fire drills
and prepare them in the event of a residential
fire.