CHAPTER 8

NATURAL HAZARDS, MITIGATION

and ADAPTATION:
GEOLOGIC PROCESSES and HAZARDS
 HAZARDS DUE TO EARTHQUAKE
• An earthquake is caused by the sudden release of
slowly accumulating strain energy along a fault within
the Earth’s crust.
• The magnitude of the earthquake describes the extent
and severity of the damage it may cause.
• Magnitude measures the energy released at source of
the earthquake while intensity measures the strength
of shaking produced by the earthquake at a certain
location.
• A large earthquake will always be followed by a
sequence of aftershocks.
 GROUND SHAKING
• Is simply the vibration of the land surface. It occurs
if an earthquake generates intensity causing man
made structures like buildings, bridges and dams to
be severely damage.
• Causes cliffs and sloping ground to be destabilized.
• The severity and damage are determined by factors
such as topography, bedrock type, location, and the
orientation of the fault rupture.
• 2 most important geologic characteristics that affects
levels of ground shaking during an earthquake
a) Softness of the ground at a site
b) Total thickness of sediments above hard bedrock
The softer and thicker the soil, the greater the shaking
or amplification of waves produced by an earthquake.
• 2 critical factors(assessing damage of
earthquake on physical structures)
a) Height of the building
b) Distance of the structures
 SURFACE FAULTING
• Also known as surface rupture is the offset or
tearing of the ground surface by differential
movement along a fault during an earthquake.
• Magnitude of 5.5 or greater
• Associated with shallow earthquakes
• Epicenter is less than 20 kilometers
• Occur at three to four kilometers from the main
fault.
• Took place in Bohol after a 7.1 magnitude
earthquake in 2013
  EARTHQUAKE-INDUCED LANDSLIDES

• Occur under a wide range of conditions: in

steeply sloping to nearly flat land; in bedrock,
loose sediments, fill, and mine dumps; under
dry and wet conditions.
• Moisture content can be considered as
criterion for classification
• Can occur only under very wet conditions
Path of a massive landslide triggered by the 2001 earthquake at
the suburb of Santa Tecla. Nearly 666 were reported death and
2000 individuals were missing

• Rock Avalanche, rock falls, mudflows and rapid earth

flows(liquefaction) account for over 90 percent of the
death due to earthquake-induced landslides.
  Rock Avalanches or Rock Slides
• Originate on over-steepened slopes in weak
rocks.
• It is a stream of very rapidly moving debris
derived from the disintegration of a fallen rock
mass of very large size
• Speed exceeds 100 km/h
• Volume is greater 1 x 106m3
• Most hazardous landslides phenomena due to
speed, size and run-out distance.
• Can be very destructive.
  ROCK FALLS
• Is a sudden steep drop of rock fragments or
debris.
• Commonly occur on steep cliffs and may
involve a single rock or a mass of rocks.
• The rock fragments accumulate in a sloping
pile known as talus (pronounced as tay-less)
• Usually happens on mountainous areas
• Result of cliff and hillside erosion.
Geologic factors(directly influence a rock fall hazard)
• Physical and Chemical Changes in rocks
• Rock Strength

Determines the movement of the rock as it moves down

the slope surface.
The most dangerous surfaces act as ‘ski-jumps’ and impart a
high horizontal velocity to the falling rock, causing it to bounce
a ,long way out from the toe of the slope.
  MUDFLOWS
• Are rapidly moving wet earth flows that can
be initiated by earthquake shaking or a heavy
rainstorm.
• Mudflow triggered by an earthquake occurs
when the soil is saturated with water or the
water content of soil is high.
• Becomes more destructive if the soil is
drenched by rainwater.
• Mudflows associated with volcanoes are
called lahars.
• Lahars are part of the family of debris flow
that are fluids composed of mixtures of water
and particles
• Lahars are composed of volcanic particles
which originate directly or indirectly from
volcanic actions.
• Lahars are formed by hot pyroplastic surges or
flows entering the water shed system.
  LIQUEFACTION
• Is a phenomenon in which the strength and
stiffness of a soil are reduced by earthquake
shaking.
• When liquefaction occurs, the strength of the
soil decreases and the ability of soil deposit to
support foundations for buildings and bridges
reduced.
• It occurs in saturated soils; where the space
between the individual particle is completely
filled with water.
Effects of
Liquefaction caused
by the earthquake
On apartment
buildings in Niigata,
Honshu, Japan

Collapse of
the Showa
Bridge in
Niigata
caused by
liquefaction
• In the liquefied condition, soil deformation may
occur with a little shear resistance.
• The occurrence of liquefaction is restricted to a
certain geologic and hydrologic environments,
primarily in areas with recently deposited sands
and silts with high-ground water levels.
• Liquefaction can be prevented by ground-
stabilization techniques or addressed through
appropriate engineering design, but both are
expensive methods of mitigation.
• Reclaimed or dredged lands are also prone to
liquefaction.
 Activity: “Is our House Earthquake Safe”
Direction: Using the Checklist, determine whether your house is earthquake safe
or not.
HAZARDS DUE TO LANDSLIDES
• IsThere
a general
are atterm
leastused
10 types
to describe
of landslides
the downslope
according to
movement
the United of States
soil, Geological
rock and organic
Surveymaterials
(USGS). They
under the
effects
commonlyof gravity
occurand in mountainous
also the landform
and coastal
that results
areas from
of
such
the world.
movement.
• USGS defines defines landslide as a “ wide variety of
processes that result in the downward and outward
movement of slope-forming materials including rock,
soil, artificial fill, or a combination of these. The
materials may move by falling, toppling, sliding,
spreading, or flowing.”
ANATOMY OF LANDSLIDES
1. Rotational Slide
• This is a slide in which the
surface of rupture is curved
concavely upward and the
slide movement is roughly
rotational about an axis that
is parallel to the ground
surface and transverse
across the slide.

2. Translational Slide
• The landslide mass moves
along a roughly planar
surface with little rotation
or backward tilting.
3. Block Slide
• Is a translational slide in
which the moving mass
consists of a single unit or a
few closely related units
that move downslope as a
relatively coherent mass.
4. Fall
• Falls are abrupt movements
of masses of geologic
materials, such as rocks,
boulders, which become
detached from steep slopes
or cliffs. It is strongly
influenced by gravity,
mechanical weathering, and
the presence of interstitial
water.
5. Topple
• Toppling failures are
distinguished by the
forward rotation of a unit or
units about some pivotal
point, below or low in the
unit, under the actions of
gravity and forces exerted
by adjacent units or by
fluids in cracks.

6. Debris Avalanche
• This is a variety of very rapid
to extremely rapid flow.
7. Debris Flow
• Is a from of rapid mass
movement in which a
combination of loose soil,
rocks, organic matter, air,
and water mobilize as slurry
that flows downslope.
• Intense surface-water flow
8. Earthflow
• It has a characteristic
“hourglass” shape. The
slope material liquefies and
runs out, forming a bowl of
depression at the head.
• Mudflow is an earthflow
consisting of material that is
wet enough to flow rapidly
and that contains at least
50% sand-, silt-, and clay
sized particles.
9. Creep 10. Lateral Spreads
• Creep is the imperceptibly slow, • Are distinctive because they
steady, downward movement of
slope-forming soil or rock. usually occur in very gentle
3 types: slopes or flat terrain.
 Seasonal- movement is within the • The dominant mode of
depth of soil affected by seasonal movement is lateral
changes in soil moisture and soil
temperature extension accompanied by
 Continuous- shear stress shear or tensile fractures.
continuously exceeds the
strength of the material
 Progressive- slopes are reaching
the point of failure as other types
of mass movement
 HAZARDS DUE to VOLCANO
ERUPTIONS
• Volcanic eruptions, like earthquakes are
related to tectonic plate motion.
• Volcanoes bring about a diversity of hazards to
humans, including clouds of hot gasses
carrying rock and sand , blast effects, ash falls,
and mudflows.
 Mt. Pinatubo June 12,1991 Eruption
• The picture above shows a huge column of pyroplastic materials
ejected by Mt. Pinatubo during its explosive eruption in 1991.
 Hazards associated with volcanic eruptions

1. Lava flow
• Lava is a molten rock that
flows out of a volcano or
volcanic vent.
• Lava can be very fluid or very
sticky(viscous).
• Fluid flows are hotter and
move the fastest.
• Viscous flows are cooler and
travel shorter distances
• Lava flows are extremely hot–
between 1000-2000 C (1800-
3600 F)
 Hazards associated with volcanic eruptions

2. Pyroclastic Density Current(Pyroclastic flow)

• Is an explosive eruptive
phenomenon.
• It is a mixture of pulverized
rock, ash, and hot gases,
and can move at speeds of
hundreds of miles per hour.
• It can travel short distances
or hundreds of miles from
its source
• Can move at speeds of up to
1000 kph (650 mph).
• It is extremely hot-up to 400
C (750 F).
 Hazards associated with volcanic eruptions

3. Pyroclastic Falls
• Also known as volcanic fallout, occur
when tephra--fragmented rock hanging
a millimeter tens of centimeters– is
ejected from a volcanic vent during an
eruption and falls to the ground some
distance away from the vent.
• Falls are associated with Plinian
eruptive columns , ash clouds, or
volcanic plumes.
• Some Pyroclastic falls contain toxic
chemicals that can be absorbed into
plants and local water supplies which
could be dangerous.
• The main danger of pyroplastic falls is
their weight: tephra of size Is made up
of pulverized rock and can be heavy if it
gets wet.
 Hazards associated with volcanic eruptions

4. Lahars
• Lahars are a specific kind of
mudflow made of volcanic
debris.
• Lahars flow like liquids; but
because they contain
suspended material, they
usually have a consistency
similarly to wet concrete.
• Travel at speed of over 80 kph
(50 mph)
• Lahars are not as fast nor hot
as volcanic hazards, but they
are extremely destructive.
• Lahars can be detected using
acoustic(sound) monitors,
which give people time to
reach high ground.
 Hazards associated with volcanic eruptions

5. Volcano Landslides
• A landslide or debris avalanche
is a rapid downhill movement
of rocky material, snow , and
ice.
• Volcano landslides range in
size from small movements of
loose debris on the surface of
a volcano to massive collapse
of the entire summit or sides
of a volcano.
• Steep Volcanoes are
susceptible to landslides
because they are built partly
of layers of loose volcanic rock
fragments.
 Hazards associated with volcanic eruptions

6. Volcanic Gases
• Volcanic gases are dissolved in
magma
• The most abundant volcanic
gas is water vapor which is
harmless.
• Magma also releases volcanic
gases such as carbon dioxide,
sulfur dioxide, hydrogen
sulfide and hydrogen halides
• A very serious hazard can
occur under certain conditions
from volcanic emissions of
carbon dioxide.
• Volcanic gases can also
severely damage vegetation.
 VOLCANIC GASES

7. Carbon Dioxide
• Volcanoes releases between
about 180 and 440 million
tons of carbon dioxide.
• When this colorless, odorless
gas is emitted from volcanoes,
it typically becomes diluted to
low concentrations very
quickly and Is not life
threatening.
• Breathing air with more than
3% CO2 can quickly leads to
headaches, dizziness, and
difficulty breathing.
• Ratios exceeding about 15%
CO2 causes unconscious and
death.
• High concentrations of CO2
gas in soils can destroy and
damage vegetation.
 VOLCANIC GASES

8. Sulfur Dioxide (SO2)

• Sulfur dioxide is a colorless
gas with a pungent odor
that irritates skin and the
tissues and mucous
membranes of the eyes,
nose, and throat.
• SO2 emissions can cause
acid rain and air pollution
downwind of a volcano.
• SO2 is converted to sulfate
aerosols w/c reflect sunlight
and therefore have a
cooling effect on the Earth’s
climate.
 VOLCANIC GASES

9. Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S)

• Hydrogen Sulfide is a colorless,
flammable gas with a strong,
offensive odor.
• Sometimes referred to as
sewer gas.
• The human nose is more
sensitive to H2S than any gas
monitoring instrument.
• Air mixture of 0.000001 H2S
are associated with a rotten
egg smell.
• At mixing ratios above about
0.01% H2S becomes odorless
and very toxic.
 VOLCANIC GASES

10. Hydrogen Halides(HF,HCI,HBr)

• Hydrogen Halides are strong,
toxic acids.
• When the magma ascends
close to the surface,
volcanoes can emit the
halogens fluorine, chlorine,
and bromine in the form of
hydrogen halides(HF, HCI and
HBr).
• In an ash-producing eruption,
ash particles are also often
coated with hydrogen halides.
Once deposited, these coated
ash particles can poison
drinking water supplies,
agricultural crops, and grazing
land.
 Sulfur Dioxide and Earth’s climate
• Once sulfur dioxide reaches the lower
stratosphere , sulfur dioxide is converted to
sulfuric acid. It quickly condenses and becomes
sulphate aerosols.
• Sulfuric acid in the stratosphere influnces the
surface temperature by reflecting solar enery into
space reducing the amount of sunlight reaching
the earth’s surface creating a cooling effect.
• The jet stream carries the ash and sulphuric
across the globe thereby affecting large section of
the earth.