HPGD1103: Curriculum Development

Faculty of Education and Languages
HPGD1103
Curriculum Development
HPGD1103
CURRICULUM
DEVELOPMENT
Prof Dr John Arul Phillips
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Project Directors: Prof Dato’ Dr Mansor Fadzil
Assoc Prof Dr Chung Han Tek
Open University Malaysia
Module Writer: Prof Dr John Arul Phillips

Adapted by: Teh Lai Ling

Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

First Edition, October 2010

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM), December 2011, HPGD1103
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means
without the written permission of the President, Open University Malaysia (OUM).

Table of Contents
Course Guide xii-xvii
Course Assignment Guide xxii-xxv
Topic 1 What is Curriculum? 1

1.1 Definitions of Curriculum 4
1.2 The Hidden Curriculum 7
1.3 Curriculum Approaches 8
1.3.1 Curriculum as Content 8
1.3.2 Curriculum as Product 9
1.3.3 Curriculum as Process 11
1.4 Foundations of Curriculum 12
1.5 Curriculum Development 14
1.6 Curriculum as a Discipline 15
1.7 Curriculum and Instruction 16
Summary 18
Key Terms 18
References 19
Topic 2 Philosopical Foundations of Curriculum 20

2.1 What is Philosophy? 22
2.2 Philosophy of Education 23
2.3 Philosophy and Curriculum 23
2.4 Perennialism 25
2.4.1 What is Perennialism? 25
2.4.2 The Perennialist Curriculum 25
2.5 Essentialism 28
2.5.1 What is Essentialism? 28
2.5.2 The Essentialist Curriculum 29
2.6 Progressivism 30
2.6.1 What is Progressivism? 30
2.6.2 The Progressive Curriculum 31
2.7 Reconstructionism 32
2.7.1 What is Reconstructionism? 32
2.7.2 The Reconstructionist Curriculum 33
2.8 Abu Nasr Al-Farabi 35
2.8.1 Al-Farabi on Education 35
2.8.2 Al-Farabi on Curriculum 36

iv  TABLE OF CONTENTS
2.9 Confucius 38
2.9.1 Confucius on Education 38
2.9.2 Confucius on Curriculum 39
2.10 Rabindranath Tagore 40
2.10.1 Tagore on Education 40
2.10.2 Tagore on Curriculum 41
Summary 42
Key Terms 43
References 44
Topic 3 Pyschological Foundations of Curriculum 45

3.1 Understanding Learning 47
3.2 Behaviourism 48
3.2.1 Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) 49
3.2.2 Edward Thorndike (1874-1949) 49
3.2.3 B. Frederick Skinner (1900-1980) 50
3.2.4 Walter Bandura (1925 ă Present) 52
3.2.5 Behaviourism in the Classroom 53
3.3 Cognitivism 53
3.3.1 The Information Processing Approach 54
3.3.2 Meaningful Learning 56
3.3.3 Levels of Cognitive Development 58
3.3.4 Metacognition 59
3.3.5 Cognitivism in the Classroom 60
3.4 Constructivism 61
3.4.1 Learning is the Active Construction Of Knowledge 62
3.4.2 Learning is a Social Activity 63
3.4.3 Constructivism in the Classroom 64
3.5 Humanism 65
3.5.1 Abraham Maslow 65
3.5.2 Carl Rogers 66
3.5.3 Arthur Combs 66
3.5.4 Humanism in the Classroom 67
Summary 69
Key Terms 70
References 70
Topic 4 Social and Historical Foundations of Curriculum 72

4.1 Society and Curriculum 75
4.2 Changing Economy and Curriculum 77
4.3 The Changing Family Institution and Curriculum 78
4.4 Cultural Diversity and Curriculum 79
4.5 Special Interest Groups and Curriculum 80

TABLE OF CONTENTS  v
4.6 Knowledge that is Most Worth 82

4.7 Evolution of Curriculum 83
4.7.1 Case Study 1: History of the American School
Curriculum 84
4.7.2 Case Study 2: History of Japan's School Curriculum 89
Summary 94
Key Terms 94
References 95
Topic 5 Curriculum Planning 96

5.1 The Curriculum Development Process 97
5.2 Models of Curriculum Development 98
5.2.1 The Tyler Model 98
5.2.2 The Taba Model 101
5.2.3 The Saylor and Alexander Model 103
5.3 Goals of Education 105
5.4 Levels of Goals 106
5.4.1 Educational Philosophy 107
5.4.2 Education Goals 109
5.4.3 Curriculum Goals 110
5.4.4 Curriculum Objectives 110
5.4.5 Instructional Goals 112
5.4.6 Instructional Objectives 112
5.5 Instructional Objectives or Learning Outcomes 113
5.6 Classifying Instructional Objectives or Learning Outcomes 114
5.6.1 Cognitive Domain 115
5.6.2 Affective Domain 116
5.6.3 Psychomotor Domain 117
Summary 119
Key Terms 119
References 120
Topic 6 Curriculum Design 122

6.1 What Is Curriculum Design? 124
6.2 Content Selection 125
6.2.1 What is Content? 125
6.2.2 How Should Students Learn Content? 125
6.2.3 How Should Content Be Selected? 126
6.3 Principles of Content Organisation 127
6.3.1 Scope 127
6.3.2 Sequence 128
6.3.3 Integration 129

vi  TABLE OF CONTENTS
6.3.4 Continuity 130

6.3.5 Case Study: The Integrated Curriculum 131
6.4 Selection of Learning Experiences 132
6.4.1 What Are Learning Experiences? 132
6.4.2 Criteria for Selection of Learning Experiences 133
6.5 Curriculum Designs 134
6.5.1 Subject-Centred Designs 136
6.5.2 Learner-Centred Designs 138
6.5.3 Problem-Centred Designs 141
Summary 143
Key Terms 143
References 144
Topic 7 Curriculum Implementation 146

7.1 What is Curriculum Implementation? 149
7.2 Curriculum Implementation as a Change Process 150
7.3 Types of Curriculum Change 152
7.4 Resistance to Change 153
7.5 Case Study: Curriculum Reform and Implementation in
Indonesia 156
7.6 Individuals Involved in Curriculum Implementation 157
7.6.1 Teachers 158
7.6.2 Students 160
7.6.3 Principals or Headmasters 160
7.6.4 Parents 161
7.7 Case Study: England' National Curriculum for Secondary
Schools 162
7.8 Implementing Curriculum in The classroom 164
Summary 168
Key Terms 168
References 169
Topic 8 Curriculum Evaluation 170

8.1 Curriculum Evaluation 172
8.2 Formative and Summative Evaluation 173
8.2.1 Formative Evaluation 173
8.2.2 Summative Evaluation 174
8.3 Curriculum Evaluation Models 175
8.3.1 Context, Input, Process, Product Model
(CIPP Model) 175
8.3.2 Case Study: Evaluation of a Programme on
Technology Integration in Teaching and Learning
in Secondary Schools 178

TABLE OF CONTENTS  vii
8.3.3 Stake's Countenance Model 179

8.3.4 Eisner's Connoisseurship Model 180
8.4 Phases of Curriculum Evaluation 183
8.5 Instrumentation for Curriculum Evaluation 183
8.5.1 Questionnaires and Checklists 184
8.5.2 Interviews 184
8.5.3 Observations 185
8.5.4 Documents 185
8.6 Case Study: Evaluation of a Mathematics Curriculum in
South Africa 188
Key Terms 189
References 190
Topic 9 Curriculum Issues and Trends 191

9.1 Some Challenges 193
9.1.1 Information Age 194
9.1.2 Changing Workplace 195
9.1.3 Influence of the Media 195
9.1.4 Participation in the Democratic Process 195
9.2 Curriculum Issues 196
9.2.1 Differentiated Curriculum For the Gifted 196
9.2.2 Compensatory Education 198
Summary 200
Key Terms 200
References 201
Topic 10 Fiture Directions 202

10.1 Character Education 202
10.2 Performance Assessment 203
10.3 Retooling Schools for the Future 207
10.3.1 Schools for All 208
10.3.2 Thinking Goes to School 211
10.3.3 Personalised Schools 214
10.3.4 Technology-Based Schools 215
Summary 216
Key Terms 217
References 217

viii  TABLE OF CONTENTS

COURSE GUIDE

x  COURSE GUIDE

COURSE GUIDE  xi
Table of Contents
Welcome to HPGD1103 xii
What is this Course All About? xii

Description of the Course xii
Objectives of the Course xii
How Can You Get the Most from this Course? xiii
Learning Package xiii
Course Synopsis xiii
Organisation of Course Content xiii
How Will You be Assessed? xvi

Assessment Format xvi
What Forms of Support Will You Get in Studying the Course? xvi
Seminars xvi
MyINSPIRE Online Discusions xvi
Facilitator xvii
Library Resources xvii
Learner Connexxions xvii
Final Remarks xvii

xii  COURSE GUIDE
WELCOME TO HPGD1103 CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

Welcome to HPGD1103 Curriculum Development. This is one of the required
courses for the Post Graduate Diploma in Teaching programme at Open
University Malaysia. You are encouraged to tap into your experiences as a
teacher, instructor, lecturer or trainer to relate to the concepts and principles that
will be discussed. This is a 3-credit course conducted over a semester of 14
weeks.
WHAT IS THE COURSE ALL ABOUT

Description of the Course
Educators are often faced with the task of conceptualising and developing
different types of curriculum for various levels of education. An understanding
of the development process would be useful for those involved in such activities.
The course explores the various definitions of curriculum, followed by discussion
on how philosophical beliefs, psychological perspectives, societal demands and
the legacy of history impact the curriculum. Next, the curriculum development
process is discussed with particular emphasis on curriculum planning,
curriculum design, curriculum implementation and curriculum evaluation.
Finally, the course focuses on the issues and future trends in curriculum
development in the context of todayÊs dynamic society.
Objectives of the Course

The course aims to develop an understanding of the following areas:
1. Compare, apply and disseminate the various definitions of curriculum;
2. Explain and formulate how philosophy, psychology, history and society

impact curriculum;
3. Elaborate the four phases of the curriculum development process, namely;

planning, design, implementation and evaluation as well as describe the
phase that is most related to teaching and learning;
4. Evaluate the issues of curriculum development;

COURSE GUIDE  xiii
5. Apply curriculum concepts, principles and theories to the teaching and

learning environment; and
6. Demonstrate an ability to communicate ideas in written form.
HOW CAN YOU GET THE MOST OUT FROM THIS

COURSE?
Learning Package
In this Learning Package, you are provided with THREE sets of course materials:
1. The Course Guide, which you are currently reading;

2. The Course Assignment Guide (which describes the assignments to be
submitted and the examination you have to sit for); and
3. The Course Content (consisting of 10 topics).
Please ensure that you have all of these materials at the start of the course.
Course Synopsis
This course is divided into 10 topics. The synopsis for each topic can be listed as
follows:
Topic 1 examines different definitions of curriculum, what is the hidden

curriculum, approaches in viewing curriculum and a brief introduction to the
curriculum development process.
Topic 2 analyses four main philosophical beliefs (perennialism, essentialism,

progressivism and reconstructionism) and how they influence curriculum.
Topic 3 evaluates four psychological perspectives (behaviourism, cognitivism,

humanism and constructivism) and how they influence curriculum.
Topic 4 explores how societal forces and demands (culture, work, technology
and globalisation) influence curriculum. The curriculum of the United States and
Japan are examined to show how curriculum has changed over time.
Topic 5 compares the curriculum development models of Tyler, Taba, Alexander

and Saylor and the tasks involved at different levels of curriculum planning.
xiv  COURSE GUIDE
Topic 6 examines the criteria for content selection (significance, utility,

learnability, feasibility and utility), the principles of content organisation
(sequence, scope, integration and balance) and models of curriculum design
(subject-matter, learner-centred and problem-centred).
Topic 7 discusses curriculum implementation as a change process, the categories

of curriculum change, the resistance to change, why people resist change and the
role and responsibilities of people involved in curriculum implementation.
Topic 8 compares three curriculum evaluation models (CIPP, Stakes

Countenance model and Eisner's Connoisseurship model) and the techniques of
data collection for decision making.
Topic 9 critically evaluates different curriculum issues such as the impact of

globalisation, the knowledge economy, national unity and citizenship education.
Topic 10 focuses on character curriculum suggest possible scenarios of future in

determining the curriculum.
Organisation of Course Content

In distance learning, a print module such as this replaces the university lecturer.
This is one of the main advantages of distance learning where specially designed
study allows you to study at your own pace, anywhere and at anytime. Think of
it as reading the lecture instead of listening to a lecturer. In the same way that a
lecturer might assign something for you to read or do, the module tells you what
to read, when to read and when to do the activities. Just as a lecturer might ask
you questions in class, your module provides exercises for you to do at
appropriate points.
To help you read and understand the individual topics, numerous realistic
examples support all definitions, concepts and theories. Diagrams and text are
combined into a visually appealing, easy-to-read module. Throughout the course
contents, diagrams, illustrations, tables and charts are used to reinforce
important points and simplify the more complex concepts. The module has
adopted the following features in each topic:

COURSE GUIDE  xv
LEARNING OUTCOMES
This is a listing of what you should be able to do after successful
completion of a topic. In other words, whether you are be able to explain,
compare, evaluate, distinguish, list, describe, relate and so forth. You
should use these indicators to guide your study. When you have finished a
topic, you must go back and check whether you have achieved the learning
outcomes or be able to do what is required of you. If you make a habit of
doing this, you will improve your chances of understanding the contents of
the course.
 INTRODUCTION
Lists the headings and sub-headings of each topic to provide an overview of the
contents of the topic and prepare you for the major concepts to be studied and
learned.
ACTIVITY
These are situations drawn from research projects to show how

knowledge of the principles of research methodology may be applied to
real-world situations. The activities illustrate key points and concepts
dealt with in each topic.
SELF-CHECK
Questions are interspersed at strategic points in the topic to encourage

review of what you have just read and retention of recently learned
material. The answers to these questions are found in the paragraphs
before the questions. This is to test immediately whether you
understand the few paragraphs of text you have read. Working
through these tests will help you determine whether you understand
the topic and prepare you for the assignments and the examination.

xvi  COURSE GUIDE
The main ideas of each topic are listed in brief sentences to provide a review of
the content. You should ensure that you understand every statement listed. If
you do not, go back to the topic and find out what you do not know.
At the end of each topic a list of articles and topics of books is provided that is
directly related to the contents of the topic. As far as possible the articles and
books suggested for further reading will be available in OUMÊs Digital Library
which you can access and OUMÊs Library. Also, relevant internet resources are
made available to enhance your understanding of selected curriculum concepts
and principles as applied in real-world situations.
HOW WILL YOU BE ASSESSED?

Assessment Format
Pleas refer to myINSPIRE.
WHAT FORMS OF SUPPORT WILL YOU GET IN

STUDYING THE COURSE?
Seminars
There are 15 hours of seminars or face-to-face interaction supporting the course.
This consists of or FIVE tutorial sessions of 3 hours each. You will be notified of
the dates, times and location of these tutorials, together with the names and
phone number of your facilitator, as soon as you are allocated into a tutorial
group.
MyINSPIRE Online Discussion

Besides the face-to-face tutorial sessions, you have the support of online
discussions. You should interact with other students and your tutor using
myINSPIRE. Your contributions to the online discussion will greatly enhance

COURSE GUIDE  xvii
your understanding of course content, how to go about doing the assignments

and preparation for the examination.
Facilitator
Your facilitator will mark your assignments and provide assistance to you during
the course. Do not hesitate to discuss during the seminar sessions or online if:
You do not understand any part of the course content or the assigned
readings.
You have difficulty with the self-tests and activities.
You have a question or problem with the assignments.
Library Resources
The Digital Library has a large collection of books and journals which you can
access using your student ID.
Learner Connexxions
This online bulletin provides interesting and relevant information to help you
along the programme. There are can be useful study hints and you can read
about the experiences of other distant learners.
FINAL REMARKS
Once again, welcome to the course. To maximise your gain from this course you
should try at all times relate what you are studying with the real-world of
classrooms, schools and learners. Look at the environment in your institution
and ask yourself whether they provide opportunities for research. Most of the
ideas, concepts and principles you learn in this course have practical
applications. It is important to realise that much we do in education and training
has to be based on sound theoretical foundations. The contents of this course
provide the principles for doing research in education whether it is in a school,
college, university or training organisation.
We wish you success with the course and hope that you will find it interesting,
useful and relevant towards your development as a professional.

xviii  COURSE GUIDE

COURSE ASSIGNMENT
GUIDE

xx  COURSE ASSIGNMENT GUIDE

COURSE ASSIGNMENT GUIDE  xxi
Table of Contents
Introduction xxii
Academic Writing xxii

(a) Plagiarism? xxii
 What is Plagiarism? xxii
 How Can You Avoid Plagiarism? xxiii
(b) Documenting Sources xxiii

Ć Direct xxiii
Ć Indirect xxiii
(c) Referencing xxiv

Ć Journal xxiv
Ć Online Journal xxiv
Ć Webpage xxiv
Ć Book xxiv
Ć Article in a Book xxiv
Ć Printed Newspaper xxiv
Details about Assignments xxi

 Facilitator-Marked Assignment (FMA) xxi
 General Criteria for Assessment of FMA xxv

xxii  COURSE ASSIGNMENT GUIDE
INTRODUCTION
The Assignment Guide provides an outline on how you will be assessed in this
course during the semester. It contains details of the Facilitator-marked
assignments, final examination and participation required for the course.
One element in the assessment strategy of the course is that all students and
facilitators should have the same information about the answers to be assessed.
Therefore, this guide also contains the marking criteria that facilitators will use in
assessing your work.
Please read through the whole guide at the beginning of the course.
ACADEMIC WRITING
(a) Plagiarism
(i) What is Plagiarism?

Any written assignment (essays, projects, take-home examinations,
etc.) submitted by a student must not be deceptive regarding the
abilities, knowledge, or amount of work contributed by the student.
There are many ways that this rule can be violated. Among them are:
Paraphrases: The student paraphrases a closely reasoned argument of an

author without acknowledging that he or she has done so.
(Clearly, all our knowledge is derived from somewhere, but
detailed arguments from clearly identifiable sources must
be acknowledged.)
Outright Large sections of the paper are simply copied from other
plagiarism: sources, and are not acknowledged as quotations.
Other Often include essays written by other students or sold by
sources: unscrupulous organisations. Quoting from such papers is
perfectly legitimate if quotation marks are used and the
source is cited.
Works by Taking credit deliberately or not deliberately for works
others: produced by another without giving proper
acknowledgement. Works include photographs, charts,
graphs, drawings, statistics, video-clips, audio-clips, verbal
exchanges such as interviews or lectures, performances on
television and texts printed on the web.
Duplication: The student submits the same essay to two or more
courses.
COURSE ASSIGNMENT GUIDE  xxiii
(ii) How Can you Avoid Plagiarism?

 Insert quotation marks around Âcopy and pasteÊ clause, phrase,
sentence, paragraph and cite the original source.
 Paraphrase clause, phrase, sentence or paragraph in your own

words and cite your source.
 Adhere to the APA (American Psychological Association) stylistic

format, whichever applicable, when citing a source and when
writing out the bibliography or reference page.
 Attempt to write independently without being overly dependent

of information from anotherÊs original works.
 Educate yourself on what may be considered as common

knowledge (no copyright necessary), public domain (copyright
has expired or not protected under copyright law), or copyright
(legally protected).
(b) Documenting Sources

Whenever you quote, paraphrase, summarise, or otherwise refer to the
work of another, you are required to cite its source parenthetical
documentation. Offered here are some of the most commonly cited forms of
material.
 Direct Simply having a thinking skill is no assurance that children

will use it. In order for such skills to become part of day-to-
day behaviour, they must be cultivated in an environment
that value and sustains them. „Just as childrenÊs musical
skills will likely lay fallow in an environment that doesnÊt
encourage music, learnerÊs thinking skills tend to languish
in a culture that doesnÊt encourage thinking‰ (Tishman,
Perkins & Jay, 1995, p.5)
 Indirect According to Wurman (1988), the new disease of the 21st

century will be information anxiety, which has been defined
as the ever-widening gap between what one understands
and what one thinks one should understand.

xxiv  COURSE ASSIGNMENT GUIDE
(c) Referencing
All sources that you cite in your paper should be listed in the Reference
section at the end of your paper. HereÊs how you should do your Reference.
Journal DuFour, R. (2002). The learning-centred principal: Educational

Leadership, 59(8), 12-15.
Online Evnine, S. J. (2001). The universality of logic: On the connection

Journal between rationality and logical ability [Electronic version].
Mind, 110, 335-367.
Webpage National Park Service. (2003, February 11). Abraham Lincoln

birthplace national historic site. Retrieved February
13, 2003, from http://www.nps.gov/abli/
Book Naisbitt, J., & Aburdence, M. (1989). Megatrends 2000. London:

Pan Books.
Article in a Nickerson, R. (1987). Why teach thinking? In J. B. Baron & R.J.

Book Sternberg (Eds.), Teaching thinking skills: Theory and
practice. New York: W.H. Freeman and Company. 27-37.
Printed Holden, S. (1998, May 16). Frank Sinatra dies at 82: Matchless
Newspaper stylist of pop. The New York Times, pp. A1, A22-A23.
DETAILS ABOUT ASSIGNMENTS

Facilitator-Marked Assignment (FMA)
You will be able to complete the assignment from the information and materials
contained in your suggested readings and module. However, it is desirable at
graduate-level education to demonstrate that you have read and researched more
widely than the required minimum. Using a variety of references will give you a
broader perspective and may provide a deeper understanding of the subject.
When you have completed the assignment, submit it to your facilitator. Make
sure that your assignment reaches the facilitator on or before the deadline.

COURSE ASSIGNMENT GUIDE  xxv
General Criteria for Assessment of FMA

In general, your facilitator will be expecting you to write clearly, using correct
spelling (please use your spell checker) and grammar. Your facilitator will be
looking for the following:
(i) That you have critically thought about issues raised in the course.
(ii) That you have considered and appreciated different points of view,
including those in the course.
(iii) That you give your own views and opinions.
(iv) That you state your argument clearly with supporting evidence and proper
referencing of sources.
(v) That you have drawn on your own experiences.

xxvi  COURSE ASSIGNMENT GUIDE

Top i c X What is
1 Curriculum?
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this chapter, you be able to:
1. Define what is curriculum;
2. Compare the various definitions of curriculum proposed by different
scholars;
3. Explain what is hidden curriculum;
4. Differentiate between the three approaches to curriculum;
5. Identify the foundations of curriculum;
6. Discuss the connection between curriculum and instruction;
7. Describe the curriculum development process; and
8. Argue whether curriculum is a discipline.

2 X TOPIC 1 WHAT IS CURRICULUM?
X INTRODUCTION
NEWS PAPER HEADLINES
• „Homework should be made more
meaningful‰
• „Students canÊt read properly after 11 years of
schooling‰
• „Students are bored with studying the same
thing each year‰
• „Teachers are unable to complete the syllabuses
because too much time is spent on co-curricular
activities‰
• „Teachers are reluctant to teach beyond what is
in the curriculum, considering it a waste of
time‰
• „Thinking skills of students need to be
developed‰
• „Parents passing the responsibility of educating
their children to teachers‰
• „Sports is being neglected in schools‰
• „Environmental education should be taught‰
You would have probably come across these headlines in newspapers and
magazines. These headlines are an indication of societyÊs concern with what is
going on in schools and in particular the curriculum. It should be remembered
that a curriculum is contract between society and those in power stating how its

TOPIC 1 WHAT IS CURRICULUM? W 3
next generation of young people will be educated. Hence the general public have
a right to question how schools are preparing its next generation of citizens.
As society becomes more educated, more of its members are keen in expressing
their views on various issues regarding what are schools doing and what is
taught in schools. Sometimes it is tempting to ask whether society ever come to a
consensus on what it wants schools to do.
Some sectors of the population are demanding that schools teach for the mastery
of the facts, concepts and principles of a discipline, while others are calling for
reducing content and placing more emphasis on the development of critical and
creative thinking. Still others feel that schools are not paying enough attention
towards developing the character of students. It appears that society is in a state
of confusion not knowing what it wants of its schools. However, what may be
defined as confusion is in reality dynamism because curriculum is a reflection of
our values, choices and perspectives in differing contexts. As society changes so
will the curriculum because it is a reflection of society at a particular point in
time. For example, during colonial times, education in Malaysia was confined to
producing clerks and office assistants for the English administrative system.
Whether we consider curriculum narrowly as a listing of subjects to be taught in

schools or broadly as all learning experiences that individuals acquire while in
school, there is no denying that curriculum affects us all. Curriculum is the
concern of everyone, whether they are teachers, academics, students, parents,
politicians, businessmen, professionals, government officials or the person on the
street.
ACTIVITY 1.1
1. Discuss any 3 headlines listed above that you agree with. Why?
2. Locate and report other concerns about the curriculum that you have
you come across?

1.1 DEFINITIONS OF CURRICULUM
Just like most things in education, there is no agreed upon definition of

ÂcurriculumÊ. The word originates from the Latin word currere referring to the
oval track upon which Roman chariots raced (see picture). The New International
Dictionary defines curriculum as the whole body of a course in an educational
institution or by a department while The Oxford English Dictionary defines
curriculum as courses taught in schools or universities. Curriculum means
different things to different people. Most people, including educators equate
curriculum with the syllabus (Do you agree?) while a few regard curriculum as
all the teaching-learning experiences a student encounters while in school. Since
the early 20th century when Franklin Bobbitt dubbed the Father of Curriculum
wrote his book The Curriculum in 1918, various theoreticians and practitioners
have proposed definitions of curriculum.
Tanner (1980) defined curriculum as „the planned and guided learning

experiences and intended outcomes, formulated through the systematic
reconstruction of knowledge and experiences under the auspices of the school,
for the learnersÊ continuous and wilful growth in personal social competence‰
(p.13).
Ć Schubert (1987) defines curriculum as the contents of a subject, concepts and
tasks to be acquired, planned activities, the desired learning outcomes and
experiences, product of culture and an agenda to reform society.
Ć Pratt (1980) defines curriculum as a written document that systematically
describes goals planned, objectives, content, learning activities, evaluation
procedures and so forth.
Ć Goodlad and Su (1992) define curriculum as a plan that consists of learning
opportunities for a specific time frame and place, a tool that aims to bring
about behaviour changes in students as a result of planned activities and

includes all learning experiences received by students with the guidance of

the school.
Summary of Various
Interpretations of
Curriculum
Curriculum is:
Ć that which is taught in school
Ć a set of subjects
Ć content
Ć a programme of studies
Ć a set of materials
Ć sequence of courses
Ć a set of performance objectives
Ć a course of study
Ć everything that goes on within
a school
Ć everything that is planned by
school personnel
Ć that which is taught both inside
and outside of school directed
by the school
Ć a series of experiences
undergone by learners in
school
Ć that which an individual
learner experiences as a result
of schooling
Source: Peter F. Oliva, Developing the

Curriculum. Boston: Little, Brown &
Company. 1982. p. 5
Ć Cronbleth (1992) defines curriculum as answering three questions: what

knowledge, skills and values are most worthwhile? Why are they most
worthwhile? How should the young acquire them?
Ć Grundy (1987) defines curriculum as a programme of activities (by teachers
and pupils) designed so that pupils will attain so far as possible certain
educational and other schooling ends or objectives.

Ć Hass (1987) provides a broader definition, stating that a curriculum includes

„all of the experiences that individual learners have in a program of education
whose purpose is to achieve broad goals and related specific objectives, which
is planned in terms of a framework of theory and research or past and present
professional practice‰ (p.5).
SELF-CHECK 1.1
1. Identify the FIVE common features of a curriculum mentioned in
most of the definitions given by scholars in the field (exclude Peter
Oliva).
2. Select SIX interpretations of the curriculum summarised by Peter
Oliva which you think gives a comprehensive definition of
curriculum.
Are you confused with the different definitions? Well, donÊt be! It is not
necessarily a bad thing having numerous definitions of curriculum. The variety of
definitions demonstrates the dynamism of the field because it reflects the
philosophical beliefs, conceptions of human learning, pedagogical strategies,
political experiences and cultural background of the society the curriculum is
planned for (Ornstein and Hunkins, 1998). Though much time may be spent on
defining curriculum, it may be time well spent because it encourages exploration
of many possibilities. One should be aware that if a curriculum is too narrowly
defined there is the tendency and likelihood to omit, ignore or miss relevant
factors related to teaching and learning because they are not part of the written
plan. On the other hand, if they are too broadly defined, it would difficult to
implement because it may be open to different interpretations. This will make the
task of evaluating achievement of the goals and objectives of the programme
more difficult. Despite varying definitions of curriculum, there seems to be a
consensus that it is a statement:
Ć of what students should know (knowledge or content),
Ć be able to do (skills),
Ć how it is taught (instruction),
Ć how it is measured (assessment), and
Ć and how the educational system is organised (context).
It is a structured plan of intended learning outcomes, involving knowledge, skills,

behaviour and associated learning experiences organised as a sequence of events
that a student acquires through education and training. How we conceive of the

curriculum is important because our conceptions and ways of reasoning about

curriculum reflect how we think, study and act on the education made available
to students. In short, how we define the curriculum reflects our assumptions
about the world (Cornbleth, 1990).
1.2 THE HIDDEN CURRICULUM

You may have heard of the phrase „hidden curriculum‰. What is it? The phrase
hidden curriculum was coined by the sociologist Philip Jackson in his book Life
in Classrooms written in 1968. He drew attention to the idea that schools did
more than simply transmit knowledge from one generation to another. Students
learn things that are not actually taught in the formal curriculum. It could be
viewed as the entire range of educational experiences promoted by schools and
teachers through practices that are not necessarily written down.
As pointed out by Doll (1992), „every school has a planned, formal acknowledged
curriculum, but there is also has an unplanned informal and hidden one that
must be considered‰ (p.5). The planned, formal curriculum focuses on goals,
objectives, subject matter and organisation of instruction. The unplanned,
informal curriculum deals with socio-psychological interaction among students,
teachers and administrators, especially in relation to their feelings, attitudes and
behaviours
If we only consider the planned curriculum, the official curriculum stated in a

written document, we ignore both the numerous positive and negative
consequences that can result from the planned curriculum. Oftentimes, we fail to
realise the power of the hidden curriculum, which may not be written but will
certainly be learned by students. For example, they learn even without being
formally taught:
Ć about „the rules of the game‰ in the school canteen, in the playground, in the
corridors of the school and so forth,
Ć the specific relationships between senior and junior students, between male
and female students, cliques of students,
Ć how order is created and maintained in the classroom, the way individual
teachers interpret the behaviour of students, and
Ć the way teachers and principals or headmaster have different expectations of
students based on interpretations of behaviour in class.
The hidden curriculum involves learning such things as how to respond to and
cope with authority, how to get on with others, how to pass the time, how deal

with boredom, how to establish priorities and how to conform to the expectations
of teachers and their peers.
SELF-CHECK 1.2
1. What is the hidden curriculum?
2. Why is the hidden curriculum important in education?
3. Give examples of the hidden curriculum other than those stated in
the text.
1.3 CURRICULUM APPROACHES

If you examine the definitions provided by the experts in the field, there are three
ways of approaching a curriculum (see Figure 1.1). First is to approach it as
content or a body of knowledge to be transmitted. Second is to approach it as a
product or the learning outcomes desired of learners. Third, is to approach it as a
process or what actually happens in the classroom when the curriculum is
practiced.
1.3.1 Curriculum as Content

It is quite common for people to equate a curriculum with the syllabus which is a
concise document listing the topics of a subject. If you have experience in
preparing students for national examinations, you will be familiar with such
documents. What do they contain? Perhaps, a list of topics, the concepts to be
mastered and some suggestions on how the topics are to be taught. For example,
a primary school mathematics curriculum will consist of topics on addition,
multiplication, subtraction, division, distance, weight and so forth. A syllabus
will not generally indicate the relative importance of the topics or the order in
which they are to be studied. But, there is tendency for teachers to follow the
sequence prescribed in the syllabus. In most cases teachers follow the logical
structure of selected textbooks simply because the textbooks have been written to
match closely the syllabus. For example, in secondary school geography
involving the study of countries or regions, textbooks tend to begin with physical
geography such as relief, climate, vegetation followed by economic activities such
as agriculture, mining, industries, urbanization and so forth.
It has been suggested that if one adopts the content approach to curriculum, focus
will be on the syllabus and the body of knowledge to be transmitted or 'delivered'
to students using appropriate teaching methods. When curriculum is equated

with content, there is the likelihood to limit instruction to the acquisition of facts,
concepts and principles of the subject matter transmitted.
Figure 1.1: Approaches to curriculum
SELF-CHECK 1.3
1. What do you mean when curriculum is approached as content?

2. Why is it a common approach of viewing curriculum?
1.3.2 Curriculum as Product

Besides viewing curriculum as content that is to be transmitted, it has also been
viewed as a product. In other words, what is it that is desired of students having
been taught using a curriculum. Franklin Bobbitt (1918) in his book The
Curriculum, stated that;
Human life, however varied, consists in the performance of

specific activities. Education that prepares for life is one that
prepares definitely and adequately for these specific activities.
However numerous and diverse they may be for any social
class they can be discovered. This requires only that one go out
into the world of affairs and discover the particulars of which
their affairs consist. These will show the abilities, attitudes,
habits, appreciations and forms of knowledge that men need.
These will be the objectives of the curriculum. They will be
numerous, definite and particularised. The curriculum will
then be that series of experiences which children and youth
must have by way of obtaining those objectives. (p: 42).

According to Bobbitt, education should prepare people for life with detailed
attention to what people need to know in order to work and live their lives. Go
out into the world and see for yourselves what society needs („the abilities,
attitudes, habits, appreciations and forms of knowledge that men [women] need‰
according to Bobbitt). Curriculum should not to be the result of 'armchair
speculation' but the result of systematic study of society. The product from the
curriculum is a student equipped with the knowledge, skills and values to
function effectively and efficiently. Ralph Tyler (1949) shares BobbittÊs approach
to curriculum when he said that the real purpose of education is to bring about
significant changes in students' pattern of behaviour [We will examine TylerÊs
view in more detail in Chapter 5]. It is important that any statement of objectives
of the school should be a statement of changes to take place in the students. The
attraction of this way of approaching curriculum is that it is systematic and has
considerable organising power. Central to the approach is the formulation of
behavioural objectives which provide a clear notion of outcomes or desired
products so that content and teaching methods may be organised and the results
evaluated.
In order to measure, things have to be broken down into smaller and smaller
units („numerous, definite and particularise⁄series of experiences which
children and youth must have ‰ according to Bobbitt). The result, as many of you
will have experienced, can be long lists of often trivial skills or competencies. This
can lead to a focus on the parts rather than the whole; on the trivial, rather than
the significant. It can lead to an approach to education and assessment which
resembles a shopping list. When all the items are ticked, the person has passed
the course or has learnt something. The role of overall judgment is somehow
sidelined.
SELF-CHECK 1.4
1. How is curriculum as product different from curriculum as

content?
2. What should be the overall purpose of a curriculum according to
Bobbitt and Tyler?
3. How are these objectives to be derived?

ACTIVITY 1.2
Criticisms of the „Curriculum as Product‰ Approach
There are a number of disagreements with the Curriculum as product

approach. The first is that the curriculum can become too technical and
sequential. The tendency is for the curriculum to exist prior to and outside
the learning experiences which takes much away from learners and end
up with little or no voice. They are told what they must learn and how
they will do it. The success or failure of a curriculum is judged on the basis
of whether pre-specified changes occur in the behaviour of learners. If the
curriculum is closely followed it might limit creativity and turn educators
into technicians.
Also, since the approach emphasises measurability, it implies that

behaviour can be objectively, mechanistically measured. There are
obvious dangers here; there always has to be some uncertainty about what
is being measured. It is often very difficult to judge what the impact of
particular experiences has been. Sometimes it is years after the event that
we come to appreciate something of what has happened.
Source: Smith, M. K. (1996, 2000) Curriculum theory and practice, The
Encyclopaedia of Informal Education. www.infed.org/biblio/b-curric.htm.
1. To what extent do you agree with the criticisms of the curriculum as

product approach?
2. What are some advantages of this approach?
1.3.3 Curriculum as Process

We have seen that the curriculum as content approach emphasises the content to
be transmitted while curriculum as product approach is focussed on the setting of
instructional or behavioural objectives. Another way of looking at curriculum is
via process. Here, curriculum is not seen as a physical thing, but rather the
interaction of teachers, students and knowledge. It is what actually happens in
the classroom such as the questions asked by the teacher, the learning activities
students engage in and so forth. It is an active process with emphasis on the
context in which the processes occurs. Stenhouse (1975), used the analogy of the a
recipe in a cookbook which teachers translate into practice in the classroom. Like
a recipe it can be varied according to taste. So can a curriculum.

According to the process approach curriculum is seen as a scheme about the

practice of teaching. It is not a package of materials or a syllabus of content to be
covered. The classroom is seen as a laboratory in which the teacher is like a
scientist who tests the ideas stated in the curriculum. The teacher translates an
educational idea into a hypothesis that is tested in the classroom. It involves
critical testing rather than acceptance. The focus is on finding out those processes
which enhance (if it is successful) or hinder (if it goes wrong) a personÊs learning.
So, the curriculum is not a finished product but rather the proposed educational
ideas that have to been verified in the classroom by teachers. So, you may not
know what you are going to get and may differ from what has been specified in
the curriculum document [ÂLife is like a box of chocolates, you never know what
youÊre gonna to getÊ ă Forest Gump]. This differs from the product approach
where the desired behaviours have been pre-determined or more or less fixed
and applies to all learners.
The process approach to curriculum treats the learners are not as objects to be
acted upon. They have a say in what is going on in the teaching-learning sessions.
The focus is on interaction and attention shifts from teaching to learning. On the
other hand, the product model, by having a pre-specified plan or programme,
tends to direct attention to teaching. A process approach to curriculum theory
and practice, as argued by Grundy (1987), tends towards making the process of
learning the central concern of the teacher with emphasis on thinking and
meaning-making.
1.4 FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM

Debate is still continuing as to the definition of curriculum. Despite this lack of
consensus, it has not hindered institutions, school districts, states and nations
continually developing and improving curriculum in schools, colleges,
universities and training organisations. Imagine what would have happened if
we had to wait for an agreed upon definition of curriculum. The design and
development of curriculum is a team effort involving curriculum planners,
curriculum developers, teachers, academicians, education officers,
administrators, community members and may others. They decide the goals of
the curriculum, what content to include, how it should be organised, suggest how
it should be taught and how to determine whether efforts have been successful.
To help them make these decisions, they have turned to philosophy, psychology,
sociology and history. These have been accepted as the foundations of a
curriculum [We shall discuss the influence of these disciplines in detail in
Chapters 2, 3 and 4 respectively].
These disciplines have produced a vast amount of knowledge that provide

guidelines for people interested in developing curriculum. For example, from

philosophy has evolved numerous beliefs as on how people should be educated

and what knowledge is worthwhile. These beliefs have provided curriculum
developers with guidelines on how they should go about designing curriculum.
From psychology, various perspectives on how humans learn have been
proposed. This knowledge is of great significance since a curriculum is a plan on
what individuals are supposed to learn. Decades of research have provided
insight into the human psyche which curriculum developers have tapped into to
guide decisions on how a body of content is to be taught and acquired at different
levels of human development. The disciplines of sociology, economics, culture,
and politics provide an insight into society. A curriculum is a reflection of societal
values and beliefs it serves. It is usually a response to what society wants and
desires. [Refer to the newspaper headlines listed at the beginning of the chapter].
The community plays an important role in influencing what is taught in the
classroom. Finally, many curriculum plans are an evolution from earlier times
and curriculum developers refer to historical events to better understand the
decisions made at different points of time. It provides a background for better
understanding present day curriculum development efforts [We will examine the
curriculum of early American and Japan in Chapter 4 to understand how and
why curriculum changes with the evolution of society].
ACTIVITY 1.3
Problems with the „Curriculum as Process Approach‰

• Teachers who want uniformity in what is taught will find this
approach problematic because the focus is on the learner. So there will
be different content and methods of delivery to cater to individual
needs.
• Examinations would be difficult to conduct because learners would be
learning different things and at a different pace. It would not be fair to
have one examination as you might not be assessing the real ability of
a learner.
• Examinations do not pay attention to the context in which learning
takes place and so some students might be disadvantaged.
• Teachers implementing a curriculum using the process approach have
to believe that learning is the making of meaning and construction of
knowledge. If teachers are not convinced this should be the aim of
education, then the process approach will not succeed.

1. To what extent do you agree with the problems with the „Curriculum
as Process Approach‰?
2. Do you think the curriculum as process approach would be easier to
implement if there were no centrally controlled or national
examinations?
3. What is the main difference between the curriculum as product and
curriculum as process approachÊ?
Source: Smith, M. K. (1996, 2000) Curriculum theory and practice, The
Encyclopaedia of Informal Education.www.infed.org/biblio/b-urric.htm.
1.5 CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

Curriculum development is a process involving many different people and
procedures. Thus, it is usually linear and follows a logical step-by-step fashion
involving the following phases: curriculum planning, curriculum design,
curriculum implementation and curriculum evaluation. [We will discuss each
phase in detail in Chapter 5, 6, 7 and 8. If you were to specialise in curriculum,
then each of these phases would be taught as a separate course by itself]. The
phases of the process provide us with guideposts and structure to clarify our
thinking. The phases can be graphically or pictorially illustrated and are
conceived in technical terms ă with the assumption that one must be
knowledgeable of the process to fully appreciate and understand. DonÊt worry!
By the end of Chapter 8, you will fully understand the technical terms associated
with each of these phases of curriculum development.
Many curriculum development models have been proposed. Generally, most

models involve four phases. First is, curriculum planning which involves
decisions about the philosophy of education and the aims of education. Having
decided on the philosophical beliefs, curriculum goals and objectives are derived
which are later translated into the classroom as desired learning outcomes among
students taught. The second phase is curriculum design which refers to the way
curriculum is conceptualised and involves the selection and organisation of
content, and the selection and organisation of learning experiences or activities.
Among the issues that have to be resolved is deciding Âwhat knowledge is of
most worthÊ, Âhow should the content be organised to maximise learningÊ. The
third phase is curriculum implementation in the classroom setting. It involves
getting people to practice the ideas in the curriculum, providing them with the
necessary resources, training and encouragement. The fourth phase is curriculum
evaluation which is determining the extent to which the efforts in implementing

the ideas of the curriculum have been successful. It involves identification of

factors that have hindered implementation as well as success stories; and most
important whether students have benefited from the programme.
1.6 CURRICULUM AS A DISCIPLINE

Can curriculum be considered a discipline just like sociology, economics, biology
or political science? Graduate students have been taking courses in curriculum
planning, curriculum evaluation, primary school curriculum and so forth in
various universities. Many graduate schools of education offer doctoral
specialisations in curriculum and instruction, better known as ÂC&IÊ. To arrive at
a decision as to whether an area of study is a discipline, one must first ask the
question, ÂWhat are the characteristics of a discipline?Ê.If we know the
characteristics of a discipline, than maybe we can decide if ÂcurriculumÊ is a
discipline. According to Oliva (1982), a discipline has the following
characteristics:
• A discipline should have an organised set of theoretical principles.
• A discipline encompasses a body of knowledge and skills pertinent to that
discipline.
• A discipline has its theoreticians and its practitioners.
The field of curriculum has its set of principles. For example the term
ÂcurriculumÊ itself is a concept describing very complex ideas. In curriculum
planning there are principles such as educational philosophy, curriculum goals
and learning objectives which are applied in developing programmes for school,
universities and training centres. In curriculum design, the principles of scope,
sequence and balance are used in the organisation of content to be taught. The
field of curriculum has its own body of knowledge and skills, though much of it
has been borrowed from a number of pure disciplines. For example, in the
selection of content (What to teach?), curriculum has relied on the principles,
knowledge and skills from psychology, philosophy and sociology. In the
organisation of content, curriculum has drawn from the fields of management
and organisational theory. In the implementation of curriculum, various ideas
from systems theory, organisational behaviour and communication theory have
been used to enhance effectiveness. For example, research in organisational
behaviour has been used to bring about change among teachers, educational
administrators and the community. Has the field of curriculum its own body of
knowledge and skills? Applying the ideas drawn from the different disciplines
and through experimentation it has generated its own body of knowledge and
skills, or at least, new interpretations of principles as applied in the educational
setting.

The field of curriculum has its list of theoreticians and practitioners and they
include curriculum planners, professors of curriculum, curriculum developers
and so forth who are termed as curriculum specialists. These specialists are well-
versed in areas relating to curriculum, such as the history and origin of a
curriculum (to know of earlier successes or failure), curriculum planning and
how a particular curriculum is to be implemented in schools successfully. The
specialist is well-informed about how students learn, how teachers react to
change and obstacles to improvement. The curriculum specialist generates new
knowledge by recombining existing programmes, adapting approaches and
constructing new curriculum. [Perhaps, after completing this course you might be
more convinced that curriculum meets the requirement of a discipline or maybe
not!]
SELF-CHECK 1.5
1. Why do curriculum developers rely on the knowledge and skills of

other discipline?
2. How would you justify the field of curriculum to be a discipline?
1.7 CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION

Now that you have an idea of what is a curriculum; what is the relationship
between curriculum and instruction? Simply put, curriculum is what to be taught
while instruction is how it is taught. The relationship between curriculum and
instruction is a partnership. We may think of the curriculum as a plan stipulating
the content to be taught along with the learning experiences to be included.
Instruction may be thought of as methodology, the teaching act and assessing of
achievement. In other words, it is putting into practice what has been planned.
Oliva (1982) described curriculum and instruction as two entities. You could have
a situation in which the two entities are apart, called the dualistic model (see
Figure 1.2a). What takes place in the classroom under the direction of the teacher
has little relationship to what is stated in the curriculum plan. Planners ignore
what teachers are doing and vice-versa. The curriculum or the instructional
process may change without affecting one another. This separation will do
serious harm to each other. On other occasions, curriculum and instruction are
mutually interdependent as shown in the concentric model (see Figure 1.2b). In
this model curriculum assumes the superordinate position while instruction is
subordinate; that is, instruction is a subsystem of curriculum which is itself a

subsystem of the whole system of education. This model implies a system that is
hierarchical, with curriculum dominating instruction. Instruction is not a separate
entity but a very dependent portion of the curriculum entity. In other situations,
curriculum and instruction may be separate entities with a continuing circular
relationship, called the circular model (see Figure 1.2c). Curriculum makes a
continuous impact on instruction and similarly instruction impacts on
curriculum. This model assumes that instructional decisions are made after
curriculum decisions are made. But, these curriculum decisions are later modified
when they have been implemented and evaluated in the classroom. This process
is continues, repeated and never-ending.
Figure 1.2: Curriculum and instruction relationship

Source: Peter Oliva, Developing the curriculum. 1982. Boston: Little Brown &
Co. pp.12-13
Of all the models, the cyclical model seems to the best alternative as it emphasises
the need for a close working relationship between implementers and planners.
Though curriculum and instruction may be different entities they are

interdependent and cannot function in isolation. It is impossible to plan

everything that happens in the classroom in the curriculum document. It should
be accepted that what is planned on paper may not work exactly because the
numerous factors operating in the classroom are impossible to predetermine. The
constant feedback from the classroom as to what works and what does not work
has to be recycled to curriculum developers so necessary adjustments and
modifications can be made to the curriculum plan. This may explain the need for
pilot-testing a curriculum before it is widely implemented.
• Curriculum is a statement of what students should know, be able to do, how

it is taught, how it is measured, and how the educational system is organised.
• Curriculum can be approached as content (knowledge, skills and values),

product (desired learning outcomes) and process (interactions in the
classroom).
• Curriculum development is a process involving planning, designing,

implementation and evaluation.
• Curriculum can be considered a discipline because it has an organised set of

theoretical principles, it includes a body of knowledge and skills and has its
theoreticians and its practitioners.
• The relationship between curriculum and instruction is interdependent,

continuous, repeated and never-ending.
Curriculum Curriculum development

Curriculum and instruction • dualistic model
• cyclical model
Curriculum as a discipline • concentric model
Curriculum as: • Hidden curriculum
• content
• product
• process

1. Write down your definition of curriculum.

(a) What does your definition of curriculum include?
(b) Does it include a process? . . a product? . . materials for
teaching? . . . an approach to education and methods of
instruction that fosters certain values and attitudes?
(c) Compare your definition with the definitions given by
scholars in the field. How similar or different is yours?
2. „The curriculum on paper and the curriculum in action‰. What do

you understand by these statement?
3. „The curriculum is too examination-oriented and children are

deprived of their childhood‰. Discuss.
4. „An over-loaded curriculum is a concern of many teachers.

Increasingly, teachers are feeling that there is not enough time to
cover all the traditional material being put into the curriculum‰.
(a) To what extent do you agree?
(b) Suggest solutions to overcome the problem.
Alistair, R. (200). Curriculum: Construction and critique. London: Falmer Press.

Chapter 1: What is the curriculum? [available at eBrary].
Woods, R. N. (1989). Introduction to philosophy of education. London: Routledge.
Chapter 3: Curriculum theory [available at eBrary]
Ornstein, A. & Hunkins F. (1998), Curriculum: Foundations, principle and issues.
Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Chapter 1: The field of curriculum.
Sowell, E. (2000). Curriculum: An integrative introduction. Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Chapter 1: Overview of curriculum processes and products.
Smith, M. K. (1996, 2000) Curriculum theory and practice. The encyclopaedia of
informal education,www.infed.org/biblio/b-curric.htm.
The hidden curriculum. www.sociology.org.uk/tece1tl.htm.

Topic X Philosophical
2 Foundations
of Curriculum
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Define what is philosophy;
2. Define what is educational philosophy;
3. Compare the philosophical beliefs of perennialism, essentialism,
progressivism and reconstructionism;
4. Explain the influence of the four educational philosophies on
curriculum;
5. List the main features of the educational philosophies of Farabi,
Confucius and Tagore; and
6. Discuss the implications of the philosophies of Farabi, Confucius and
Tagore on curriculum.
X INTRODUCTION
In topic 1, we discussed the different definitions of curriculum. We also briefly

discussed the foundations of curriculum, the curriculum development process
and the relationship between curriculum and instruction. In this topic and the
following two topics, we will examine in greater detail the foundations of
TOPIC 2 PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM W 21
curriculum. In other words, how different traditional disciplines have influenced

curriculum. A curriculum is developed based on certain beliefs and orientations,
conceptions of learning and the demands of society. In this topic, we will focus
on the philosophical beliefs that influence curriculum and in Topic 3 we will
focus on the psychological perspectives that impact curriculum. In Topic 4 we
will discuss the role of society in determining what is to be included in a
curriculum as well as the legacy of significant historical events.
'Consult Private Sector on Curriculum'

Kuala Lumpur, Sat-The Prime "Consultation to get views of the
Minister wants education officials to private sector should be for Sijil
consult the private sector when Pelajaran Malaysia-level and onwards
drawing curriculum for secondary (Year 11 onwards). This approach is
and tertiary level education to important because of the rapid and
produce the right people for the job dynamic industrial development
market. Datuk Seri Abdullah Ahmad taking shape. We cannot run away
Badawi said that private sectorÊs from supplying a workforce needed
manpower needs and future trends by industries for nation building".
would allow adjustments to be made Abdullah said after opening the two-
to the current curriculum. day second Malay Education
Congress today.
The curriculum must see that those
entering the work market after
completing their secondary
education, diploma or degree courses
are equipped with knowledge that is
useful to the nature of their jobs, he
added.
Source: New Straits Times, March, 27, 2005
ACTIVITY 2.1
Read the newspaper report on ÂConsult Private Sector on CurriculumÊ

1. What do you understand by the phrase "equipped with knowledge
that is useful to the nature of their jobs"? Give specific examples.
2. "We cannot run away from supplying a workforce needed by
industries for nation building". To what extent do you agree that
this should be the role and functions of schools and universities?

22 X TOPIC 2 PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM
2.1 WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY?

LetÊs begin with philosophy. The word philosophy is a combination of the Greek
word "philos" (love) and "Sophia" (wisdom) which translated means "love of
wisdom". Philosophers are people who seek after wisdom and curious about the
world seeking to understand the nature of things. Oftentimes, the result of
philosophy is not so much putting forward new philosophies or propositions but
making existing philosophies or propositions clearer. Philosophers study the
works of other philosophers and state anew what others have put forward as
well as proposing new philosophies. A philosopher can be a person who knows
philosophy even though he or she engages in little or no philosophising.
Philosophy also refers to the collective works of other philosophers. It can mean
the academic exploration of various questions raised by philosophers.
For centuries philosophers have been interested with such concepts as morality,
goodness, knowledge, truth, beauty and our very existence. Among the questions
philosophers ask are:
• What is truth? Why do we say a statement is correct or false?
• How do we know what we know?
• What is reality? What things can be describe as real?
• What is the nature of thought and thinking?
• What is special about being a human being?
• Is there anything special about being alive at all?
• What is ethics?
• What does it mean when something is right or wrong; good or bad?
• What is beauty?
• How do beautiful things differ from others?
Philosophers use certain methods of inquiry. They often frame their questions as
problems or puzzles about subjects they find interesting and confusing.
Popularly, the word philosophy may also refer to someone's perspective on life
(philosophy of life) or the underlying principles or method of achieving
something.

2.2 PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

Now, let's examine a branch of philosophy, namely; philosophy of education.
What is philosophy of education? Philosophy of education is the study of
questions such as "What is education?" ÂWhat is the purpose of education?‰,
"What does it mean to know something?" "What is the relationship between
education and society?" The philosophy of education recognises that the
development of a civil society depends on the education of the young as
responsible, thoughtful and enterprising citizens which is a challenging task
requiring deep understanding of ethical principles, moral values, political theory,
aesthetics and economics; not to mention an understanding of children
themselves.
Most of the prominent philosophers in the last 2000 years were not philosophers of
education but have at some point considered and written on the philosophy of
education. Among them are Plato, Aristotle, Rousseau, Dewey, Adler, Confucius, Al
Farabi, Tagore and many others [we will discuss their contributions to education
later in the topic]. These philosophers have been key voices in philosophy of
education and have contributed to our basic understanding of what education is and
can be. They have also provided powerful critical perspectives revealing the
problems in education.
2.3 PHILOSOPHY AND CURRICULUM

What is the connection between philosophy and curriculum? For example, when
you propose the teaching of a particular body of knowledge, course or subject,
you will be asked, "What is your philosophy for introducing that content?" If you
are unable to answer the question, you may not be able to convince others to
accept your proposal. Philosophy is the starting point in any curriculum decision
making and is the basis for all subsequent decisions regarding curriculum.
Philosophy becomes the criteria for determining the aims, selection, organisation
and implementation of the curriculum in the classroom. "What subjects are of
value?", "How should students learn the content?" It also helps us to answer
more precise tasks such as deciding what textbooks to use, how to use them,
what homework to assign and how much of it, how to test and use the results.

SELF-CHECK 2.1
1. What do philosophers do?
2. List the concepts philosophers have been interested in.
3. What is philosophy of education? How is it related to the curriculum
of a school system?
"In modern times there are opposing views about the practice of education.
There is no general agreement about what the young should learn either in
relation to virtue or in relation to the best life; nor is it clear whether their
education ought to be directed more towards the intellect than towards the
character of the soul. And it is not certain whether training should be
directed at things useful in life, or at those conducive to virtue, or at non-
essentials. And there is no agreement as to what in fact does tend towards
virtue. Men do not all prize most highly the same virtue. So naturally they
differ also about the proper training for it."
Would you believe that the above statement was written more that 2000 years
ago by the Greek philosopher Aristotle and we are still debating the same issues
today? Sometimes one wonders whether we know what we want! We lament
about the poor level of basic skills of students and call for a return to the basics.
At the same time we want students to develop critical thinking skills and call for
lesser emphasis on rote learning. Through the centuries, many philosophies of
education have emerged, each with their own beliefs about education. In this
topic, we will discuss four philosophies, namely; perennialism, essentialism,
progressivism and reconstructionism proposed by Western philosophers. Also,
discussed are the viewpoints of three Eastern philosophers; namely, al-Farabi,
Tagore and Confucius. Each of these educational philosophies is examined to see
what curriculum is proposed and how teaching and learning should be
conducted.

2.4 PERENNIALISM
2.4.1 What is Perennialism?

Perennial means "everlasting," like a perennial flower that blooms year after year.
Perennialism, the oldest and most conservative educational philosophy has its
roots in the philosophy of Plato and Aristotle. Two modern day proponents of
perennialism are Robert Hutchins and Mortimer Adler. The perennialists
believed that humans are rational and the aim of education is "to improve man as
man" (Hutchins, 1953). The answers to all educational questions derive from the
answer to one question: What is human nature? According to them, human
nature is constant and humans have the ability to understand the universal truths
of nature. Thus, the aim of education is to develop the rational person and to
uncover universal truths by training the intellect. Towards developing one's
moral and spiritual being, character education should be emphasised.
Perennialism is based on the belief that some ideas have lasted over centuries
and are as relevant today as when they were first conceived. These ideas should
be studied in school. A list of the 'Great Books' was proposed covering topics in
Literature, Art, Psychology, Philosophy, Mathematics, Science, Economics,
Politics and so forth. Examples of such books are: Robinson Crusoe written by
Daniel Defoe, War and Peace written by Leo Tolstoy, Moby Dick written by
Herman Melville, EuclidÊs book Elements on geometry, Newtons book on
Optics, The Sexual Enlightenment of Children written by Sigmund Freud, An
inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith
and many others. The book selected had to have contemporary significance, that
is, it should be relevant to the problems and issues of present times. The book
should espouse ideas and issues that have occupied the minds of thinking
individuals in the last 2000 years. The book should attract people to read it again
and again and benefit from it. The perennialists believed that these are history's
finest thinkers and writers. Their ideas are profound and meaningful even today
as when they were written. When students are immersed in the study of these
profound and enduring ideas, they will appreciate learning for its own sake as
well as develop their intellectual powers and moral qualities.
2.4.2 The Perennialist Curriculum

Based on the beliefs of perennialism, the curriculum proposed had the following
characteristics:
Ć The 'Great Books' programme or more commonly called the liberal arts will
discipline the mind and cultivate the intellect. To read the book in its original
language, students must learn Latin and Greek. Students also had to learn
grammar, rhetoric, logic, advanced Mathematics and Philosophy (Hutchins,
1936).
Ć The study of philosophy is a crucial part of the perennialist curriculum. This
was because they wanted students to discover those ideas that are most
insightful and timeless in understanding the human condition.
Ć At a much later time, Mortimer Adler (1982) in his book the Paideia Proposal,
recommended a single elementary and secondary curriculum for all students.
The educationally disadvantaged had to spend some time in pre-schools.
Ć Perennialists were not keen on allowing students to take electives (except
second languages) such as vocational and life-adjustment subjects. They
argued that these subjects denied students the opportunity to fully develop
their rational powers.
Ć The perennialists criticised the vast amount of disjointed factual information
that educators have required students to absorb. They urge that teachers
should spend more time teaching concepts and explaining how these
concepts are meaningful to students.
Ć Since, enormous amount of scientific knowledge has been produced, teaching
should focus on the processes by which scientific truths have been
discovered. However, the perennialists advise that students should not be
taught information that may soon be obsolete or found to be incorrect
because of future scientific and technological findings.
Ć At the secondary and university level, perennialists were against reliance on
textbooks and lectures in communicating ideas. Emphasis should be on
teacher-guided seminars, where students and teachers engage in dialogue
and mutual inquiry sessions to enhance understanding of the great ideas and
concepts that have stood the test to time. Student should learns to learn and
not to be evaluated.
Ć Universities should not only prepare students for specific careers but to
pursue knowledge for its own sake. "University students may learn a few
trees, perennialists claim, but many will be quite ignorant about the forests:
the timeless philosophical questions" (Hutchins, 1936).
Ć Teaching reasoning using the 'Great Books' of Western writers is advocated
using the Socratic method to discipline the minds of students. Emphasis
should be on scientific reasoning rather than mere acquisition of facts. Teach
Science but not technology, great ideas rather than vocational topics.
Ć Perennialists argue that the topics of the great books describe any society, at
any time, and thus the books are appropriate for American society. Students
must learn to recognise controversy and disagreement in these books because

they reflect real disagreements between persons. Students must think about
the disagreements and reach a reasoned, defensible conclusion.
Ć School should teach religious values or ethics. The difference between right
and wrong should be emphasised so that students will have definite rules
that they must follow.
SELF-CHECK 2.2
1. Identify the main features of the perennialist curriculum.

2. According to perennialism, what should be emphasised in the
classroom?
ACTIVITY 2.2
The Great Books
The Great Books refer to a curriculum and a book list that came about as
the result of a discussion among American academics and educators,
starting in the 1920s and 1930s. It was initiated by John Erskine on how
to improve higher education by returning to the western liberal arts
tradition of broad cross-disciplinary learning. Notable among the
academics and educators was Robert Hutchins and Mortimer Adler.
They felt that the emphasis on narrow specialisation in American
universities and colleges had harmed the quality of higher education by
failing to expose students to the important products of Western
civilisation and thought.
The Great Books started out as a list of 100 essential texts which were
selected based on the criteria that it had relevance to present problems
and issues and it is relevant to a large number of the great ideas and
great issues that have occupied the minds of thinking individuals.

The Great Books covered topics including fiction, history, poetry, natural
science, mathematics, philosophy, drama, politics, religion, economics and
ethics. Examples of the books are:
• Homer's The Iliad and The Odyssey
• Works of Aristotle and Plato
• Archimedes Measurement of a circle, On Spirals, Treating Mechanical
Problems
• Chaucer's Canterbury Tales
• ShakespeareÊs complete works
• Descartes The Geometry
• Isaac Newton's Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy
• Karl Marx's Das Kapital
• Leo TolstoyÊs War and Peace
• William James' The Principle of Psychology
The Great Books was criticised as being elitist and giving importance to
'dead white males', while ignoring the contributions of females and
minorities (such as Afro-Americans). Another harmful criticism was that the
books were more to create the illusion of being cultured without any real
substance behind it.
Source: Great Books of the Western World. Available at http://www.answers.com
1. What other books of The Great Books do you know?

2. What were the main arguments put forward by the perennialists for
using The Great Books?
3. Do you agree with the criticisms of The Great Books?
2.5 ESSENTIALISM
2.5.1 What is Essentialism?

Essentialism comes from the word 'essential' which means the main things or the
basics. As an educational philosophy, it advocates instilling in students with the
"essentials" or "basics" of academic knowledge and character development. The

term essentialism as an educational philosophy was originally popularised in the

1930s by William Bagley and later in the 1950s by Arthur Bestor and Admiral
Rickover. When it was first introduced as an educational philosophy in American
schools, it was criticised as being too rigid. In 1957, the Russians launched
Sputnik which caused a panic in educational circles as Americans felt they had
fallen behind the Soviet Union technologically. A rethinking of education
followed that led to interest in essentialism.
Essentialism was grounded in a conservative philosophy that argues that schools

should not try to radically reshape society. Rather, they should transmit
traditional moral values and intellectual knowledge that students need to become
model citizens. Essentialists believe that teachers should instil traditional virtues
such as respect for authority, fidelity to duty, consideration for others and
practicality. Essentialism placed importance on science and understanding the
world through scientific experimentation. To convey important knowledge about
the world, essentialist educators emphasised instruction in natural science rather
than non-scientific disciplines such as philosophy or comparative religion.
2.5.2 The Essentialist Curriculum

Based on the beliefs of essentialism, the curriculum proposed has the following
characteristics:
Ć The 'basics' of the essentialist curriculum are Mathematics, natural Science,
History, foreign language and Literature. Essentialists disapprove of
vocational, life-adjustment, or other courses with "watered down" academic
content.
Ć Elementary students receive instruction in skills such as writing, reading and
measurement. Even while learning art and music (subjects most often
associated with the development of creativity) students are required to
master a body of information and basic techniques, gradually moving from
less to more complex skills and detailed knowledge. Only by mastering the
required material for their grade level are students promoted to the next
higher grade.
Ć Essentialist programs are academically rigorous, for both slow and fast
learners. Common subjects for all students regardless of abilities and
interests. But, how much is to be learned is adjusted according to student
ability.
Ć It advocates a longer school day, a longer academic year and more
challenging textbooks. Essentialists maintain that classrooms should be
oriented around the teacher, who serves as the intellectual and moral role
model for students.

Ć Teaching is teacher-centred and teachers decide what is most important for

students to learn with little emphasis on student interests because it will
divert time and attention from learning the academic subjects. Essentialist
teachers focus heavily on achievement test scores as a means of evaluating
progress.
Ć In an essentialist classroom, students are taught to be "culturally literate," that
is, to possess a working knowledge about the people, events, ideas and
institutions that have shaped society. Essentialists hope that when students
leave school, they will possess not only basic skills and extensive knowledge,
but also disciplined and practical minds, capable of applying their knowledge
in real world settings.
Ć Discipline is necessary for systematic learning in a school situation. Students
learn to respect authority in both school and society.
Ć Teachers need to be mature and well educated, who know their subjects well
and can transmit their knowledge to students.
SELF-CHECK 2.3
1. What are THREE main features of the essentialist classroom?

2. Identify the strengths and weaknesses of an essentialist
curriculum?
2.6 PROGRESSIVISM
2.6.1 What is Progressivism?

Progressivism is a philosophical belief that argues that education must be based
on the fact that humans are by nature social and learn best in real-life activities
with other people. The person most responsible for progressivism was John
Dewey (1859-1952).
The progressive movement stimulated American schools to broaden their

curriculum, making education more relevant to the needs and interests of
students. Dewey wrote extensively on psychology, epistemology (the origin of
knowledge), ethics and democracy. But, his philosophy of education laid the
foundation for progressivism. In 1896, while a professor at the University of
Chicago, Dewey founded the famous Laboratory School to test his educational

ideas. His writings and work with the Laboratory School set the stage for the
progressive education movement.
According to Dewey, the role of education is to transmit society's identity by

preparing young people for adult life. He was a keen advocate of democracy and for
it to flourish, he felt that education should allow learners to realise their interests and
potential. Learners should learn to work with others because learning in isolation
separates the mind from action. According to him certain abilities and skills can only
be learned in a group. Social and intellectual interaction dissolves the artificial
barriers of race and class by encouraging communication between various social
groups (Dewey, 1920). He described education as a process of growth and
experimentation in which thought and reason are applied to the solution of
problems. Children should learn as if they were scientists using the scientific method
proposed by Dewey (1920):
(a) To be aware of the problem (e.g. plants need sunlight to grow).
(b) Define the problem (e.g. can plants grow without sunlight).
(c) Propose hypotheses to solve it.
(d) Test the hypotheses.
(e) Evaluate the best solution to the problem.
Students should be constantly experimenting and solving problems;

reconstructing their experiences and creating new knowledge using the proposed
five steps. Teachers should not only emphasise drill and practice, but should
expose learners to activities that relate to he real life situations of students,
emphasising 'learning by doing'.
2.6.2 The Progressive Curriculum

Ć Progressivists emphasise the study of the natural and social Sciences. Teacher
should introduce students to new scientific, technological and social
developments. To expand the personal experience of learners, learning
should be related to present community life. Believing that people learn best
from what they consider most relevant to their lives, the curriculum should
centre on the experiences, interests and abilities of students.
Ć Teachers should plan lessons that arouse curiosity and push students
towards higher order thinking and knowledge construction. For example, in
addition to reading textbooks, students must learn by doing such as fieldtrips
where they can interact with nature and society.

Ć Students are encouraged to interact with one another and develop social
virtues such as cooperation and tolerance for different points of view.
Ć Teachers should not be confined to focusing on one discrete discipline at a
time but should introduce lessons that combine several different subjects.
Ć Students are to be exposed to a more democratic curriculum that recognises
accomplishments of all citizens regardless of race, cultural background or gender.
Ć By including instruction in industrial arts and home economics, progressivists
strive to make schooling both interesting and useful. Ideally, the home, workplace,
and schoolhouse blend together to generate a continuous, fulfilling learning
experience in life. It is the progressivist dream that the dreary, seemingly irrelevant
classroom exercises that so many adults recall from childhood will someday
become a thing of the past. Students solve problems in the classroom similar to
those they will encounter outside school.
SELF-CHECK 2.4
1. What are the main arguments of the progressive movement?
2. List some of the main features of the progressive curriculum.
3. What are the main differences between the progressive curriculum
and the essentialist curriculum?
2.7 RECONSTRUCTIONISM
2.7.1 What is Reconstructionism?

Reconstructionism was a philosophy uniquely popular in the U.S. during the
1930's through the 1960's. It was largely the brain child of Theodore Brameld
from Columbia Teachers College. He began as a communist, but shifted to
reconstructionism. Reconstructionists favour reform and argue that students
must be taught how to bring about change. Reconstructionism is a philosophy
that believes in the rebuilding of social and cultural infrastructures. Students are
to study social problems and think of ways to improve society. Another
proponent of reconstructionism was George Counts (1932) who in a speech titled
Dare the School Build a New Social Order suggested that schools become the
agent of social change and social reform. Students cannot afford to be neutral but
must take a position.
Most advocates of reconstructionism are sensitive to race, gender, ethnicity and

differences in socioeconomic status. Related to reconstructionism is another belief
called critical pedagogy. It is primarily a teaching and curriculum theory,
designed by Henry Giroux and Peter McLaren, which focuses upon the use of
revolutionary literature in classrooms that is aimed at "liberation." Radical in its
conception, critical pedagogy was based on Marxist ideology which advocates
equality in the distribution of wealth and strongly against capitalism. More
recent reconstructionists such as Paulo Freire in his book Pedagogy of the
Oppressed (1968) advocated a revolutionary pedagogy for poor students in
which people can move through different stages to ultimately be able to take
action and overcome oppression. He argued that people must become active
participants in changing their own status through social action to change bring
about social justice.
2.7.2 The Reconstructionist Curriculum

Ć In the reconstructionist curriculum, it was not enough for students to just
analyse interpret and evaluate social problems. They had to be committed to
the issues discussed and encouraged to take action to bring about
constructive change.
Ć The curriculum is to be based on social and economic issues as well as social
service. The curriculum should engage students in critical analysis of the
local, national and international community. Examples of issues are poverty,
environment degradation, unemployment, crime, war, political oppression,
hunger, etc.
Ć There are many injustices in society and inequalities in terms of race, gender,
and socioeconomic status. Schools are obliged to educate children towards
resolution of these injustices and students should not be afraid to examine
controversial issues. Students should learn to come to a consensus on issues
and so group work was encouraged.
Ć The curriculum should be constantly changing to meet the changes in society.
Students are aware of global issues and the interdependence between
nations. Enhancing mutual understanding and global cooperation should be
the focus of the curriculum.
Ć Teachers are considered the prime agents of social change, cultural renewal
and internationalism. They are encouraged to challenge outdated structures
and entrusted with the task of bringing about a new social order which may
be utopian in nature.
Ć In general, the curriculum emphasised the social sciences (such as History,
Political Science, Economics, Sociology, Religion, Ethics, Poetry and
Philosophy), rather than the Sciences.

ACTIVITY 2.3
Identify the Educational Philosophies
Which of the following statements reflect the four philosophical traditions that
have been discussed? Mark:
Ć 'E' for essentialism;
Ć 'P' for progressivism;
Ć 'PN' for perennialism; and
Ć 'R' for reconstructionism.
Check your answers for your score. Since the statements are subjective, it is
possible that you may disagree with the classification. Support your argument.
1. A school curriculum should include a common body of

knowledgthat all students should know.
2. The curriculum should focus on the great ideas that have
survived through time and related to present day challenges.
3. Schools should prepare students for analysing and solving the
social problems that they will face as adults.
4. Each student should determine his or her individual curriculum,
and teachers should guide and help them.
5. Students must be taught about change and how to bring about
change.
6. Teachers and schools should emphasise academic rigour,
discipline, hard work and respect for authority.
7. Students must be questioned and probed until they discover the
truth in the texts selected.
8. Schools should develop studentsÊ ability to think deeply and
analytically rather than focus on temporary issues such as social
skills and current trends.
9. For a country to be competitive in the global marketplace, schools
should seek to produce more competent workers.
10. Since students learn effectively though social interaction, schools
should plan for increased social interaction in the curriculum.
11. Students are too immature to decide what they need to learn and
so the school should decide for them.
12. Teaching should emphasise relating what is learned to the real-
world through field trips and internship.
13. Education is not primarily concerned with producing future
workers but should emphasise learning for its own sake and
students should enjoy reading, learning and discussing
interesting ideas.

14. Education should enable students to recognise injustices in

society, and schools should promote projects to redress social
inequalities.
15. Students should be active participants in the learning process,
involved in democratic class decision making and reflective
thinking.
16. Students should be taught to be more sensitive to race, gender,
ethnicity, and differences in general.
SELF-CHECK 2.5
1. What is the main argument of proponents of reconstructionism?

2. What are the recommendations of the reconstructionists with
regards?
2.8 ABU NASR AL-FARABI

Al-Farabi (872-950 AD) was born in Wasij, in the province of Farab in Turkestan,
of a noble family. To understand the universe and humankind he undertook the
meticulous study of ancient philosophy (particularly Plato and Aristotle) which
he integrated into his own Islamic-Arabic civilization whose chief source was the
QurÊan. Al-Farabi used a number of terms to describe education: discipline
(taÊdib), training (tahdhib), guidance (tasdid), instruction (taÊlim), exercise or
learning (irtiyad) and upbringing (tarbiya) (quoted in Ammar al-Talbi, 1993). He
believed that the first aim of knowledge was knowledge of God and His
attributes. He emphasised the need for unity of society and the State to be
achieved by unity of thought, wisdom and religion.
2.8.1 Al-Farabi on Education

• According to him the whole activity of education is the acquisition of values,
knowledge and practical skills leading to perfection and the attainment of
happiness. The perfect human being (al insan al kamil) is one who has
acquired
− theoretical virtue (intellectual knowledge); and
− practical moral virtues (moral behaviour).

• Virtue is the state of mind in which the human being carries out good and
kind deeds such as wisdom, common sense, inventiveness, cleverness,
temperance, courage, generosity and justice (Al-Farabi, Talkhis, cited in
Ammar al-Talbi, 1993).
• Theoretical and practical virtue can only be obtained within society, for it is
society that nurtures the individual and prepares him or her to be free. Thus,
one of the goals of education is the creation of the ideal community, Âthe one
whose cities all work together in order to attain happinessÊ (Al-Farabi,
Mabadi ahl al-madina al-fadila, cited in Ammar al-Talbi, 1993).
• Another aim of education is to educate political leaders, because ignorance
among them is more harmful than it is in the common person.
• He considered the method of dialogue or debate as important in instruction.
The method of argument and the method of discourse which can be used
orally or in writing. For the common people, the methods used must be
closely related to what they can grasp and understand.
• He also emphasised on the need for scientific discourse; that by which the
knowledge of something is obtained either through asking questions about
the thing, or from the replies obtained, or by resolving a scientific problem
(Al-Farabi, Kitab al-huraf, cited in Ammar al-Talbi, 1993).
• In this book Al-Alfaz, Farabi argues that there are two types of learning:
learning through speech and learning by imitation (observing other peopleÊs
actions with the intention of imitating or applying them).
• The method of instruction must be appropriate to the level of learners. For
example, the method of imagination is encouraged for teaching the hard to
grasp concepts to common people. The educator resorts to metaphors and
illustrations in teaching especially for people who are reluctant to learn (Al-
Farabi, Tahsil, cited in Ammar al-Talbi, 1993).
• According to Al-Farabi, understanding is better than memorisation because
the former deals mainly with details which could go on forever and hardly
useful. But the action of understanding concerns meanings, universals and
laws which are valid for all.
2.8.2 Al-Farabi on Curriculum

• Al-Farabi classified the sciences and learning not just for the sake of listing
them, but with an educational objective in mind.

• Content to be taught as suggested by Al-Farabi

o Language and its structure (to express oneself and understand others).
o Logic (mantiq) which includes verbal expression and intellectual
procedures.
o Mathematics (he divided into 7 parts)
- arithmetic (begin with numbers and proceeding to measures)
- geometry (use of geometric shapes to stimulate imagination)
- the science of optics
- astronomy (study of instruments and observation skills)
- music (making and listening to musical instruments)
- dynamics (e.g. momentum)
- science of machines
o Natural Sciences.
o Religion and scholastic theology (kalam).
o Political Science/Civics.
o Jurisprudence (fiqh) and law (qanun).
• Mathematics called 'the teachings' (taÊalim) was given importance because it
trains students toward the path of precision and clarity. The student is to
begin with studying arithmetic (numbers) followed by geometry, optics,
astronomy, music, dynamics and last of all mechanics. The student moves in
stages from the immaterial and the immeasurable to what needs some matter.
(Al-Farabi, Ihsa' al-'ulum, cited in Ammar al-Talbi, 1993).
• On evaluation, Al-Farabi emphasised that the aim of an examination is to find
out a learner's level in the field being studied. He believed that the questions
students ask could have either an educational or an experimental character.
Educational is when students demonstrate that they have mastered
something. Experimental is when students test themselves using instruments
(such as compass, abacus, ruler, tables) to determine whether they know the
rules.
• Al-Farabi drew attention to the purpose of educational games and the role of
play in human activity. He recommended games that stimulate creativity.
Play should be used appropriately to restore the learner's strength to
undertake more serious activity.

SELF-CHECK 2.6
1. What are some of al-Farabi's views on teaching? How relevant

are they today?
2. What are main features of the curriculum proposed by al-Farabi?
2.9 CONFUCIUS
Confucius (551-479 BC), born in Quyi in the principality of Lu, is one of ChinaÊs
most famous philosophers. He spent a lifetime learning as well as teaching. He
stated that education plays a fundamental role in the development of society and
of individuals alike. Education should seek to produce virtuous individuals
which will alter human nature. By raising individual moral standard, society will
become more virtuous and the country will be well-governed and its citizens
law-abiding. He rejected feudalism in which the status of an individual was
passed from one generation to the next based on birth which was prevalent
during his time. His recommendations are in the Analects (Lun Yu) which is a
record of his speeches and his disciples, as well as the discussions they had. It
literally means "discussions over words". Confucian thought was not confined to
China. It spread to Japan, Vietnam, North and South Korea, and parts of
Southeast Asia.
2.9.1 Confucius on Education

• According to Confucius, education is to produce capable individuals (ziancai)
whom he called shi (gentlemen) or junzi (men of quality) who combined
competence with virtue. They would serve the government and bring about
an ideal managed by men of virtue. The cultivation of virtue was to be
through observation, study and reflective thought.
• Among the virtues given priority are: filial piety (xiao), respect for the elderly
(ti), loyalty (zhong), respectfulness (gong), magnanimity (kuan), fidelity (xin),
diligence (min), altruism (hui), kindness (liang), frugality (jian), tolerance
(rang), wisdom (zhi) and courage (yong).
• Education was to be made available to all, regardless of socioeconomic status
or social standing. He denounced favouritism and the passing of office from
one generation of nobles to the next (Yang Huanyin, 1993).
• According to Confucius, 'Study without thought is labour lost; thought
without study is dangerous'. He saw learning as a process of observation of

some type of subject matter, whether it be books, objects or people, followed

by reflection.
• He saw learning as a highly personal and individual activity but when
awakened by real learning would be repeated by the student. Teachers
should be committed to their work and have good mastery of the knowledge
to be imparted.
• A good teacher must love his students, know them well, understand their
psychological uniqueness and give thought to ways and means of facilitating
their access to knowledge (Yang Huanyin, 1993).
• A mistake is acting on premature knowledge based on insufficient
observation and insufficient processing. A lie is having full knowledge and
deliberately misrepresenting that knowledge.
2.9.2 Confucius on Curriculum

• Confucius stipulated that the main emphasis of the curriculum should be
moral instruction and the imparting of knowledge. Moral education was thus
for Confucius the means whereby his ideas concerning virtue might be
realised.
• Content to be taught as proposed by Confucius
− His six books; the Book of Odes, the Book of History, the Book of Rites,
the Book of Music, the Book of Changes and the Spring and Autumn
Annals ă which dealt with subjects such as philosophy, politics,
economics, culture and musicianship.
− Music.
− The Code and Manner of Proper Conduct (Li).
− Poetry.
− Literature.
− History.
• His emphasis on political and moral principles led to ignoring the natural
Sciences, Trade and Agriculture.
• His curriculum served as the curriculum for 2000 years in feudal China and
the following pedagogical strategies were proposed:
− to match learning with the aptitudes of students (consider the age of
learners).

− to inspire and guide learners by stages.

− to instruct oneself while teaching others.
− to explain the present in the light of the past.
− to combine theory with practice.
− to encourage independent thought.
− to set a good example.
− to correct one's errors and improve oneself.
− to welcome criticism.
− to curb evil and exalt the good.
SELF-CHECK 2.7
1. What are the main features of the Confucian system of
education?
2. How relevant are the ideas of Confucius in today's schools?
2.10 RABINDRANATH TAGORE

Rabindranath Tagore (1861-1941) born in Calcutta, India was known for his
socio-religious and cultural innovations. In 1901 he founded a school at
Santiniketan (that developed into a university) based on the ancient forest
schools which emphasised three basic elements of Indian culture, namely
Advaita (non-duality) in the field of knowledge, friendship for all in the field of
feeling and fulfillment of one's duties without concern for the outcomes in the
field of action (Narmadeshwar Jha, 1994).
2.10.1 Tagore on Education

• Education should aim for the all-round development of the individual
personality through interaction and union with the environment. Education
should provide the individual with a satisfactory means of livelihood
followed by fulfilment and completeness. Schools should be made more
lively and enjoyable. They should be more attractive and productive.

• The ideal school should be established away from the turmoil of human
habitation under an open sky and surrounded by the fields, trees and plants.
Classes were held outdoor (whenever the weather permitted) so that students
gained from being in a natural setting while learning (Tagore, Siksha cited in
Narmadeshwar Jha, 1994).
• He was against bookish learning because it deprives one of learning from the
real-world. Students should gather knowledge and materials from different
sources of nature through their own efforts.
• On university education he suggested that it should be based on knowledge
of economics, agriculture, health, medicine and other subjects that reflects life
in the surrounding villages. Universities should attempt to push for the
growth of rural areas (Narmadeshwar Jha, 1994).
• Emphasis should be more on self-motivation rather than on discipline and on
fostering intellectual curiosity rather than competitive excellence.
• He insisted on open debate on every issue and distrusted conclusions based
on a mechanical formula, no matter how attractive that formula might seem
in isolation.
2.10.2 Tagore on Curriculum

• He put great emphasis on the use of the national language as the medium of
instruction at all stages of education. The younger generation should be
aware of their cultural heritage but at the same time they should be exposed
to the cultures of other countries and learn from them.
• He wanted women and men to be offered similar theoretical courses with
separate practical courses for women, since their roles in life differed from
those of men.
• In his view, education was not intellectual development alone. It should also
develop a student's aesthetic nature and creativity. The quest for knowledge
and physical activity in an agreeable environment were integral parts of the
process.
• Nature walks and excursions were part of the curriculum and students were
encouraged to follow the life cycle of insects, birds and plants.
• Aesthetic development was important as intellectual development; if not
more so. This would include music, art, literature, drama and dance which
should be given prominence in the daily life of the school (OÊConnell, 2003).
• He advocated a teaching system that analysed history and culture for the
progress that had been made in breaking down social and religious barriers.

Such an approach will integrate individuals of diverse backgrounds and

narrow the gap between rich and poor (Narmadeshwar Jha, 1994).
• The curriculum was flexible. Class discussion would move from Indian
traditional literature to contemporary as well as classical Western thought
and then to the culture of China or Japan or elsewhere.
SELF-CHECK 2.8
1. What are the main aims of education according to Tagore?

2. What are the main features of the curriculum proposed by Tagore?
• Philosophers are people who seek after wisdom and are curious about the
world and seek to understand the nature of things.
• Philosophy is the starting point in any curriculum decision and it becomes

the criteria for determining the aims, selection, organisation and
implementation of the curriculum in the classroom.
• The perennialists believe that the aim of education is to develop the rational
person and to uncover universal truths by training the intellect.
• The essentialists argue that schools should transmit the traditional moral
values and intellectual knowledge that students need to become model
citizens.
• The progressivists believe that education must be based on the fact that
humans are by nature social and learn best in real-life activities with other
people.
• The reconstructivists favour reform and students must be taught about how
to bring about change.
• According to Al-Farabi the whole activity of education is the acquisition of

values, knowledge and practical skills leading to perfection and the
attainment of happiness.

• According to Confucius, education is to produce capable individuals whom

he called gentlemen or men of quality who combined competence with
virtue.
• According to Tagore, education should aim for the all-round development of

the individual personality through interaction and union with the
environment.
Al-Farabi on education Philosophy

Confucius on education Progressivism
Educational philosoph Reconstructionism
Essentialism Tagore on education
Perennialism
1. Write down your personal philosophy of education and share it with

others.
2. What is the current "status" of the essentialist orientation to curriculum?
How widespread is this approach in curriculum planning at the
elementary, middle, secondary, and higher education levels?
3. What is the current "status" of the progressive orientation to curriculum
in primary and secondary schools?
4. To what extent do you agree with the reconstructionist perspective on
curriculum?
5. Which ideas of al-Farabi, Confucius and Tagore are practiced in the
school curriculum in your country?
Answer Key to ACTIVITY 2.3:

Progressivism: 4, 10, 12 & 15
Essentialism: 1, 6, 9 & 11
Perennialism: 2, 7, 8 & 13
Reconstructionism: 3, 5, 14 & 16


Chapter 1: What is the curriculum? [available at eBrary].
Heslep, R. (1997). Philosophical thinking in educational practice. London:
Greenwood Publishing.
Chapter 1: The study of educational philosophy [available at eBrary].
Ornstein, A., & Hunkins, F. (1998). Curriculum: Foundations, principle and
issues. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Chapter 2: Philosophical foundations.
Tanner, E., & Tanner, L. (1980). Curriculum development: Theory into practice.
New York: Macmillan Publishing Co.
Chapter 4: Curricular sources and influences.
Prospects: Quarterly review of comparative education (1993). Thinkers on Education.
http://www.ibe.unesco.org/International/Publications/Thinkers/thinhome
.html
Shaw, L. Five educational philosophers.
http://edweb.sdsu.edu/LShaw/f95syll/philos/phessent.html

Topic X Psychological
Foundations
3 of Curriculum
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain why curriculum developers need to understand how humans
learn;
2. Compare the four major theoretical perspectives explaining human
learning;
3. Identify the application of behaviourist, cognitivist, constructivist and
humanist principles in the classroom; and
4. State your values and beliefs about the nature of learning.
X INTRODUCTION
In Topic 2, we discussed how different philosophical orientations and believes
influence curriculum. We examined both Western and Eastern philosophers and
their beliefs on how schools should educate the young. In this topic we will focus
on how different psychological perspectives impact curriculum. Psychology
deals with how humans learn and behave. After all, the main goal of any
curriculum is to bring about learning. Hence, curriculum developers need to
know how humans learn so that they can incorporate psychological principles
when they design, develop and implement curriculum. Just as there are varying
philosophical orientations, there are also varying conceptions of human learning
and how the curriculum should be conceived especially with regards to learning
in the classroom.

46 X TOPIC 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM
Strokes of Genius from a Wonder Boy"

Lost in his own world, 11-year- Railway Station and charcoal
Yeak Ping Lian kneels on the etchings of Tun Mahathir Mohamad
floor, humming softly as he and Datuk Seri Abdullah Badawi,
doodles on a yellow paper. He is the Prime Minister of Malaysia.
oblivious to my presence. "Say
hello to the lady", Sarah Lee said Ping Lian's artistic talent is
to her son who reluctantly moved extraordinary. But, like any
away from his drawing. ordinary child, he is hyperactive
and has a short attention span, loves
"Hello", he mumbles while root beer float and biscuits and
engulfing me in a hug. His eyes enjoys watching Sesame Street and
settle on the flowery motif of my Toy Story. His latest preoccupation
dress. "Paint", he retorts in a clear is the electronic keyboard.
voice and then runs to his
worktable and waits. "Paint Unlike ordinary children, however
flower!" he repeats louder. Ping Lian is autistic and diagnosed
with Attention Deficit Hyperactive
The home is swamped with Ping Disorder. Although he has an
Lian's art ă on the walls, stacked excellent memory and reads well,
up against banisters and under the he has limited speech vocabulary,
tables. They are done in charcoal, usually expressing himself in single
pencil, ink and marker pens with or double words.
watercolour and acrylic.
He is home-tutored and attends
While some resemble infantile supplementary lessons for special
scratchings, there are others that needs children at the Emanuel Care
seem impossible for an 11-year- Centre. He also takes Kumon
old to produce, such as the classes in mathematics.
Petronas Twin Towers, the Kuala
Lumpur.
Source: Strokes of genius from an 11-year-old autistic child, by Vivienne Pal,
New Straits Times, February 3, 2005
ACTIVITY 3.1
Read the newspaper report on Stroke of Genius from a Wonder Boy.
1. What are the unusual abilities of Yeak Ping Lian?
2. How is he presently educated?
3. Are there special schools in your country to educate autistic children?

TOPIC 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM W 47
3.1 UNDERSTANDING LEARNING

Scientific study of human learning began only in the late 19th century though
philosophers such as Aristotle, Socrates, al-Farabi and Confucius have attempted
to explain human learning much earlier. For example, John Locke, in 18th century
philosopher compared children's minds to blank slates or tabula rasa. He
believed that children's experiences are etched or carved into their minds in
much the way that one writes on slates with a chalk. Learners are visualised to be
empty buckets into which information is poured into by the teacher. However,
today we know that children are not empty vessels but come to school have with
many different experiences, prior knowledge and expectations. There is so much
interest in studying human learning and various disciplines besides psychology
have inquired into the mysteries of the mind. Neuroscientists, linguists, cognitive
psycholinguists, organisational psychologists, philosophers and computer
scientists, to name a few are engaging in studying the brain hoping to unravel its
mysteries and better understand how humans learn and think.
A variety of research approaches and methods have evolved in studying how

humans learn. Introspection and the use of computers produced abundant
research in cognitive psychology and increased our understanding of human
competence, memory, knowledge representation, problem solving ability and
decision making skills in areas such as Mathematics, Science and Economics.
Developmental psychology provided some answers to how children think and
understand concepts as they grew chronologically while work in social
psychology revealed that learning takes place in cultural settings.
Psychology is derived from the Greek word psyche which means soul. It is a
discipline devoted to the study of behaviour, mind and thought. Specifically, it
deals with the study of mental processes that determines a person's behaviour
and thinking. When applied to teaching and learning, it provides the basis for
understanding how students learn and understand a body of knowledge. The
curriculum developer has to know how students' learn and to take into
consideration individual differences when designing a curriculum. It is only
when students learn and gain from the curriculum will the curriculum be
considered to be successful.
The curriculum developer is interested in knowing how organisation of the

curriculum can enhance learning. Ralph Tyler, a well-known scholar in curriculum
development proposed in the 1960s that anything that is to be taught in the
classroom should be subjected to a psychology "screen" to establish whether they are
congruent with how humans learn. (We will examine in detail about Ralph Tyler in
topic 5). While there is a great deal of interest in studying human learning, anyone

involved in curriculum work should also be aware that there are many different
explanations of human learning. We have not been able to say with certainty how
people learn. Generally, there are four psychological perspectives or schools of
thought that have had an impact on curriculum; classified as behaviourism,
cognitivism, humanism and constructivism (see Figure 3.1).
Figure 3.1: Psychological perspectives influencing curriculum

and their proponents
3.2 BEHAVIOURISM
In 1879, Wilhelm Wundt established the first laboratory in Germany dedicated to
the scientific study of human thought processes which is often used as the
beginning of modern psychology. His approach to using experiments to studying
the human mind moved psychology from the domain of philosophy to the
laboratory. Through introspection, Wundt and his colleagues tried to get their
subjects to reflect on their thought processes. By the turn of the century, the
behaviourist school emerged as a reaction to the method of introspection used by
Wundt. Proponents of behaviourism argued that the introspection method was
too subjective and felt that scientific study of psychology must be restricted to the
study of behaviours that can be observed and the stimulus that brings about the
behaviour. The behaviourist approach in studying learning can be traced to the
philosophic traditions of Aristotle, Descartes and Locke. They argued that
behaviour can be conditioned by altering the environment. In other words, by
manipulating and giving a certain stimulus, a certain response can be produced.
Motivation to learn was assumed to be driven by drives such as hunger, rewards
and punishment.
3.2.1 Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)

The famous Russian physiologist, Ivan Pavlov introduced the theory of classical
conditioning through a series experiments with dogs (see Figure 3.2). Based on
the Law of Association proposed by Greek philosophers such Aristotle, he
showed that an organism can associate a particular stimulus (S) with a particular
response (R). Learning is the result of an association formed between a stimulus
(such as food) and a response (the animal salivating). Later, one could substitute
'food' with the sound of a bell (a neutral stimulus) and yet the animal salivates.
Such associations or "habits" become strengthened or weakened by the nature
and frequency of the S-R pairings. For example, when the organism realises that
the sound of the bell does not result in food, the animal stops salivating and the
behaviour is said to be extinct.
Figure 3.2: PavlovÊs experiment with dogs

Source: http://www.filisofie.science.ru.htm
3.2.2 Edward Thorndike (1874-1949)

Thorndike also worked with animals and defined learning as habit formation. In
his experiments, a hungry cat was placed in a box and could escape and eat the
food by pressing a lever inside the box (see Figure 3.3). After much trial and error
behaviour, the cat learned to associate pressing the lever (Stimulus) with opening
the door (Response). This S-R connection when established resulted in a
satisfying state of affairs (escape from the box). Each time the animal was put in
the box, it took lesser time to press the lever and escape because the animal has
learned. Based on these experiments, Thorndike proposed three laws which he
called:

Figure 3.3: ThorndikeÊs puzzle box

Source: http://www.freeclipart.com
• Law of Effect ă If a response (e.g. doing a mathematics problem) is followed

by a pleasurable or rewarding experience (e.g. student gets the right answer
and is praised by the teacher), the response will be strengthened and become
habitual.
• Law of Exercise ă Connections between stimulus (e.g. getting the right
answer) and response (e.g. doing a mathematics problem) is strengthened
with practice and weakened when practice is discontinued.
• Law of Readiness ă Certain behaviours are more likely to be learned than
others because the nervous system of the organism is ready to make the
connection leading to a satisfying state of affairs. It is preparation for action.
The task of the teacher is to arrange the classroom and learning activities so as to
enhance connection between a stimulus and response.
3.2.3 B. Frederick Skinner (1900-1980)

He worked with rats and pigeons. The theory of Skinner was based upon the
idea that learning is a function of change in overt behaviour. He introduced the
term 'operant' which means to act upon. He put a hungry rat in a box and each
time the rat pressed the lever, a food pellet would be given. This resulted in the
rat pressing the lever each time it wanted food. The change in behaviour or
learning by the rat is the result of the animal's response to events (stimuli) that
occur in the environment. For example, a child will do her homework because
she knows that she will be allowed to watch her favourite TV programme. When
a particular response or behaviour is reinforced (rewarded), the individual is
conditioned to respond.
Reinforcement is the key element in Skinner's S-R theory. A reinforcer could be

anything. It could a parent saying 'good work' or the child obtaining an 'A' in
history which gives the child a feeling of accomplishment and satisfaction. These
are examples of positive reinforcement. However, there are also negative

reinforcers which are any stimuli that give rise to a response when it is
withdrawn. For example, the rat will press the lever to stop the electric shock
given (see Figure 3.4). A mother will pick up her child who is crying because she
cannot bear to hear him cry. Similarly, when you enter a car, you put on the
safety belt to avoid the irritating sound of the buzzer. In other words, the
behaviour of 'picking the baby' and 'putting on the safety belt' is performed to
avoid unpleasantness. On the other hand, punishment is administered when you
want to reduce the occurrence of a particular behaviour. For example, a boy who
does not help his mother is not allowed to go out to play football. In other words,
the mother is depriving the boy the pleasure of playing football. Based on a
schedule of rewards and punishment, the behaviour of an organism can be
modified.
Figure 3.4: SkinnerÊs box

Source: http://www.csus.edu/ClassLectureThreeOperant.html
What is the difference between classical conditioning and operant conditioning?

In classical conditioning, the organism is not able to change the environment. For
example, in Pavlov's experiments, the dog had no choice whether to salivate or
not when given food or the sound of the bell. In operant conditioning, the
organism has the choice to act or not to act because its response is determined by
the stimulus or the food given. Operant conditioning has been widely applied in
behaviour modification, classroom management and instructional design.
Programmed instruction based on Skinner's ideas was widely adopted in the
1960s and still used today (with modifications). For example, in programmed
instruction students are presented with manageable chunks of information in
gradual steps and feedback is immediately provided to reinforce understanding.
Good performance is provided with reinforcers such as verbal praise, prizes and

good grades. Remember the gold or sliver star you would get next to your name
in primary school for good behaviour or good grades! Behaviour that is
positively reinforced will be repeated and information presented in small
amounts can reinforce and shape the formation of the behaviour desired.
3.2.4 Walter Bandura (1925 – Present)

The social learning theory of Bandura emphasised the importance of observing
and modelling the behaviours, attitudes and emotional reactions of others.
According to Bandura learning would be a slow process if people had to rely solely
on the own efforts to do anything. Fortunately, a substantial amount of human
behaviour is learned by observing others. For the student to learn he or she must
watch and pay attention to the model and the behaviour being modelled. The
information observed must be retained in some form in memory. Next, the student
must have the necessary motor and cognitive skills to reproduce the modelled
behaviour. The motivation to observe and reproduce the modelled behaviour
depends on whether the student will derive satisfaction from reproducing the
behaviour observed.
Among the most common and pervasive examples of social learning situations
are television advertisements. Advertisements suggest that drinking a certain
beverage or using a particular hair shampoo will make us popular and win the
admiration of attractive people. Depending upon the component processes
involved (such as attention or motivation), we may model the behaviour shown
in the advert and buy the product being advertised. Individuals are more likely
to model behaviours that result in something that is valued or if the model is
similar to the observer and has admired status.
SELF-CHECK 3.1
1. What are the differences and similarities between operant
conditioning and social learning?
2. Give examples of classical conditioning, operant conditioning and
social learning in daily life.

3.2.5 Behaviourism in the Classroom

The following is a list of behaviourist principles applied in teaching and learning:
• Use a system of rewards to encourage certain behaviours and learning.
• When learning factual material provide immediate and frequent feedback for
complex and difficult concepts.
• Provide practice, drill and review activities to enhance mastery of facts.
• Break down complex task into smaller and manageable sub-skills.
• Sequence material to enhance understanding; e.g. teach simple concepts first
before proceeding to more difficult and abstract concept.
• Model the behaviour students are to imitate and repeat demonstrations when
necessary.
• Reinforce when students demonstrate the modelled behaviour.
• State the learning outcomes desired for the benefit of both teachers and
students.
• Establish a contract with students on the work to be done and what rewards
will be given.
ACTIVITY 3.2
1. Which of the behaviourist principles listed in 3.2.5 do you think are

widely practiced in classrooms? Give specific examples.
2. Select a textbook and examine how any of the behaviourist
principles have been used.
3.3 COGNITIVISM
In the 1950s there was a realisation that behaviourism did not fully explain
human learning. Although behaviourism emphasised learning that was
observable and measurable, there was something missing, namely mental events.
In other words, what is going on in the minds of the learner when he or she is
learning or thinking (see Figure 3.5). Cognitivists felt that it was necessary to
investigate how learners make sense of what they learn, even though such
mental events are difficult to observe and measure objectively. For example,
when students are asked 'What is the capital of China? One student responds

'Beijing' while another responds 'Shanghai'. Why did one student answer
correctly while the other got it wrong? By observing the responses individuals
make to different stimuli, cognitivists make inferences of the mental processes
that produce those responses.
Figure 3.5: The mystery of the black box
Cognition can be defined broadly as the act or process of knowing. Cognitive

theories of learning focus on the mind or 'black box' and attempt to show how
information is received, assimilated, stored and recalled. However, it should be
noted that unlike behaviourism there is no single theory explaining cognitive
processes or the mysteries of the 'black box'. Evidence seems to indicate that
learning is a multi-faceted, complex and dynamic process. Research in cognitive
psychology has been prolific and many theories have been proposed based on
empirical evidence. This is not surprising since the human mind is so complex
and attempting to unravel its mysteries is only just beginning. The various
theories proposed examine a small facet of cognition and for this reason there are
many explanations of how humans think, solve problems, make decisions and
learn.
3.3.1 The Information Processing Approach

All learning has to do something with memory. If we cannot remember from
what we have experienced we will never be able to learn anything. For example,
one morning you are introduced to Shalin. That afternoon you see again and say
something like, "You're Shalin. We met this morning". Clearly you have
remembered her name. Memory is crucial in learning and the 'Stage Theory'
proposed by Atkinson and Shriffin (1968) argue that information is received,
processed and stored in three different stages. This theory has also been
described as the Information Processing Approach (see Figure 3.6).

Figure 3.6: Three stages of memory (Atkinson and Shriffin, 1968)
The sensory memory receives information from various sources (visual, auditory,
smell, touch and taste) and the brain will only focus on information that has been
attended to. For example, we normally are not aware of the sensory properties of
stimuli, or what we are exposed to unless we are asked to specifically identify such
information. People are more likely to pay attention to information that is interesting
or important to them. Sensory memory is very short and lasts for about ô second.
Information that is attended to is encoded into short term memory (STM). Encoding
is transforming information received into a form that can be deposited or stored in
memory. A striking feature of short term memory is its very limited capacity. On the
average it is limited to seven chunks, give or take two i.e. 7 plus or minus 2 (Miller,
1956). A chunk is a unit that could be number of words, digits, sentences or even
paragraphs. To keep information 'active' in STM you must do something to it. For
instance, when you look up a phone number you repeat it over and over in you
mind in order to retain it until you have dialled the number. We keep information
active by rehearing it, either by repeating it (maintenance rehearsal) or give it
meaning by relating it to something we already know (elaborative rehearsal) to
prevent it from fading from STM.
Information that is encoded and rehearsed is stored in long-term memory which

consists of information that has just happened a few minutes ago or as long as a
lifetime. It has been said that all you have learned and experienced in your
lifetime is stored in long term memory; nothing is lost. Long term memory has an
unlimited capacity or storage area.

When you are unable to recall from long term memory, it is the result from a loss
of access to the information rather than from a loss of the information itself. It is
there but cannot be found. That is, poor memory may reflect a retrieval failure
rather than a storage failure. Failure to find your car keys does not necessarily
mean it is not there; you may be looking in the wrong place or it may simply be
misfiled in your brain and therefore inaccessible. Research has identified that
successful retrieval from long term memory is enhanced when the information is
properly organised and the context in which you retrieve the information is
similar to the context in which you encoded it. For example, at a meeting you met
various professionals ă doctors, teachers, journalists and accountants. When you
later tried to recall their names, you would do better if you organised your recall
by profession: Who were the doctors I met? Who were the teachers? And so
forth. A list of names or words is far easier to recall when you sort the words into
categories and then recall the words on a category-by-category basis.
Organisation improves retrieval, presumably by making memory search more
efficient.
Information is stored in long term memory as a network and the more we

elaborate on it, the more you will remember. In other words, the more
connections that are established between the new information and what is
already stored, the greater the number of retrieval possibilities. Information in
long term memory is usually encoded in terms of its meaning. Memory can be
improved by making meaningful connections between what is known and what
is new.
3.3.2 Meaningful Learning

The search for meaning or making sense of one's experiences is innate and the
need to act on one's environment is automatic. Our brain has been described as
both artist and scientist as it is designed to perceive and generate patterns. When
confronted with meaningless or unrelated isolated pieces of information, it tries
to make sense and create order Learners are constantly patterning, or perceiving
and creating meanings all the time in one way or another. Information is
processed at multiple levels depending upon its characteristics. The "deeper" the
processing the more that will be remembered (Craik and Lockhart, 1972).
Information that involves strong visual images or many associations with
existing knowledge or elaborations will be processed at a deeper level. Things
and events that are meaningful are better remembered because it requires more
processing than meaningless stimuli. The greater the processing of information
during learning, the more it will be retained and remembered.

Learning is seeing patterns; teaching is surrounding

learners with the patterns that are already known by
the culture. And the difference between Nobel Prize
winners and others is that they see patterns that have
not been seen before.
(John Polanyi, Noble Laureate).
Schools cannot stop learners from creating meaning, but can influence the
direction. Although much of what students are to learn is predetermined by the
curriculum, the ideal process is to present information in a way that allows the
learner to extract patterns, rather than try to impose the patterns. The learning
environment needs to be stable and familiar. At the same time provisions must
be made to satisfy the learner's need for curiosity and hunger for discovery and
challenge. Lessons need to be exciting, meaningful and offer students abundant
choices. All students need to be provided with a rich environment with complex
and meaningful challenges.
David Ausubel (1960), a medical practioner argued that learning occurs when
one's current organisation of knowledge is changed, either because a subsuming
concept has been elaborated with the new information or because existing
concepts are now connected by a new subsuming concept. This indicates that
learners change their knowledge in a meaningful and coherent way based on
prior knowledge.
Students come to school with quite sophisticated theories about the world and an
intuitive understanding of language, numbers, and science based on their
previous experiences. They are capable of complex thinking which they apply to
problems in their daily lives, even without mastering some of the basic skills.
However, also included in this prior knowledge are preconceived ideas and
misconceptions such as stereotypes (e.g. of race, gender, etc) and simplistic
notions about the workings of the real world. When you ignore such prior
knowledge, you miss a tremendous opportunity to place new knowledge in
context and to challenge pre-existing mistaken ideas. If efforts are not made to
figure out what students believe and then confront their flawed or incomplete
notions about the world, they will continue to hold on to many misconceptions,
some of which will make it impossible for them to ever truly understand more
complex concepts.

3.3.3 Levels of Cognitive Development

According to genetic epistemologist, Jean Piaget (1955) information that is
attended to is absorbed by the senses and the human mind goes to work to
organise it and to impose personal understanding by relating it to what it already
knows. When the new information is assimilated through existing ideas and
beliefs, it is usually combined with existing knowledge and reinforces the
existing views. On the other hand, when learners have to consider information
through a new schema they may be required to transform their beliefs to
accommodate the information which is the basic process for conceptual change.
Through observation of his children, Piaget proposed the following theory of
cognitive development:
(a) Sensorimotor stage (birth to age 2): In the early stage, the child's reactions
are based on reflex operations and progresses towards being able to
differentiate self from objects. By the end of this stage the child achieves
object permanence and realises that objects continue to exist even when
they cannot be seen or felt.
(b) Preoperational stage (2-7 years): The child learns to use
language and able to represent objects symbolically.
For example, a chair is used for sitting. Thinking is
egocentric in which the child finds it difficult to
consider the viewpoints of others. He or she is able to
classify objects by a single feature. For example, the
child groups together all the red objects regardless of
shape or all the square objects regardless of colour.
(c) Concrete operational (7-11 years): The child can think
logically about objects and events. For example, by age 7, the child knows
that when 500 millilitres of water in a tall glass is poured into a flat
container, the volume of water is the same. The child can classify objects
according to several features and can order them in series along a single
dimension such as size.
(d) Formal operations (11 years and onwards): The young person can think
logically about abstract ideas, evaluate data and test hypotheses
systematically. He or she is able to analyse ideas and comprehend spatial
and temporal relationships. At this stage, there are few or no limitations on
what the young person can learn depending on his intellectual potential
and environmental experiences.
Piaget's view on how children think and develop has had a significant impact on
educational practice and curriculum development. His ideas have been the basis
for designing kindergarten and primary school curriculum. For example,

learning materials and activities are designed to meet the appropriate level of
cognitive development and to avoid asking students to perform tasks that are
beyond their cognitive capabilities.
3.3.4 Metacognition
For many people, learning feels like a random activity; it just happens (or it
doesn't). However, this has shown to be not true because learners who order
their thoughts and focus to make sense of the information such as relating it to
prior knowledge are engaging in metacognitive thought (Flavell, 1977).
• your knowledge of the task,
• awareness of your own ability
• and the action you will take.
Knowledge: Unless you know how to order your thoughts, attention goes to
whatever is in the surroundings.
Awareness: Awareness of your cognitive behaviour includes being

Metacognition •is Âthinking
aware ofabout
the purpose of the
thinkingÊ andtask,
involves:
• aware of what you knows about the task,
• •your knowledge of the task,
aware of what needs to be known and,
• •awareness of your own ability
aware of the strategies which facilitate or impede learning.
• and the action you will take.
"Knowing that you know and knowing that you do not know".

Action: Action is the ability to use self-regulatory mechanisms to ensure
successful completion of the task such as:
o planning your next move,
o checking the outcome of any move made , and
o evaluating the effectiveness of any attempted move.
Experts in any field carry with them very well-developed patterns of knowledge
in their field. They draw on these known patterns whenever they encounter new
information and recognise patterns and features that are not noticed by novices.
But how do they acquire the patterns in the first place? They start with prior
learning, organise it into accessible categories or patterns, and routinely question
what they know when confronted with new patterns and new contexts. They
learn for understanding by paying attention to their learning, monitoring what

they are learning and using the feedback from this self-monitoring to make
adjustments, adaptations and even major changes to what they hold as
understanding (Brown, 1978). Students can enhance their metacognitive skills to
control their own learning. When they have skills like planning, organisation,
monitoring, revising and refocusing they enhanced metacognitive ability.
SELF-CHECK 3.2
1. What are the characteristics of the three memory stores?

2. What is meant by 'meaningful learning'?
3. What is metacognition? How does it influence learning?
3.3.5 Cognitivism in the Classroom

The following is a list of cognitivist principles that may be practiced in the
teaching and learning of various subject areas:
Gain the students' attention:

• Use cues to signal when you are ready to begin.
• Move around the room and use voice inflections (changing tone).
Bring to mind relevant prior learning:

• Review previous day's lesson.
• Have a discussion about previously covered content.
Point out important information:

• Provide handouts.
• Write on the board or use transparencies.
Present information in an organised manner:

• Show a logical sequence to concepts and skills.
• Go from simple to complex when presenting new material.

Show students how to categorise (chunk) related information:

• Present information in categories.
• Teach inductive reasoning.
Provide opportunities for students to elaborate on new information:

• Connect new information to something already known.
• Look for similarities and differences among concepts.
Show students how to use coding when memorizing lists:

• Make up silly sentence with first letter of each word in the list.
• Use mental imagery techniques such as the keyword method.
Provide for repetition of learning:

• State important principles several times in different ways during
presentation of information (STM).
• Have items on each day's lesson from previous lesson (LTM).
• Schedule periodic reviews of previously learned concepts and skills (LTM).
Source: Adaptation of Huitt, W. (2003). The information processing approach to

cognition. Educational Psychology Interactive.
chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/cogsys/infoproc.html
ACTIVITY 3.3
1. Which of the cognitivist principles listed in 3.3.5 do you think are

2. Do you think schools should teach students how to learn? Why?
3.4 CONSTRUCTIVISM
A baby is born and soon takes her first step. In that short period the amount of
learning and understanding of her immediate environment is enormous. The
early years are significant because it provides the basis for language, physical
dexterity, social understanding and emotional development for the rest of the
childÊs life. Just imagine the vast amount of knowledge that would have been
acquired by the time the child enters school. Increasingly there is evidence to
suggest that not everything the child learns is taught by adults. The child teaches
herself by absorbing information and experiencing the world around her. Such
learning is the basis of constructivism, an idea that has generated much
excitement and interest among educators.
3.4.1 Learning is the Active Construction of

Knowledge
Constructivism is a perspective of learning that has its origins in the works of
Bruner, Piaget and Vygotsky. The knowledge, beliefs and skills an individual
brings to a learning situation should be given due importance. Learners are not
passive recipients of information but are active agents engaging in constructing
their own knowledge. According to Piaget (1955), this is done through three
mechanisms namely; assimilation (fitting a new experience into an existing
mental structure), accommodation (revising an existing schema because of a new
experience) and equilibrium (seeking cognitive stability through assimilation and
accommodation). In other words, learning involves the construction of new
understanding by combining prior learning with new information. In other
words, knowledge is constructed in the mind of the learner (Brooks and Brooks,
1993).
If this be the case then knowledge is seldom transferred intact from the mind of
the teacher to the mind of the student. "Knowledge is the result of an individual
subjectÊs constructive activity, not a commodity that somehow resides outside the
knower and can be conveyed or instilled by diligent perception or linguistics
communication" (von Glaserfeld, 1990, p.37). Knowledge is something which is
constructed personally by individuals in an active way, as they try to give
meaning to that knowledge. Learners construct their own knowledge by looking
for meaning and order; they interpret what they hear, read and see based on their
previous learning, habits and experiences. Students who do not have appropriate
background knowledge will be unable to accurately "hear" or "see" what is before
them.
What does this mean for classroom learning? Students should not be treated as
passive learners but rather as active learners exploring and going beyond the
information given. They should be provided with authentic and challenging
projects that encourage students and teachers working together. Authentic
settings provide learners with opportunities to see a problem from different
perspectives as well as negotiate and generate solutions through sharing and
exchange of ideas. In an authentic environment, learners assume responsibilities
for their own learning. The goal is to create learning communities that is more
closely related to collaborative practice in the real world.

3.4.2 Learning is a Social Activity

Constructivism emphasises that learning is a social activity. The environment in
which young people learn has a very powerful influence on them. The subtle and
overt cues that pervade a community influence them. Often it is social
experiences, rather than what is taught in schools, that accounts for much of the
variation in student learning. The community is the basic fabric of student
learning encompassing the values, beliefs, norms habits and behaviours of a
culture (Vygotsky, 1978) As students enter adolescence, the social fabric of their
learning expands as their contacts broaden and they become more closely
identified with peers. Within their peer group, young adolescents encounter
many new ideas and points of view.
If learning is social and students are social, it seems logical that social
engagement is a powerful vehicle for enhancing learning. Cooperative,
collaborative and group investigation methods allow students to discuss ideas,
beliefs, conceptions, inconsistencies and misconceptions with their peers and
teachers. Learning is enhanced when students learn how to learn together,
engage in serious discussion examine important topics, and have shared
responsibility for applying what they know to new situations. Organising for this
kind of learning is a much more complex kind of teaching compared to lecturing
or demonstrations.
Every child's learning develops in the context of a culture and through culture
students acquire much of the content of their thinking as well as the tools of
intellectual adaptation. Culture teaches children both what to think and how to
think and through problem solving share experiences with others such as the
teacher, parent, sibling or significant others. A difference exists between what a
student can do on his own and what the student can do with help or the zone of
proximal development (Vygotsky, 1962). What learners can do on themselves is
on the level of actual ability and what they can do with help is their level of
potential ability. So, with appropriate adult help, students can often perform
tasks that they are incapable of completing on their own. Schools need to create
the conditions within which students can come to recognise their own beliefs and
engage in challenge phenomenon in their environment through investigations,
reading, laboratory investigations, debates, etc.
SELF-CHECK 3.3
1. What do you mean by 'students constructing their own knowledge'?

2. What do you mean by 'learning is a social activity'?
3. Why are authentic and real world situations important in learning?

3.4.3 Constructivism in the Classroom

Student autonomy and initiative are accepted and encouraged:
• respect students' ideas and encourage independent thinking.
• teachers help students attain their intellectual potential.
• students take responsibility for their own learning.
Higher-level thinking is encouraged:

• teachers challenge students to make connections, analyse, predict, justify and
defend their ideas.
• way in which teachers ask questions will influence student response.
• teacher asks open-ended questions and allows wait time for responses.
Students are engaged in dialogue with the teacher and with each other:
• students present what they and build their personal knowledge.
• comfortable to express their ideas to allow for meaningful learning.
Students are engaged in experience that challenge hypotheses and encourage

discussion:
• students generate varying hypotheses about phenomena.
• provide opportunity to test their hypotheses through dialogue.
• the class use raw data, primary sources, manipulatives, physical and
interactive materials.
• involve students in real-world situations.
Curriculum:
• curriculum emphasises big concepts, beginning with the whole and
expanding to include the parts.
• knowledge is seen as dynamic, ever changing with experience.
Source: Adapted from Brooks, J. G., & Brooks, M. G. (1993). In search of understanding:
The case for constructivist classrooms. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and
Curriculum Development.

ACTIVITY 3.4
1. Which of the constructivist principles listed in 3.4.3 do you think are

2. What are some problems with implementing constructivist
principles in the classroom?
3.5 HUMANISM
The humanistic approach to learning refers to a wide variety of ideas and
techniques. While there may be many interpretations, they all advocate
humanising teaching and learning. The learner is a person who has feelings,
attitudes and emotions. Emotions such as self-efficacy, self-assurance, intrinsic
and extrinsic motivation determine how a student approaches learning.
However, not all emotions facilitate learning. Stress and constant fear have a
profound effect on learners' ability to think and learn effectively. Past experience
such as grades and failures have a major impact on a student's current ability to
learn. Three noteworthy personalities who have had an impact on the emergence
of humanistic psychology are Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers and Arthur
Coombs.
3.5.1 Abraham Maslow

He observed that humans are constantly striving to control their behaviour and
seeking to gratify themselves. He proposed his well-know theory called
'Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs' (1943). According to this theory, individuals
satisfy their needs as follows:
(a) Survival needs: food, water, air and rest.
(b) Safety needs: to be safe and avoid danger.
(c) Belongingness and love needs: gain affection of people and need to belong
to a group.
(d) Esteem needs: to be recognised and feeling worthwhile.
(e) Knowing and understanding needs: a desire to know, learn and understand
things.
(f) Self-actualisation needs: to develop one's full potential and to fulfil one's
aesthetic needs.

Everything possible should be done to ensure that the lower-level needs of

students are satisfied, so that they are more likely to function at the higher levels.
Parents and society play a significant role in ensuring that the physiological,
safety, love, belonging and esteem needs of children are satisfied. While schools
cannot control all the influence that impinges on a learner, they can create an
atmosphere of trust, warmth and care. Schools need to create a non-threatening
environment where students feel safe and comfortable.
3.5.2 Carl Rogers

Carl Rogers was a psychotherapist who believed that the client was the most
important person and developed what he called client-centred therapy. The
therapist was not to tell the client what to do but rather the client should learn
how to control his or her own behaviour. He established a warm, positive and
acceptant atmosphere in which he was able to empathise with his clients and
sense their thought and feelings. When applied to education, he proposed that
classrooms become learner-centred and teachers should facilitate learning. The
teacher helps students explore new ideas about their lives, their school work,
their relations with others and their interaction with society. Letting students talk
about their feelings and finding ways to vent their emotions productively can
help then to learn.
3.5.3 Arthur Combs

Arthur Combs believed that how a person perceives himself or herself is most
important and that the basic purpose of teaching is to help each student develops
a positive self-concept. The roles of the teacher are that of facilitator, encourager,
helper, colleague and friend of his or her students. Combs elaborated on these
points by listing six characteristics of good teachers:
(i) well-informed about their subject;
(ii) sensitive to the feelings of students and colleagues;
(iii) believe that students can learn;
(iv) have a positive self-concept;
(v) believe in helping all students do their best; and
(vi) use many different methods of instruction.

SELF-CHECK 3.4
1. What is the humanistic view of learning?
2. What do you mean by 'teacher as facilitator'?
3. What are the 6 characteristics of good teachers according to Arthur
Combs?
3.5.4 Humanism in the Classroom

The following are some humanistic techniques in the classroom:
• Establish a warm, democratic, positive and non-threatening learning
environment in which learner's self-concept and self-esteem are considered
essentials factors in learning.
• When it seem appropriate, function as a facilitator where the he or she works
and shares ideas with students.
• When the teacher is comfortable, the teacher may occasionally show his or
her "real person" by telling students how he or she feels.
• Provide learning experiences that will lead to the development of habits and
attitudes that teachers want to foster.
• Teachers should be role models and set good examples.
• Students and teachers plan together the experiences and activities of the
curriculum.
• Students are given choices (with limitations) and freedom (with
responsibilities); the extent of choices and freedom is related to the maturity
level and age of students.
• Learning is based on life experiences, discovery, exploring and
experimenting.
ACTIVITY 3.5
1. Which of the humanistic principles listed in 3.5.4 do you think are
widely practiced in your school? Give specific examples.
2. Do you think schools give enough attention to the affective
(emotions, feelings) aspects of learning?

ACTIVITY 3.6
Curriculum for Western Australian Schools

Principles Guiding Teaching and Learning
The following are 7 principles of teaching and learning that form the
basis of the learning environment in Western Australian Schools. These
principles are based on contemporary research and knowledge about
how learning can be supported. The focus is on the provision of a school
and classroom environment which is intellectually, socially and
physically supportive of learning.
• Opportunity to learn: Learning experiences should enable students to
observe and practice the actual processes, products, skills and values
which are expected of them.
• Connection and challenge: Learning experiences should connect with
students' existing knowledge, skills and values while extending and
challenging their current ways of thinking and acting.
• Action and reflection: Learning experiences should be meaningful
and encourage both action and reflection on the part of the learner.
• Motivation and purpose: Learning experiences should be motivating
and their purpose clear to the student.
• Inclusivity and difference: Learning experiences should respect and
accommodate differences between learners.
• Independence and collaboration: Learning experiences should
encourage students to learn both independently and from and with
others.
• Supportive environment: The school and classroom setting should be
safe and conducive to effective learning.
Source: Government of Western Australia, Curriculum Council. Available at:

http://www.curriculum.wa.edu.au/pages/framework/framework03g.htm

Questions:
1. Based upon what has been discussed in this chapter, can you identify
which psychological perspectives are emphasised?
2. What is meant by the term 'learning experiences'?
3. To what extent are these principles of learning emphasised in your
school curriculum?
• Psychology deals with the study of learning, behaviour, attitudes and

abilities.
• Behaviourism views human learning as the association between a stimulus

and the accompanying response.
• Operant conditioning argues that the connection between a stimulus and a

response can be strengthened by reinforcement.
• Social learning occurs when a person attends, retains and reproduces the
modelled behaviour and is motivated to do so because it is of value.
• Cognitivism involves the study of the mental activities or events that takes
place when a person learns, solves a problem or makes decisions.
• Meaningful learning is making connections between prior learning and the

new information learned.
• Metacognition is the knowledge one has about oneÊs thinking.
• Constructivism argues that learning is not passive but involves the

construction of knowledge by the learner.
• Constructivism suggests that learning is a social activity.
• According to the humanist approach, learning should take into consideration

the emotions and feelings of students.
• Humanism argues that the role of the teacher is that of a facilitator.

Behaviourism Constructivism
• Constructionof knowledge
• Classical conditioning
• Learning as social activity
• Operant conditioning
• Social learning Humanism
• Hierarchy of needs
Cognitivism
• Teacher as facilitator
• Information processing approach
• Meaningful learning Psychology
• Cognitive development
1. According to the behaviourist perspective, instruction is essentially

"teacher-centred" and learning tends to be passive. Discuss.
2. In your view as a teacher or instructor, to what extent does the
curriculum in your institution take into account the needs and
interests of learners? Given the opportunity, what modifications
would you recommend to curriculum planners that would
accommodate these learners?
3. To what extent can constructivist principles be applied in the
classroom?
4. How would you incorporate humanistic principles in your teaching?
Give specific examples.
Stuart-Hamilton, I. (1996). Introduction to psychology. London: Jessica Kingsley

Publishers.
Chapter 7: Learning Theory [available at eBrary].
Bentham, S. (2002). Psychology and education. London: Routledge.
Chapter 1: Perspectives on Learning: The Cognitive Approach
Chapter 2: Perspectives on Learning: The Behaviourist and Humanistic
Approaches. [available at eBrary]

Ornstein, A. & Hunkins, F. (1998) Curriculum: Foundations, principle and issues.

Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Chapter 4: Psychological Foundations of Curriculum.
Sowell, E. (2000). Curriculum: An integrative introduction. Upper Saddle River, J:
Prentice-Hall.
Chapter 6: Studies of Learners.
Funderstanding. (2001) About Learning,
www.funderstanding.com/about_Learning.cfm.
Teaching Resources Center, University of Berkeley. Theories of Learning.
gsi.berkeley.edu/resources/learning/

Top i c X Social and
4 Historical
Foundations
of Curriculum
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain how the changing economy has influenced curriculum;
2. Suggest how curriculum has to cater for cultural diversity;
3. Discuss how the changing family institution influences curriculum;
4. Identify the demands of some special interest groups regarding
curriculum;
5. List the criteria for knowledge that is most worth;
6. Identify the underlying beliefs determining school curriculum in early
America and Japan; and
7. Give reasons for the changing curriculum emphasis in these two
countries.

TOPIC 4 SOCIAL AND HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM W 73
X INTRODUCTION
In topic 2 we discussed how educational philosophy influences curriculum. In

topic 3, we saw how psychological perspectives impacts curriculum. In this topic
we will examine two factors that influence a curriculum, namely, society and
history. Specifically, we will attempt to answer the following questions: What are
some of the demands of society with regards to curriculum? How have the needs
of society been considered when developing curriculum? What are some of these
needs? What historical events have influenced curriculum?
Schools are part and parcel of society and exist for society. Society influences
society through its curriculum. Schools, through their teaching of the curriculum,
can shape and mould society and society in turn can impact the curriculum.
There is rarely a curriculum that is developed without reflecting society. People
today are vocal in expressing their views and are eager in seeing their opinions
influence what is going on in school. With advancements in information and
communication technology, people are talking and sharing views across the
globe. They are seeing things happening in other school systems and would like
to see some of these practices in their own schools.

74 X TOPIC 4 SOCIAL AND HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM
'A Big Fat World Problem'

DAVOS, Switzerland, Mon. - Two big problems identified were
Concern over mounting levels of mislabelling and advertising as
obesity has sparked a lively debate companies sought the upper hand
among food sector professionals in a cut-throat sector.
and health experts about how to
halt a trend that is medically and One of the biggest concerns raised
economically harmful. at the debate was the lack of
physical education at school and
The World Health Organisation snack food in canteens and vending
said more than one billion people machines. They agreed that
worldwide are overweight, companies had to properly label
including 300 million regarded as their foods and social habits had to
obese, a medical condition inking change. Parents were afraid to let
excess fat to long-term health risks. their children play on the streets,
while computers and television kept
The causes of growing obesity young people indoors.
range from social, such as lack of
exercise at school and home, peer Countries should incorporate
pressure to eat the latest fads and consumer and health education in
centuries of habit, to corporations the curriculum and promote the
involved in price fixing and importance of physical education in
mislabelling of foods to suggest schools. Students have to be taught
they contain less fat and sugar or good nutritional habits at an early
more fibre than they do. age.
Source: New Straits Times, February 1, 2005
ACTIVITY 4.1
Read the newspaper report on "The Big Fat World Problem"?
1. Can you identify the concerns of society?
2. What has been suggested to address the problem? Do you agree?
3. Do you have other suggestions to alleviate the problem?

4.1 SOCIETY AND CURRICULUM

Education systems are closely tied to the institutional network of society. Thus, to
understand how the content of schooling is shaped in any society, we must
understand the relationship between education and other institutions in society.
In other words, to understand what is taught, how it is taught and why it is
taught, we need to look at the social forces that shape the curriculum. When
designing curriculum, the following questions must be addressed:
• To what extent should curriculum consider the world outside of school?
• How do changes in society affect curriculum?
Knowing the social foundations of curriculum is crucial in making decisions

about what should be included in the curriculum and eventually what happens
in the classroom. Schools exist within the context of society and influence culture
which in turn shapes curriculum. The story 'Curriculum of Forest SchoolÊ'
illustrates this point. A curriculum should be able to prepare students for the
present and the future. In other words, a curriculum should address the wants
and needs of learners by responding to social conditions locally, nationally and
globally (McNeil, 1995). Students might ask, "Why do I need to study algebra? I
do not intend to be a mathematician, computer scientist or engineer". The utility
of certain subjects in a curriculum may not be obvious to learners but teachers
know that solving problems in algebra involve thinking skills which may not
seem immediately relevant but will serve students indirectly in many professions
and jobs later in their lives. According to Burks (1998) content is useful;
• if it relates to the general body of knowledge needed by average human
beings for conducting daily life (e.g. reading, writing);
• when it is related to the specific present or future situation of the student (eg.
to be a journalist one needs good language skills) ;
• if it develops thinking skills that probably increases the student's success in
other subject areas or in general life-decisions (e.g. geography develops
spatial thinking, art develops design skills); and
• if it fulfils unavoidable requirements imposed by society as entry
qualifications to certain vocational and professional programmes (e.g.
mathematics as requirement for technical jobs).

Curriculum of Forest School
Once upon a time the animals in the forest decided to start a school. They
agreed that the curriculum should include the following subjects: swimming,
hopping, climbing, running, flying, digging and slithering. All animals were
required to take all subjects.
Everything went on well until the third day when the principal, Wise Old
Owl noticed some disturbing trends. For example, the rabbits were excelling
in hopping but performed poorly in flying tests. The cheetahs were scoring
AÊs in running but were getting D's in digging. The ducks were getting
straight AÊs in swimming but were failing in the slithering course. The
snakes easily got AÊs in slithering but had difficulty flying.
An emergency staff meeting was held among the teachers to find out
whether is was due to poor teaching or was it a curriculum problem. It was
agreed that the teachers were good and dedicated practicing research-based
instructional strategies. Professor Lion from Forest State University was
called in as a consultant. He discovered that the problem was not due to poor
teaching but rather the low level of curriculum utility. He pointed out that
ducks really do not need to know how to slither and cheetahs should not be
forced to learn digging skills. Neither should the snakes be asked to take
flying classes.
Prof. Lion concluded that animals were forced to learn skills that were not
relevant to their situations. However, there are certain skills every animal
needs to know such as finding food and water. He proposed that the
curriculum be revised to include instruction in generic skills such as food-
acquisition principles and social skills. But, animals were allowed to
specialise in subjects most applicable to their species (eg. swimming,
running). The animals all rejoiced when the recommendations were
implemented and shouted "Now this is a useful curriculum".
Source: Adaptation of Buscaglia, L. F. (1972). Love. Thorofare, NJ: C.B. Slack, cited in
R. Burks (1998). A theory of secondary curriculum utility. Available at
http://www.randallburks.com/curriculum.htm

4.2 CHANGING ECONOMY AND CURRICULUM

Few would disagree that the main function of education is to produce people
with appropriate skills and knowledge to enable them to participate in the
nation's economy (refer to the "Curriculum of Forest School"). The nature of
schooling tends to reflect the nature of the society in which it is found (see Figure
4.1). For example, in the latter part of the 19th century, life in the United States
was farm based and schools mirrored that lifestyle. The one-room school house
was sufficient to meet the needs of an agrarian society. School started late and
ended early in the day to allow time for students to help their families with farm
work. School dismissed entirely during the summer so that children could help
their parents the fields. Education was primarily didactic and learning was less
book-based that it is today. Controlled largely by the teacher, education focused
predominantly on basic skills. Teachers taught reading, writing and arithmetic to
complement the skill students learn outside school. Since relatively few students
progressed further than grade 6 or 7, the need for higher levels of education was
minimal.
By the beginning of the 20th century, the industrial revolution brought about
drastic changes in the economy of many countries. More people moved to live in
cities and working in factories. As a consequence new skills were needed in an
industrial society. It was then that a great change took pace in education: the
model of schools as a factory emerged. Students were taught the facts and skills
they needed for industrial jobs, which they were likely to hold their entire lives.
One-room schools were eventually replaced by large buildings. Students were
sorted by grades and sat in straight rows, with a teacher at the front of the
classroom in control of learning. The curriculum was compartmentalised and
taught in separated bits and pieces ă similar to the way that work is completed
on an assembly line. Schools became efficient social institutions with the goal of
turning out identical products.
Figure 4.1: Changing economy and curriculum

The appearance in the early 70s of the microprocessor and the explosive growth
of networking and information technologies in the 80s and 90s witnessed the
growth of the knowledge economy. Multimedia innovations and the growth of
the internet have transformed our ability to access information. Despite all these
changes, we are still educating students in factory-model schools. Many of the
skills being taught currently are intended for jobs that either no longer exist or
will be radically different by the time a student graduates. While being aware of
the trend, educators are still unsure as to what the curriculum of the post-
industrial-style classroom should be.
Without doubt, in the post-industrial or information society, a new curriculum

will be needed. It is envisioned that in the new model, education will be more
personalised. In other words, education will be more differentiated to meet each
student's learning requirements. Students will be challenged with higher
expectations of learning, and encouraged to think critically and creatively as they
solve problems. They will spend more time using information technology and
learn independently. The knowledge gained and skills acquired and attitudes
nurtured will support them throughout life.
SELF-CHECK 4.1
1. State how change from an agrarian economy to an industrial
economy has influenced curriculum?
2. List some of the features of a curriculum for an information society.
Suggest other features.
4.3 THE CHANGING FAMILY INSTITUTION

AND CURRICULUM
In an agrarian or pre-industrial society, gender determined the role of
individuals. Men worked at their various crafts or the farm. When boys were old
enough they worked alongside their fathers. Women on the other hand
maintained the house, caring for the children and training the girls. They also
sewed, processed food (such as milling cereal) and produced clothing. Thus,
men, women and often children worked for the betterment of the whole family
and there was no individual bread-winner. Families were large and the extended
family where parents lived with their adult children was common.
The shift to the industrial economy brought about changes to the family
institution. The extended family where parents lived with their adult children
and their children rapidly declined, especially in urban areas. The family
changed from an extended kinship family to a nuclear family which consisted of

parents and their children only. Men moved from working in farms and cottage
industries to work in offices or factories owned by corporations. Women also
moved out of households to work in business, factories and offices, double
income families gradually became common in many of today's society. As
parents worked away from home, children suffered. Conditions at work
sometimes strained relationship between father and mother which leading to
stress in children affecting their performance in school. To compound the
problem, families were disrupted with divorce which saw an increase in single-
parent families. Some adults remarried and formed new families from previous
marriages posing many challenges of their own.
As more and more families moved to live in urban areas, a different set of values
were acquired. For example, in the early days, family, religion and school
complemented each other as social institutions. A shift in values has resulted in
changes in the relationship between family, education and religion. Social norms
that guided the behaviour of earlier generations have relaxed and these social
institutions (family, education and religion) are increasingly loosing their ability
to guide the behaviours desired of today's generation (Sowell, 2000). Children
could now support their own families with their own earnings and as a result no
longer needed the blessings of their elders. Since advancement on the job
depended on the individualÊs ability and not kinship ties, obedience was no
longer a necessity (Roberts, 1990).
Families have also been disrupted with stress, violence, crime and having to live in
poor neighbourhoods. This had led to depletion of parents' personal resources'
leaving them with very little energy to handle their children appropriately. Parents
are distancing themselves from schools and are passing on the task of educating
their children to the school. Schools are finding it difficult to cope with the job of
educating the next generation without the active involvement of parents in the
education of their children.
4.4 CULTURAL DIVERSITY AND CURRICULUM

Society is increasingly becoming diverse, especially in urban areas. Societies are
becoming more multicultural, multiethnic and multi-religious and it is important
that curriculum understands and reflect these changes. As stated by Ornstein and
Hunkins (1998), "the complexion of our students is changing from one colour to
various shades of colour and this adding of colour and cultural diversity will
continue into the foreseeable future" (p.146). As the world moves towards
becoming a global village, society will become even more diverse with people
bringing in new values, new languages and a new way of life.
Addressing diversity in the curriculum will continue to be a challenge for

educators. It is a task that will at times be politically sensitive. One concept that
has interested educators is assimilation or integration of the diverse groups. In

the 60s and 70s the melting pot approach was adopted in some countries (most
notable is the United States) in an attempt to assimilate people of different
cultural, ethnic and religious backgrounds. It is metaphor for the way in which
diverse societies develop, in which the ingredients in the pot (people of different
cultures, languages and religions) are combined so as to lose their distinct
identities resulting in a final product that is quite different from the original
inputs. Usually, it involved the blending of minority groups with the majority. It
was hoped that a national identity would evolve from these varied attributes.
However, in practice the culture of the majority became dominant. This approach
has proven to be less successful in assimilating people and has been replaced by
the salad bowl approach. Here people of diverse backgrounds are all in the same
salad but maintain their own unique features. Cultural diversity of pluralism
recognises that most societies are composed of many voices and many ethnic
groups. It is a framework in which groups show respect and tolerance of each
other; coexist and interact without conflict. Power and decision making is shared
leading to more widespread participation and greater feeling of commitment
from society members.
How should curriculum address cultural diversity or pluralism? The challenge

confronting educators is developing curriculum that is responsive to students'
diverse social and cultural values and at the same time capable of creating a
national identity based on core values and practices. It may be necessary to have
different programmes, different pedagogical approaches, flexible curriculum and
even varied educational environments to address the needs of all students. No
society can afford to socially or economically marginalise any student and the
curriculum must nurture students to become active participants in a dynamic
and emerging society (Schon, 1993).
4.5 SPECIAL INTEREST GROUPS AND

CURRICULUM
Curriculum decision making is political. Various special interest groups
continually propose what should be included in school curriculum. The topics
range form substance abuse to the rights and responsibilities of citizens.
• Environmental groups insist that students should be taught about conservation
and preservation and the inculcation of values to love the environment. Among
the concerns of these groups are caring for our rivers, industrial pollution, saving
the whales and leatherback turtles.
• Substance abuse is another concern of society. Substance abuse includes drugs
(such as heroin, marijuana, ecstasy pills, etc), alcohol, cigarettes, glue sniffing and
so forth. Society has repeatedly emphasised the need for substance abuse

prevention programmes to be included in school curriculum. Groups involved

in prevention of drug addiction are keen to see that students are taught about
drug addiction in the hope that they will be more aware of the problem and say
"no" to the habit.
• Consumer advocates are keen to see that students are taught about their rights
and responsibilities as consumers in the hope that they will be more prudent
consumers as students and later as adults.
• Health groups have also suggested that schools introduce programmes about
HIV Aids awareness, nutritional information, and other health related issues. As
society becomes more developed, the rise in obesity is of concern in terms of its
consequences on the health system, especially in worker productivity and
increased expenditure on health care [refer to Activity 4.1].
• Sex education has been a topic that has been proposed at various points;
especially when statistics and instances of teen pregnancy and promiscuity are
highlighted by the media and government reports.
• Crime prevention by educating the community on crime prevention techniques
and by getting citizens involved in crime prevention activities such as
neighbourhood watch to reduce the number of crimes and increase the quality of
life of citizens.
• Governments are also determined to ensure that students are taught about their
rights and responsibilities as citizens. Citizenship education has been proposed
in an effort to politically socialise students with democratic ideals, principles and
practices. Being prepared to play a part in political institutions is essential such
as the ability to make informed decision at the personal and societal level.
Similarly, to be educated to take an active part in the cultural life of society such
as holding on to religious and moral beliefs, the ability to use and interpret a
wide range of media, socialisation of children and so forth
SELF-CHECK 4.2
1. What changes are happening to the family institution? List other

changes not mentioned in the text.
2. What is the difference between the melting pot and salad bowl
approaches in assimilating people of diverse backgrounds?
3. Identify other special interest groups and interested parties who
have voiced their opinions on what should be taught.

4.6 KNOWLEDGE THAT IS MOST WORTH

As society changes so does knowledge. Knowledge is growing at a rapid rate and
educators are finding it a challenge as to what to include in the curriculum.
Increase in knowledge, especially in science and technology is the result of
increasing subdivisions and specialisations within the fields. Proliferation of
several new fields of study or branches has contributed to exponential increase in
the quantity of knowledge. For example, in the field of information technology
alone, information is expanding daily. Just look at the number of new words and
terminologies being coined in the field of computer science, telecommunication
and genetic engineering. The continuing debate on what knowledge should be
included in the curriculum of primary, secondary and even tertiary level
education. Some segments of society argue that students should be given a
general education which will equip them with generic skills to function
effectively in society. Others argue that students should be given the knowledge
and skills of specific disciplines to prepare them for specific careers. Futurists
such as John Naisbitt and Alvin Toffler assert that knowledge should prepare
students for the future. "Nothing should be included in the required curriculum
unless it can be strongly justified in terms of the future. If this means scrapping a
substantial part of the formal curriculum, so be it" (Toffler, 1972, p.132).
Ornstein and Hunkins (1998, p.153) provide the following guiding principles in
selecting knowledge for a society that is changing rapidly:
1. Knowledge should comprise basic tools (this includes reading, writing,

arithmetic, oral communication and computer literacy).
2. Knowledge should facilitate learning how to learn (provide learners with

skills and tools to be efficient and effective independent learners).
3. Knowledge should be applicable to the real world (to be able to apply their
knowledge in the solution of real-world problems).
4. Knowledge should improve learners' self esteem and personal integrity

(learners to feel good about themselves and be able to get along with
others).
5. Knowledge should consist of many forms and methods (because of there

are different ways of learning, various options and alternatives should be
provided for acquiring knowledge).
6. Knowledge should prepare the individual for the world of technology (able
to keep abreast and function in an accelerating world of science and
technology).

7. Knowledge should prepare individuals for the world of bureaucracy (able

to deal with various types bureaucratic organisations in government,
business, industry and services).
8. Knowledge should permit the individual to retrieve old information (to

modify and transform old knowledge to produce new knowledge).
9. Knowledge acquisition should a lifelong process (schools provide the basics

and beyond those individuals learn from other sources such as books,
newspapers, television and Internet etc).
10. Knowledge should be taught in context with values (teaching has to

incorporate values because interpretation of knowledge reflects the value
structure of the individual).
ACTIVITY 4.2
1. To what extent do you agree with the guidelines proposed by Ornstein
and Hunkins on knowledge that is most worth for schools?
2. Examine the suggestions in relation to your primary and secondary
school curriculum?
4.7 EVOLUTION OF CURRICULUM

Have you ever wondered what school was like in 1930? What subjects were
taught to the primary school child during that time? What textbooks were used?
In Malaysia, during the 1950s the textbooks used in the primary school were
biased towards life in England. For example, students learned about the English
farmer and his daily activities. If you trace the history of any education system,
you will be able to identify many events which have influenced the curriculum.
Curriculum is created by people based on the circumstances and beliefs during
that period of time. The curriculum is reflective of the political ideologies,
economic systems, religious convictions and conceptions of knowledge at a
particular point in time. To understand how these beliefs and practices have
influenced curriculum throughout history, the educational systems of the United
States of America and Japan are examined beginning from the 17th century to
early 20th century.

4.7.1 Case Study 1: History of the American School

Curriculum
Europeans came to America and established the first colony in Jameston, Virginia
in 1607. Many of the people who settled in America came to escape religious
persecution. The Pilgrims, founders of Plymouth, Massachusetts, arrived in 1620.
Later they settled in the other New England region in the states of Maine,
Vermont, Rhode Island, Connecticut and New Hampshire. In the south, other
than Virginia, they settled in North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia and
Maryland. Slaves were brought in to work in the tobacco and cotton plantations
and by 1770 there were more than 2 million people living the colonies under
British rule.
School Curriculum in Colonial America (Before 1776)

At the primary level, the main purpose of schooling was to teach children to read,
write and spell for purpose of reading the Bible, government notices and common
law. The first primary school was built in Massachusetts. There were two main types
of schools, the town school and private schools. The town school was a locally
controlled primary school. Often it was a crude, one-room structure attended by
both boys and girls of the community (see Figure 4.1). Students sat on benches and
studied their assignments until called on by the teacher to recite. In that one-room
were children from ages 6 to 14 years. Attendance was not always regular
depending on weather conditions and farming cycle. Which time of the farming
cycle do you think attendance would be low? The private schools were established
by religious groups and specific ethnic groups to educate their own children. These
primary schools also focused on reading and writing and religious education and
were attended by upper-class children.
Figure 4.1: A One-Room Schoolhouse in Colonial America

Teachers were expected to know many subjects as they taught students of different age
groups attending different grades in one classroom.
Source: http://www.newdeal.feri.org/library/ab95.htm

At the secondary level there were two types of schools; Latin grammar schools
and the Academy. The sons of the upper class attended Latin Grammar School
for preparation toward entering university. The curriculum consisted of studying
Latin, Greek, arithmetic, classical literature, ancient history and religious
education. These schools followed closely the model of European schools and
their role was to support the religious and social institutions of that era
(Morrison, 1990). The Academy was established to offer a practical curriculum
for those not going to university. Its curriculum consisted of English grammar,
classics, composition, rhetoric and public speaking. Latin was not considered a
crucial subject. Students could choose a foreign language based on their
vocational needs. For example, those who wanted to go into business could do
German, French or Spanish. Mathematics and history was given importance
together with the teaching of specific skills such carpentry, engraving, printing,
farming, bookkeeping and so on.
With regards to university education, most students from Latin grammar schools
went to Harvard or Yale. The curriculum consisted of courses in Latin, grammar,
logic, rhetoric, astronomy, ethics, metaphysics, ancient history, Greek, Hebrew
and natural sciences.
The education system described above was to a large extent confined to the New
England States. What was happening to the rest of the United States? In the
Southern colonies (such as South Carolina, North Carolina, Maryland and
Georgia), education was left to the family or home education. Wealthy
landowners employed private tutors to educate their children and some sent
their children to England to finish their education. For most poor whites who
worked on their farms, formal education was nonexistent. Unable to read and
read and write, many grew up to be subsistence farmers like their parents before
them. Children of black slaves in the plantations were forbidden to learn to read
and write and were cast aside as the underclass of society. Children were taught
from an early age that mankind was divided naturally by race; each race having
certain physical and mental characteristics which had remained fundamentally
unchanged throughout history. Southerners justified slavery on the basis that
blacks were incapable of improvement, all the while denying them access to any
type of formalised education.
SELF-CHECK 4.3
1. What was taught in primary schools in the New England States

during the colonial period?
2. How were children in the Southern colonies of the United
States educated?

School Curriculum After Independence: (1776 -1900)

The American Revolution of 1776 had ended British rule in the colonies. The new
government set a new mission for education. Emphasis was on Âlife, liberty and
equality' as enshrined in the Declaration of Independence and the Bill of Rights
which formed the constitution of the United States of America. Emphasis on
democracy, the development of a strong federal government, the idea of religious
freedom and the new discoveries in natural science saw the decline of religious
influence over primary and secondary schools (Ornstein & Hunkins, 1998). For
example, individuals like Benjamin Rush and Thomas Jefferson asserted that
American schools should be reformed to focus on subjects such as science,
reading, writing, geography and higher mathematics. Education should be made
accessible to the wider population and not confined to upper-class and privileged
few. Mass education was essential if citizens are to actively participate in the
democratic process.
The monitorial system taken from Europe was introduced in American schools
by Joseph Lancaster (1778-1838) in which academically superior students or
monitors were taught by the teachers and they in turn taught their classmates.
The system enabled a small number of adult masters to educate large numbers of
students at low costs in basic and often advanced skills. Instruction was highly
structured and based on rote learning and drilling of reading, writing and
arithmetic. The system was practiced both in primary and secondary schools.
Later this system gave way to schools that were graded and students of the same
age groups were grouped together.
The common school, today's public school, evolved as a result of the belief that a
well-educated citizenery was essential to the survival of a new-found democracy.
Through a common programme of civic education, it set out to inculcate an
American identity and loyalty. Its major purpose was to integrate children of
various social, economic and ethnic backgrounds into the broad American
community. The aim of the common school was to develop basic literacy skills of
students that could be used in everyday life as well as learn skills and attitudes
that made one into a competent shopkeeper, merchant, artisan and worker. The
education provided as to facilitate upward mobility and occupational choice
(Ornstein & Levine, 1985). Schools were financed by the state and the local
community who governed them. The coming of the common school laid the
foundation of the American public school system. By 1900 the majority of
children aged 6 to 13 were enrolled in primary schools. Table 4.1 traces the
curriculum of the American primary school from 1800 until 1900.

Table 4.1: The American Primary School Curriculum 1800-1900
1800 1825 1850 1875 1900

Reading Reading
Declamation Declamation Literature Literature
Spelling Spelling Spelling Spelling Spelling
Writing Writing Writing Penmanship Writing
Religion Good Conduct Conduct Conduct
behaviour
Arithmetic Arithmetic Mental Arithmetic Arithmetic
arithmetic Primary/Advance
- Manners and Manners - -
morals
- Bookkeeping Bookkeeping - -
- Grammar Grammar Grammar Grammar
- Geography Geography Home geography Geography
Text geography Text geography
- - US History US History History studies
- - Object lessons Object lessons Nature study
- - - Science Science
- - - Drawing Drawing
- - - Physical exercises Physical
training
- - - - Music
Play
Sewing
Cooking
Source: From Cubberley, E. P. (1920). The history of education. Boston: Houghton Mifflin,
p.756, cited in Ornstein, A., & Hunkins, F. (1998). Curriculum: Foundations, principles
and issues. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon, p.74
Later in the 19th century, the public high school was fashioned to complete the
educational ladder that led to the state college and university. As the common
school movement expanded, the ideal was to provide as much education as
possible for all children and youth. The slogan was "more education for more
people" and high schools were established and it gradually replaced the
Academy. By 1890 there were 2526 high schools in the United States with an
enrolment of more than 200,000 students. In 1900 about 10% of the youth aged 14

to 17 were in school which rose to 50% in 1930. The provision of public secondary
schools became an obligation of the states, rather than a volunteer matter for
parents and the local district to decide.
Between 1800 and 1825, the curriculum of American secondary schools consisted
of Latin, Greek, classical literature, writing, arithmetic, geometry, trigonometry,
bookkeeping, grammar, rhetoric, surveying, astronomy, geography, philosophy
and foreign languages (Spanish, German and French). Between 1875 and 1900,
the curriculum included all subjects listed earlier plus the following subjects:
meteorology, chemistry, physiology, health education, botany, zoology, biology,
physics, world history and ancient history. The curriculum was expanded to
allow students to explore their interests and capabilities.
ACTIVITY 4.3
List of Punishments in a North Carolina School, 1848.

Rules of School Lashes (Strokes)
Boys and girls playing together 4

Fighting 5
Playing cards in school 4
Telling lies 7
Nick naming each other 4
For misbehaving to girls 10
For having long finger nails 2
Wrestling in school 4
Unable to recall a word from memory without excuse 1
1. Comment on the punishment for breaking schools rules in early

American schools.
2. Compare the punishment for breaking school rules above with
your school system.
Source: Coon, 1915 cited in G.R. Lefrancois, 1982, Psychology for teaching.
Belmont, CA.: Wardsworth, p.53

4.7.2 Case Study 2: History of Japan's School

Curriculum
School Curriculum: Tokugawa Era (1603-1867)
A significant date in Japanese history is the ending of wars between different
warlords in 1603 and the founding of the Tokugawa Regime by Tokugawa Ieyasu.
The Tokugawa family took over control of the country and ruled as Shogun or
"generalissimo", in the name of the Emperor. The Shogun's government, called the
Bakufu (or 'tent-government') was the national government of Japan which had
jurisdiction over areas controlled by the Tokugawa family as well as areas controlled
by many feudal lords. The Tokugawa shoguns established a high bureaucratic
government, giving great control over Japanese society from its system of education
to its business practices and religious institutions. Japanese society was stratified as
follows: daimyo (lords), samurai (warrior), farmers, artisan, merchants and others
(actors and outcasts). During the Tokugawa period, there were five types of schools,
namely; shogunal schools, daimyo schools, shijuku, terakoya and gogaku.
The Shogunal schools were for the children age 8 to 15 years from the samurai or
warrior class. Emphasis was on the teaching of Confucianism (it was forbidden to
teach other doctrines), gunnery, technology and cartography. Confucian classics
were memorised, and reading and reciting them were common methods of study.
With this form of education the role of the samurai gradually changed from warrior
to administrator. By the end of the Tokugawa era there were 27 shogunal schools.
The Daimyo schools were set up in all the feudal domains of Japan and provided
education for the samurai but later extended to commoners. The curriculum was
based on Confucian ideas but included history of Japan and China, calligraphy,
composition and etiquette. Some of the domain schools also taught Chinese and
Western medicine, Dutch studies, military science, geography and astronomy.
There were nearly 300 domain schools and about half opened their doors to
commoners. Many of the schools emphasised different curriculum for the
different ranks of the samurai. For example, for the higher ranked samurai
children character education was most important with focus on proper manners,
proper language to superiors and inferiors, frugality, toughness, moderation in
food and drink. The aim was to prepare them to take over the governing class
and to be future leaders. ÂPracticalÊ subjects such as arithmetic and Western
subjects which produced technicians was introduced to the lower samurai class
and commoners but not the higher samurai class.
The Shijuku (private academies) were private schools which provided education
for the samurai class from primary until higher education. Similar to the domain
schools, many of them opened their doors to commoners. There were about 1,100
shijuku schools by the end of the Tokugawa era. These schools offered a
curriculum consisting of medicine, Dutch studies, Western subjects, military
subjects and navigation. Since they were private schools, they were freer than
other schools to teach doctrines and subjects that were forbidden (Passin, 1982).
These schools became the centres which held strong views against the Tokugawa
shogunate. They produced leaders who helped spread Western ideas and
knowledge. The idea of merit was being practiced in these schools as opposed to
the class students originated from. For example, an individualÊs performance and
examination grades were emphasised rather than his social class.
Figure 4.2: Terakoya schools during the Tokugawa period

Temple schools educated children of common people. Students were taught to read, write
and use the abacus. In capital city of Edo, the literacy rate was 86% for boys and 30% for girls.
In the outlying areas, the literacy rate for boys was 56% and for girls it was 15%.
Source: http://www.honco.net/.../01/ caption/ caption-3-09.html
The Terakoya (children of the temple) was the most important and widespread
school for commoners. These schools were originally run by Buddhist temples
but later became secular for the common people (see Figure 4.2). Though the
majority of terakoya schools were concentrated in the towns and cities, some
were established in the rural areas to improve the literacy levels of farmers and
artisans. The majority of terakoya schools focussed on reading, writing and
arithmetic. Some schools also taught vocational subjects, etiquette, morals and
accounting while others taught geography, history, science, military arts and
even English. Students were not divided into grades. Although education was
the norm, there were far fewer girls than boys, and the two groups were rigidly
separated in seating arrangements. Attendance requirements were casual and
easily adjusted to the work routines of shop or farm. During the busy agricultural
season village terakoya schools were closed and students were given time to
keep up with their household chores.

By the end of the Tokugawa era there were 14,000 terakoya schools and over
17,000 teachers. Teachers were not trained or licensed. Most were volunteers
consisting of retired officials, public-spirited samurai and educated commoners.
Students did not pay fees and teachers were not paid. Schools were maintained
by donations. Teachers were highly respected and had great authority.
According to a well-known textbook, "the pupil should be careful not to step on
the teacher's shadow or to come within seven paces of him" (Passin, 1982, p.33).
Teaching methods were not standardised and the basic subjects were taught
using simple primers (elementary textbooks) prepared by teachers which were
closely liked to the daily life and occupational expectations of students. The
following are some examples of these primers:
• Farmer's reader
• Increased Profits for Farmers
• Bumper Crops
• Merchant Reader
• Navigation and Shipping Reader
• Wholesaler's Reader
SELF-CHECK 4.4
1. What were the main differences between the curriculum of the
shogunal, domain and shijuku schools during the Tokugawa era?
2. What are the main features of the curriculum of the terakoya
schools? Why was such a curriculum preferred?
Apart from formal schooling, a highly developed apprenticeship system

provided direct vocational training. This was carried out mainly in the family,
though some involved apprenticeship in commercial houses. Besides learning a
trade, the training also included discipline and proper behaviour. The
educational achievements and the high respect for learning of Tokugawa Japan
played a large role in Japan's smooth transition to the modern age in the Meiji
period. With a large number of schools for both samurai and commoner children,
the country had achieved a high general literacy rate. The Tokugawa shogunate
showed great interest in learning even from foreign countries. They supported
the translation and study of Western works on science, geography, medicine,
military science and other subjects. These studies allowed the Japanese to be
exposed to Western technology and ideas, which facilitated the transition of
Japan to a modern country in the Meiji era.

School Curriculum: Meiji Era (1867 - 1900)

When the Tokugawa period began, few common people in Japan could read or
write. By the period's end, learning had become widespread. Tokugawa
education left a valuable legacy: an increasingly literate populace, an ideology
based on meritocracy (even though it practiced feudalism) and an emphasis on
discipline and competent performance. Under subsequent Meiji leadership, this
foundation would facilitate Japan's rapid transition from a feudal country to a
modern nation. Internally Japan was faced with an entirely new form of
government; having been ruled under a feudal system since 1600, the Japanese
were not individually prepared to become a modern nation. To better prepare
themselves for modernisation, a national education system was introduced o
help Japan catch up with the West. The education system would not only raise
the level of common education, but would also work toward instilling a sense of
national pride.
Initially the Japanese hurriedly translated western text books and used them in
their classrooms. However, they soon learned that schooling can be used as a
boost to national pride; by replacing American or European stories of triumph
with those of Japanese war heroes. The education system was used to establish a
strong sense of Japanese patriotism. Also, the new system of education was
geared toward creating a distinctively Japanese culture; no longer would the
Japanese use traditional Chinese symbols in formal writing, instead they
developed a system of casual writing that would be understood broadly. The
education system was developed in a manner that would prepare the youth for
more technical positions all the while creating a strong sense of nationalism and
love for the Emperor.
Even with the progress in the field of education, more had to be done to remove
the feudal traditions of the past. In order to prepare the population for a centrally
administered government, the traditional feudal districts were gradually
consolidated into larger blocks. The larger districts allowed for a more efficient
system of administration and gave the government more power to control the
people.
In educating their society, the Japanese not only sent thousands of students
abroad to study at foreign universities, they also hand selected individuals who
would visit other countries and study specific niches of culture, industry, or
military. From their experiences the Japanese then consciously decided which
methods to adopt. They looked to the United States for educational reforms. As
an indication of its success, elementary school enrolments climbed from about 40
or 50 percent of the school-age population in the 1870s to more than 90 percent
by 1900.

By the 1890s, after earlier intensive preoccupation with Western ideas a

conservative and traditional orientation evolved: the education system became
more reflective of Japanese values. The emperor when visiting a local school,
found out that some Japanese students speaking in English were unable to
translate back into Japanese the English that they spoke. In 1879, he issued the
Great Principles of Education and argued that the decline of Japanese culture was
due to Western education. Confucian precepts were stressed, especially those
concerning the hierarchical nature of human relations, service to the new state,
the pursuit of learning, and morality. In the early twentieth century, education at
the primary level was egalitarian and virtually universal, but at higher levels it
was highly selective, and elitist. College education was largely limited to the few
national universities. Three of the imperial universities admitted women, and
there were a number of women's colleges, some quite prestigious, but women
had relatively few opportunities to enter higher education.
ACTIVITY 4.4
Education and Social Mobility

In modern society occupational stratification is relatively open. People
can achieve different levels of socioeconomic statuses. They can be
socially mobile, up or down the stratification system. However, this is
not always with some systems of stratification: For example:
• In slave societies, such as the American South in the 18th century,
the slave is legally owned by their master and their position is fixed.
• In caste societies, such as in India, position in the stratification
system is fixed at birth and strictly no social mobility is allowed.
However, this is gradually breaking down today.
• Similarly, in feudal societies, such as in Europe and Japan in the
15th and 16th century, social position is fixed and clearly defined
(i.e. lords, vassals and fiefs). People could not move up the social
ranks.
1. How has education enabled social mobility? Give specific

examples.
2. Why do you think a sector of the population are either deprived
of education or given a different form of education in these
societies?
3. Is social stratification still prevalent in society? Give specific
examples.

Curriculum is a reflection of societal values and beliefs.
• The changing economy determines the characteristics of the curriculum.
• Curriculum will have to address changes in the family institution.
• Curriculum has to consider ethnic and cultural diversity of the population.
• Special interest groups play an important role in influence curriculum.
• It is a challenge for curriculum developers in deciding on knowledge that is

most worth.
• Curriculum is related closely to the ideological beliefs of a nation at a

particular point in time.
Changing family institution Latin grammar school

Common school Pressure groups
Cultural diversity Public schools
• salad bowl approach Shogunal schools
• melting pot approach
Social mobility
Daimyo schools
Terakoya Schools
Economy and curriculum
• information society The academy
• factory model Town schools

1. How has the school curriculum in your country responded to

different societal demands?
2. When you were in school, were the concerns of society
regarding the curriculum similar or different from the concerns
today?
3. Interview individuals who were in primary or secondary school
during the 1960s. What was schooling like during that period?
Has it changed or in many respects still the same today.

Chapter 3: Conflict in the curriculum? [Available at eBrary].
Cornbleth, C. (2000). Curriculum politics, policy, practice. New York: State
University of New York Press.
Chapter 7: Curriculum as a site of memory: The struggle of a history in South
Africa [Available at eBrary].
Chapter 5: Social foundations of curriculum.
NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Chapter 5: Studies of society and culture.
Kerry, S. (1999). Harm in the school system. School Reform.net
http://www.school-reform.net/
Valiant, B. (2005). 21st century basic skills. Valiant Etc: News and Resources for
Thoughtful Educators.
http://valetc.com/article.php?sid=51&mode=&order=0

Top i c X Curriculum
5 Planning
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe Tyler's model of curriculum development;
2. Explain the features of Taba's curriculum development model;
3. Describe the Saylor and Alexander model;
4. Compare the Tyler, Taba, and the Saylor and Alexander models;
5. Differentiate between the levels of educational goals;
6. Compare the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains; and
7. Formulate objectives using the different taxonomies.
X INTRODUCTION
In Topics 2, 3 and 4, we discussed how
philosophy, psychology, society and history
events influence curriculum. In Topics 5, 6, 7
and 8, we will examine the different phases of
the curriculum development process. The first
phase is curriculum planning followed by
curriculum design, curriculum implementation
and curriculum evaluation. In this topic we
Source: examine in general the curriculum development
http://www.iconandclipart.com process by referring to three well-known
curriculum development model; namely, the
Tyler model, the Taba model, and the Saylor and Alexander model. In the second
part of the topic, we focus on the first phase of the process namely, curriculum

TOPIC 5 CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT PROCESS W 97
planning which involves establishing the goals and objectives of a curriculum

based on the agreed educational philosophy.
Source: adaptation of http://www.freeclipart.com
ACTIVITY 5.1
1. What is the message of the cartoon?

2. How far is this characteristic of your education system?
5.1 THE CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

PROCESS
Curriculum is the foundation of the teaching-learning process whether it is a
school, college, university or training organisation. The textbooks used, how
teachers are trained, development of instructional plans, evaluation of students,
preparation of guides for both students and teachers, and setting of standards,
are all based on the curriculum. Thus without a curriculum no educational
institution can function efficiently. Given such importance to curriculum a
number of questions are raised. How is it developed? How is it organised? Who
develops it? What are the principles in developing a curriculum? How do we
know whether the curriculum is successful?

98 X TOPIC 5 CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT PROCESS
Curriculum is a plan for ordering and directing the teaching-learning experiences

that students encounter in an educational institution. The process of providing
the plan and keeping it running smoothly is known as curriculum development.
Curriculum development is the more comprehensive term, which includes
planning (determination of aims and goals), design, implementation and
evaluation. Since curriculum development implies change and betterment,
curriculum improvement is often used synonymously with curriculum
development, though in some cases improvement is viewed as the result of
development (Oliva, 1982). Curriculum development is a process that
continuously strives to find newer, better and more efficient means to accomplish
the task of educating the next generation.
5.2 MODELS OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

What is a model? A model consists of interacting parts that serves as a guide or
procedures for action. Some models are simple while others are very complex. In
many instances, models are more similar that different and are often refinements
or revisions of earlier models. There are many models of curriculum
development, but in this topic, we will discuss three well-known models: the
Tyler Model, the Taba Model, and the Saylor and Alexander Model. Each of these
models is named after their originator.
5.2.1 The Tyler Model

One of the best known curriculum models is The Tyler Model introduced in 1949
by Ralph Tyler in his classic book Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction
in which he asked four questions:
1. What educational purposes should the school seek to attain?
2. What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain these
purposes?
3. How can these educational experiences be effectively organised?
4. How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained?

In essence, Tyler's questions represent the four-step sequence of:

• identifying purposes or objectives;
• selecting the means for the attainment or achievement of these objectives i.e.
what educational or teaching-learning experiences have to be provided for
students;
• organising these educational or teaching-learning experiences; and
• evaluating the outcomes or what have students attained or achieved.
By "purposes", Tyler was referring to "objectives" and when developing

curriculum objectives data should be gathered from three sources, namely; the
subject area (e.g. Science, Mathematics, Geography, History), the learners (e.g.
economically disadvantaged, gifted, varying academic abilities) and society (e.g.
ethics, patriotism, national unity, environmental awareness, employment, market
needs). Figure 5.1 presents Tyler's model of curriculum development.
After identifying the objectives (which are the desired learning outcomes), the
curriculum developer has to pass them through two screens: the philosophy
screen and the psychology screen. Resulting from this are specific instructional
objectives which state the kind of outcomes that are observable are measurable.
The next step is the selection of educational experiences which enable the
attainment of the stipulated objectives. The learning experiences have to take into
account the previous experiences learners bring to a situation. The learning
experiences will have to be selected based on what is known about human
learning and human development.
Next, Tyler talked about the organisation and sequencing of these learning
experiences. He emphasised that the experiences should be properly organised
so as to enhance learning and suggested that ideas, concept, values and skills be
used as organising elements woven into the curriculum. These elements would
serve as organisers linking content within a particular subject (e.g. History,
Economics, Science) and also determine the method of instruction or delivery of
content. [We will discuss curriculum design in more detail in Topic 6].
Finally, Tyler proposed that evaluation should be an important part of the

curriculum development process. It was necessary for educators to know
whether the selected learning experiences produced the intended results. For
example, if the objective is to develop critical thinking among students, did the
learning experiences selected achieve this objective? Through evaluation it will
be possible to determine whether the curriculum was effective or ineffective.
[We will discuss curriculum evaluation in more detail in Topic 8].

There is no denying that Tyler's thinking has greatly influenced the field of
curriculum, especially curriculum development. The four questions that he
raised had and still have great appeal because it is very reasonable and workable.
Despite much criticism of the model as being too linear, that is, cause and effect,
there is no denying that his thinking continues to be popular (Ornstein &
Hunkins, 1998).
SELF-CHECK 5.1
1. What is the role of objectives in Tyler's model?
2. Why do objectives have to be screened by philosophy and
psychology?
3. Give THREE specific examples of "learning experiences" according
to the Tyler Model.
4. What are elements? Give specific examples.
5. What is the purpose of evaluation?
Figure 5.1: Tyler's Curriculum Development Model

Source: adapted from Ornstein, A. C., & Hunkins, F. P. (1998). Curriculum: Foundations,
principles and issues. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, p.198.
5.2.2 The Taba Model

Another approach to curriculum development was proposed by Hilda Taba in
her book Curriculum Development: Theory and Practice published in 1962. She
argued that there was a definite order in creating a curriculum. She believed that
teachers, who teach the curriculum, should participate in developing it which led
to the model being called the grass-roots approach. She noted 7 major steps to
her grass-roots model in which teachers would have major input (see Figure 5.2).
She was of the opinion that the Tyler model was more of an administrative
model. The Tyler model involved too much top-down decision making. The
greater portions of curriculum decisions were made by administrators in the
Central Office or the Ministry of Education.
Taba felt that a curriculum should be designed by the users of the programme.
Teachers should begin the process by creating specific teaching-learning units for
their students. She advocated that teachers take an inductive approach to
curriculum development. This meant starting with the specifics and building
toward a general design. This was just the opposite to the more traditional
deductive approach which starts with the general design and than working
toward the specifics.
Figure 5.2: Taba's Curriculum Development Model

Taba proposed seven major steps to her grass-roots model in which teachers
would have major input throughout the curriculum development process:
1. Diagnosis of need: The teacher who is also the curriculum designer starts
the process by identifying the needs of students for whom the curriculum is
planned. For example, the majority of students are unable to think critically.
2. Formulation of objectives: After the teacher has identified needs that

require attention, he or she specifies objectives to be accomplished.
3. Selection of content: The objectives selected or created suggest the subject

matter or content of the curriculum. Not only should objectives and content
match, but also the validity and significance of the content chosen needs to
be determined; i.e. the relevancy and significance of content.
4. Organisation of content: A teacher cannot just select content, but must

organise it in some type of sequence, taking into consideration the maturity
of learners, their academic achievement, and their interests. [We will
discuss curriculum design in more detail in Topic 6].
5. Selection of learning experiences: Content must be presented to students

and students must be engaged with the content. At this point, the teacher
selects instructional methods that will involve the students with the
content.
6. Organisation of learning activities: Just as content must be sequenced and

organised, so must the learning activities. Often, the sequence of the
learning activities is determined by the content. But the teacher needs to
keep in mind the particular students whom he or she will be teaching.
7. Evaluation and means of evaluation: The curriculum planner must

determine just what objectives have been accomplished. Evaluation
procedures need to be designed to evaluate learning outcomes. [We will
discuss curriculum evaluation in more detail in Topic 8].
8. TabaÊ model has much merit. However, some argue that teacher
involvement throughout the process assumes that they have the expertise
and, perhaps more importantly, the time to engage in such an extensive and
intensive curricular activity. Teachers being involved in the early stages of
curriculum development may not necessarily be an advantage as it will not
necessarily guarantee an effective curriculum since it is a highly specialised
process.

However, it cannot be denied that curriculum development requires the

involvement of many parties at various stages of the process. It involves
individuals from the Central Office or the Ministry of Education, district
education officers, principals, teachers, community leaders, subject matter
experts, academics and even students. Usually, curriculum developers at the
Central Office are given the task of directing those actions that bring together
various participants in curriculum development. Teachers may only be involved
in implementing the curriculum while the main part of the curriculum is
determined by the Ministry of Education, academics, content specialists and
employers.
SELF-CHECK 5.2
1. Explain why Taba's model is called the grass-roots model.

2. Do you think teachers should be the main decision makers in the
development of a curriculum? Why?
3. To what extent are teachers involved in developing curriculum in
your country?
5.2.3 The Saylor and Alexander Model

Galen Saylor and William Alexander (1974) viewed curriculum development as
consisting of four steps (Figure 5.3). According to them, curriculum is "a plan for
providing sets of learning opportunities to achieve broad educational goals and
related specific objectives for an identifiable population served by a single school
centre" (p.24).
Figure 5.3: Saylor and AlexanderÊs Curriculum Development Model

(a) Goals, Objectives and Domains: The model indicates that curriculum
planners begin by specifying the major educational goals and specific
objectives they wish to accomplish. Each major goal represents a
curriculum domain and they advocate four major goals or domains:
personal development, human relations, continued learning skills and
specialisation. The goals, objectives and domains are selected after careful
consideration of several external variables such as findings from
educational research, accreditation standards, views of community groups
and others.
(b) Curriculum Designing: Once the goals, objectives and domains have been
established, planners move into the process of designing the curriculum.
Here decision is made on the appropriate learning opportunities for each
domain and how and when these opportunities will be provided. Will the
curriculum be designed along the lines of academic disciplines or according
to student needs and interests or along themes? These are some of the
questions that need to be answered at this stage of the development process
[We will discuss curriculum design in more detail in Topic 6].
(c) Curriculum Implementation: After the designs have been created the next
step is implementation of the designs by teachers. Based on the design of
the curriculum plan teachers would specify instructional objectives and
then select relevant teaching methods and strategies to achieve the desired
learning outcomes among students in the classroom [We will discuss
curriculum implementation in more detail in Topic 7].
(d) Evaluation: Finally, curriculum planner and teachers engage in evaluation.
The model proposed that evaluation should be comprehensive using a
variety of evaluation techniques. Evaluation should involve the total
educational programme of the school and the curriculum plan, the
effectiveness of instruction and the achievement of students. Through the
evaluation process, curriculum planner and developers can determine
whether or nor the goals of the school and the objectives of instruction have
been met. [We will discuss curriculum evaluation in more detail in Topic 8].
SELF-CHECK 5.3
1. What is meant by "domains" in the Saylor and Alexander model?

2. What must teachers do to implement a curriculum?
3. What is the role of evaluation in the Saylor and Alexander model?

The three models just discussed reveal both similarities and differences. All
models outline a sequence of steps to be taken in curriculum development.
Interestingly, the Taba model emphasises the role of teachers in curriculum
development while the Tyler model focuses on the two screens objectives have to
pass through. However, you should keep in mind that models often are
incomplete; they do not and cannot show every detail and aspect of the
complicated curriculum process. To depict every aspect in detail of the
curriculum development process would require an exceedingly complex and
intricate model.
In looking at the three models we cannot say that any one model is superior to
another model. Some curriculum planners have followed the Tyler model with
considerable success. But this does not mean that the Tyler model represents the
ultimate in models for curriculum development or that all educators are satisfied
with it.
5.3 GOALS OF EDUCATION

The cartoon at the beginning of this topic shows the kinds of decisions that
curriculum workers have to make in some education system somewhere in the
world. Some decisions are relatively simple such as adding a course, deleting a
course or making some minor changes to content. Other decisions are sweeping
and far-reaching such as changing the levels of schooling from 6-3-2-2 (six years
of primary or elementary school, three years of lower secondary, two years of
upper secondary and two years pre-university or matriculation) to 6-4-2 (six
years of primary or elementary school, four years of secondary and two years of
pre-university or matriculation). How does one decide? All the three models of
curriculum development emphasised the need from the onset to plan statements
of purpose of the education system. What do you want students to be able to do
after completing primary school or after completing secondary school?
In Topic 2, we discussed the views of various Western and Eastern philosophers

on what they thought the school should be and aim to achieve. In Topic 3, we
discussed various psychological explanations of human learning which provide
guidelines as to what students will be able to achieve and how they should be
taught. In Topic 4, we examined what society demands of its education system
providing some insight into what schools should aspire. Based on these sources,
the curriculum planner will have to decide on an education philosophy from
which the goals of education may be derived.

5.4 LEVELS OF GOALS

Goals can be written at several levels of generality involving many curriculum
workers such as teachers, subject specialists, academics, principals, teacher
trainers, administrators and others who may be engaged in curriculum efforts on
several levels at the same time (see Figure 5.4). The model flows from a broad
and wide educational philosophy to the more specific instructional objectives
implemented at the classroom level.
Figure 5.4: Levels of Curriculum Planning

5.4.1 Educational Philosophy

The initial task of curriculum planners is identification of an educational vision
or philosophy which will form the basis of planning. It reflects the desires of the
nation and the major theme paving the way for the future. The vision statement
or philosophy provides guidelines for curriculum developers in organising and
incorporating programmes and activities into the curriculum. The philosophic
vision is usually derived through discussions with various persons in the country
and also from reading the literature. Then it is reformulated in the light of
realities to enable the vision to be achieved through a process of learning in
schools rather remaining an ideal that is unachievable.
The educational philosophy of an educational system is a reflection of national

policies. For example, use of one language of instruction to unite the different
communities; free primary education to reduce drop-outs and a common
national curriculum to reduce varying interpretations. The educational
philosophy will also reflect national priorities such as the development aspects of
the nation, socio-cultural needs of the people and levels of achievement of the
children at different cycles. Development needs have to be identified in relation
to the priorities. For example does the country want more graduates or should
the emphasis be on basic education.
In relation to socio-cultural needs, the culture of peace, conflict resolutions etc.

could emerge as important aspects that should be highlighted in the school
curriculum. The needs of disabled persons and adults who have lost
opportunities for learning have to be incorporated too. Opportunities for
vocational and career education have to be provided in the curriculum.
Therefore, vocational interests of students have to be assessed.
In addition, curriculum planners should not only study current best practices,
customs, and beliefs about education in the local schools but should compare
these to the educational research literature on best practices in teaching, learning,
and curriculum design. Levels of achievements relate to understanding of
concepts at different grades by children to enable them to complete the skills
needed to move on to higher grades. These have to be identified in order to bring
quality to learning and avoid wastage in the learning programmes.

The curriculum framework is a set of principles and guidelines which provides both a
philosophical base and an organisational structure for curriculum development
initiatives at all levels, be they nationally, provincially, community or school-based.
The vision for South Africa encompasses a prosperous, truly united, democratic and
internationally competitive country with literate, creative and critical citizens, leading
productive, self-fulfilled lives in a country free of violence, discrimination and
prejudice. The realisation of this vision requires appropriate, lifelong education,
training and development to empower people to participate effectively in all the
processes of a democratic society and to excel in fields like human and natural
resource development, human and natural sciences, the arts and technology.
The primary task of educational policy makers is the establishment of a just and
equitable education and training system which is relevant, of high quality and is
accessible to all learners, irrespective of race, colour, gender, age, religion, ability or
language. A priority for both national and provincial education departments is,
therefore, the creation of a transformative, democratic, open learning system, fostering
in all its users, a strong commitment to lifelong learning and development.
The curriculum framework serves as a strategic intervention designed to facilitate and

guide the development of a transformed education and training system in a
practicable and sustainable way. It takes as point of departure, that successful modern
economies and societies require citizens with a strong foundation of general
education, the desire and ability to continue to learn to adapt to, and develop new
knowledge, skills and technologies, to move flexibly between occupations, to take
responsibility for personal performance, to set and achieve high standards, and to
work cooperatively.
Source: CURRICULUM (2005). Lifelong learning for the 21st century: A user's guide.
Available at
http://www.polity.org.za/html/govdocs/misc/curr2005.html?rebookmark=1#Principles
ACTIVITY 5.2
Read the Case Study and answer the following questions:

1. Why do you think that in the vision it is emphasised that South
Africa should be free of violence, discrimination and prejudice?
2. What are the goals of the curriculum framework of South Africa?
3. How are these educational goals similar or different from those of
your country?

5.4.2 Education Goals

Educational goals are outcomes to be achieved by students at the end of a
particular period of time in school. While certain goals are universal and run
throughout the period some are specific to particular levels and times. This
means that a child will be facing different goals at different levels. The goals are
the basic elements in curriculum planning and should be clear and well
articulated without ambiguities. All these relate to human behaviour. In a
country recovering from a civil war, its key educational goals might be peace,
developing self-confidence, cooperation, responsible citizenship needed to
overcome the existing conflicts. Actually, there could be a plethora of goals such
as developing creativity, mental health, coping with change, informed
participation, basic skills and so forth, ending on the vision and cultural needs of
the society. Connecting development needs to education is an important strategy
to achieve greater impact of education on society.
ACTIVITY 5.3
In 1990, the President of the United States and state governors issued a
list of six goals for the nation's schools which stated that by the year 2000:
• All children in America will start school ready to learn.
• The high school graduation rate will increase to at least 90%.
• American students will leave grades 4, 8 and 12 having demonstrated
competency in challenging subject matter (English, Mathematics,
Science, History and Geography).
• U.S students will be first in the world in Science and Mathematics
achievement.
• Every adult American will be literate and will possess the knowledge
and skills necessary to compete in a global economy and exercise the
right and responsibilities of citizenship.
• Every school in America will be free of drugs and violence and will
offer a disciplined environment conducive to learning.
Source: National Goals for Education (1990). Washington D.C
1. What seems to be the emphasis in these goals? What is lacking?

2. Compare these goals with the goals of your education system.

5.4.3 Curriculum Goals

A curriculum goal is a purpose or desired end stated in general terms. No time
period is specified when the goals must be reached. Neither is mention of the
criteria for achievement or mastery. Curriculum planners expect students to
accomplish it as a result of exposure to segments or all of a programme in a
particular educational institution. Goals provide direction for the curriculum.
For example:
• "Students shall acquire knowledge and skills necessary for functioning as
good citizens in their own school and community".
• "Schools should seek to promote the physical and emotional health of
students"
5.4.4 Curriculum Objectives

Curriculum objectives are derived from the curriculum goal. A curriculum
objective is a purpose or end stated in specific, measurable terms. It is a
refinement of the curriculum goals. They specify the performance standards for
the students for whom the curriculum is designed. From the curriculum goal;
"Students shall acquire knowledge and skills necessary for functioning on a daily
basis, as good citizens in their own school and community setting"; the following
curriculum objectives can be derived:
• "The majority of students will obey the rules and regulations of the school".
• "More than 80% of students will be involved in at least one voluntary
activity".
Note how the curriculum objective refines the curriculum goal. Many curriculum
objectives can emanate from a single curriculum goal.

ACTIVITY 5.4
Malaysian Primary School Science Curriculum
Curriculum Goal or Aim

Primary Science education aims to develop knowledgeable, skilful,
thinking, caring, dynamic and progressive individuals able to contribute
towards the creation of a society that practices science and technology
culture, responsible towards the environment and appreciative of nature
and GodÊs creations.
Sample Curriculum Objectives

The Primary School Science Curriculum will enable students to:
• Acquire an understanding of science concepts and principles in an
integrated manner and able to relate them with natural phenomena
and everyday experiences.
• Apply science knowledge and skills creatively and intelligently in
problem solving and decision making.
• Develop further the intrinsic values of science such as
inquisitiveness, open-mindedness, intellectual honesty and
perseverance.
• Develop scientific and manipulative skills through the discovery-
inquiry approach.
• Develop skills in conducting scientific investigations and research.
Sample Instructional Goals for Year 4

(A) Understand that breathing is a general characteristic of living things.
(B) Know that light can be dispersed.
Sample Instructional Objectives

(A1) Explain how breathing takes place in humans.
(A2) State the three methods of breathing in animals.
(B1) State that sunlight consists of seven colours.
(B2) Explain the formation of a rainbow.

1. How is the goal of the Malaysian primary school curriculum different

from the stated curriculum objectives?
2. Which curriculum objectives focus on the knowledge, skills and
attitudes/values to be acquired by students?
3. How is 'Instructional Goal A 'implemented in the classroom?
Source: Curriculum Development Centre, Ministry of Education Malaysia (July,

1997). Curriculum specifications for smart schools. Kuala Lumpur: Author.
5.4.5 Instructional Goals

At the instructional phase, curriculum objectives are translated initially into
instructional goals. An instructional goal is a statement of performance expected
of each student in a class stated in general terms. It is the general intentions of a
course of instruction without criteria of achievement. For example, 'Students will
show an understanding about the tropical rainforest'. It indicates the
performance expected; i.e. "understand", but the performance level or criteria is
not stated. So it is not easily measured. Instructional goals points the way to
instructional objectives.
5.4.6 Instructional Objectives

An instructional objective is a statement of performance to be demonstrated by
each student in a class. It is stated in a form that is measurable and observable.
Other names given for instructional objectives are specific instructional
objectives, specific learning outcomes, behavioural objectives performance
objectives, and competencies.
An example of an instructional objective is: 'At the end of the lesson students
should be able to describe five characteristics of the tropical rainforest'. It is
important that you state clearly the instructional objectives you intend to achieve
at the end of a period of instruction. It determines the selection of content
(textbook, the Internet, reference books), the teaching learning methods (lectures,
practical sessions, group discussions, self study, field visits) to be adopted,
learning resources (audio-visual aids, equipment, kits) you will utilise and how
you intend to evaluate whether the desired learning outcomes have been
achieved. Let us examine in detail about instructional objectives.

5.5 INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES OR

LEARNING OUTCOMES
Instructional objectives are the learning outcomes desired and are of primary
importance in developing a curriculum. Objectives point to the appropriate
content to be selected, how teaching and learning is to be conducted and ways of
assessing performance in the subject. In the past the traditional description of a
course simply referred to content; i.e. what it was that the teacher would cover.
There has, however, been a shift in thinking about teaching and learning with
learning and the learner now seen to be of primary importance. Teaching then
becomes the means of facilitating learning in the learner.
In the teacher-centred approach, teaching is generally seen to be about the

transmission of knowledge. Focus is on what the teacher did, and goals of the
subject area were expressed in terms of the content which the teacher would
transmit. In the learner-centred approach, however, the focus is on what the
learner does, and the intentions of a subject area are usually expressed in terms of
how the learner will be changed as a result of learning that content. The
statements describing the change in student behaviour which should result from
taking the course are known as "intended learning objectives" or "intended
learning outcomes"; "objectives" or "outcomes" for short. Teaching then becomes
a series of strategies which are devised in order to help students achieve these
objectives/outcomes. [You will notice that at the beginning of each topic in this
course there is a list of learning outcomes or objectives].
In stating a instructional objective or learning outcome, active verbs are used to

indicate what it is that students must do in order to demonstrate learning. It is
not enough to say "yes, I understand that". But how do I know that you
understand unless you can demonstrate that you do. Here are some examples of
learning outcomes:
On completion of this 45 minute lesson on the tropical rainforest you

should be able to:
• Define the terms: evergreen, humidity, buttress roots, and canopy
• Locate the distribution of the rainforest on a world map
• Explain why there is little undergrowth in a rainforest

ACTIVITY 5.5
Proponents of Behavioural Objectives argue that it:

• forces the teachers to be precise about what is to be accomplished
• enables the teacher to tell students what they must achieve
• makes evaluation easier because it is measurable
• makes it easier for the selection of instructional objectives
• makes accountability easier
Opponents of Behavioural Objectives argue that it:

• restricts creativity
• lead to trivial or unimportant competencies
• is dehumanising
• downplays affective outcomes
1. How do behavioural objectives restrict creativity among students?

2. Do you agree with the opponents of behavioural objectives?
3. State ONE other reason each supporting the proponents and
opponents of behavioural objectives.
Source: Adapted from Oliva, P. (1982). Developing the curriculum.

Boston: Little Brown.
5.6 CLASSIFYING INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES

OR LEARNING OUTCOMES
The classification of learning objectives or outcomes was developed by a team led
by Benjamin Bloom in the 1950s. Three domains were addressed and each
taxonomy of abilities, emotions and skills were developed. A taxonomy is a
system for classifying something, and in this case; the classifying of learning
objectives or learning outcomes. Taxonomies of learning objectives or learning
outcomes are used to categorise goals for student learning. Taxonomies are based
on the assumption that different types of objectives are learned through different
mental processes. The three taxonomies are:

• The Cognitive Domain which is concerned with mental or intellectual skills

and abilities.
• The Affective Domain which is concerned with feelings, values and attitudes.
• The Psychomotor Domain which is concerned with physical skills.
The three taxonomies remain a useful conceptual tool for thinking about what a
body of content require students to do, and for thinking about how students
should be able to demonstrate their learning through their behaviour. It is
valuable because it draws attention to the need to be clear about the complexity
of intellectual tasks which a subject might require to perform.
5.6.1 Cognitive Domain

BloomÊs taxonomy of the cognitive domain is perhaps the best known and most
widely used. It was published in 1956. It lists a personÊs observable and
unobservable intellectual abilities such as comprehending information,
organising ideas, and evaluating information and actions. It categorises the types
of cognitive learning outcomes that are featured at all levels of the curriculum.
Bloom and his associated classified cognitive learning in six major categories:
knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation (see
Table 5.1).
Table 5.1: The Cognitive Taxonomy
Cognitive Examples of Verbs for Stating

Description
Levels Objectives or Outcomes
Knowledge Remembering previously learned Define, describe, identify,
material. The skill may involve label, list, match, name,
recall of a wide range of material, select, state, outline, recite.
from specific facts to complete
theories, but all that is required is
the bringing to mind of the
appropriate information.
Comprehension The ability to grasp meaning of Change, decode, defend,
material. This skill may be shown distinguish, estimate, explain,
by translating material from one generalise, infer, give
form to another, by interpreting example, illustrate,
material (explaining or paraphrase, predict, rewrite,
summarising), and by estimating restate, summarise, solve.
future trends (predicting
consequences or effects).
Application The ability to use learned material Apply, compute, demonstrate,
in new and concrete situations. This develop, employ, manipulate,

may include the application of such modify, organise, produce,

things as rules, methods, concepts, relate, transfer, discover.
principles, laws and theories.
Synthesis The ability to put parts together to Categorise, combine,
form a new whole. This may compile, compose, construct,
involve the production of a unique create, design, devise,
communication (theme or speech), formulate, invent, generate,
a plan of operations (research propose, rearrange,
proposal), or a set of abstract reconstruct, revise, rewrite,
relations (scheme for classifying set up.
information).
Evaluation The ability to judge the value of Appraise, choose, compare,
material (statement, novel, poem, conclude, contrast, criticise,
research report) for a given decide, defend, discriminate,
purpose. The judgements are to be justify, resolve, support,
based on definite criteria. These validate, write a review.
may be internal criteria
(organisation) or external criteria
(relevance to the purpose) and the
student may determine the criteria
or be given them.
Source: Bloom, B. (1956). Handbook of taxonomy of educational objectives
5.6.2 Affective Domain

After the appearance of the cognitive taxonomy, David R. Krathwohl and others,
including Benjamin Bloom, developed a taxonomy of objectives in the affective
domain in 1964 (see Table 5.2). The affective domain relates to the manner in
which we deal with things involving our emotions; such as our feelings, our
values, how we appreciate something, our enthusiasm for something, what
motivates us to do something and our attitudes towards something.
Table 5.2: The Affective Taxonomy
Examples of Verbs for

Cognitive Levels Description Stating Objectives or
Outcomes
Receiving Willingness to receive or to attend Attend, be aware, listen,
to particular information or reply, show, alert, use, watch,
activity (textbook, classroom select, tolerate, follow, ask.
activity). Receiving involves the
willingness to receive or accept
and focussing attention.

Responding Refers to active participation by Agree, answer, communicate,

the student. The student is actively comply, consent, contribute,
attending by responding in the cooperate, help, inquire,
class and is involved in the obey, participate, question,
teaching-learning setting. He or request, report, respond,
she gains satisfaction from seek, volunteer.
engaging in activities.
Valuing The students sees worth or value Accept, adopt, approve,

in what is being learned or the complete, commit, desire,
activity being done. The student display, exhibit, express,
does not merely obey or complies initiate, invite, prefer, share,
but does so because he or she is study, work.
intrinsically motivated.
Organisation The student brings together many Adapt, alter, arrange, classify,
different values and attempt to compare, defend, establish,
resolve the conflicts between the generalise, integrate, modify,
values. Through this process he or order, rank, synthesise.
she builds a value system. He or
she sees how new values are
related to existing values and try
to establish a balance.
Characterisation The student internalises the Act, behave, conform, devote,
values. In other words, he or she display, endure, exemplify,
adopts the values as his or her function, maintain, practice,
own. The values internalised perform, uphold, use,
determines the behaviour of the influence.
student. The behaviour is
consistent and predictable.
Source: Bloom, B., & Krathwohl, D. (1964). Handbook of taxonomy of educational

objectives.
5.6.3 Psychomotor Domain

The psychomotor domain is less known compared to the other two taxonomies.
There are several interpretations of the domain and one of them was developed
by R. Dave in 1970 (see Table 5.3). The psychomotor domain involves physical
movement, coordination and use of the motor-skill areas. Developments of these
skills require practice and are measured in terms of speed, precision, distance,
procedures or techniques in execution.

Table 5.3: The Psychomotor Taxonomy
Cognitive Examples of Verbs for Stating

Description
Levels Objectives or Outcomes
Imitation The student indicates a readiness to Assemble, carryout, copy,
learn a certain complex skill. construct, repeat, duplicate,
Imitation includes repeating an act practice, reproduce, start, try,
that has been demonstrated or volunteer, sketch, follow.
explained. It includes trial and error
until an appropriate response is
achieved.
Manipulation The student continues to practice [All the verbs for Imitation
the skill until it becomes habitual plus the following]: acquire,
and can be performed with some conduct, do, execute, operate,
confidence. The response is more perform, produce, progress,
complex but he or she is still not use, operate.
sure of himself or herself.
Precision The student attains the skill and [All the verbs for Imitation
proficiency is indicated by a quick, and Manipulation plus the
smooth and accurate performance. following]: achieve,
The response is complex and automatise, exceed, excel,
performed without hesitation. master, reach, refine, surpass,
accomplish.
Articulation The student is involved at an even Adapt, change, alter,
higher level of precision. The skill is reorganise, rearrange, revise.
well developed. The student can
adapt the skill according to
different requirements.
Naturalisation The skill is automatic and the Arrange, compose, refine,
student is able to experiment and create, design, originate,
create new ways of using the skill. transcend.
Source: Dave, R. (1974). Psychomotor domain
The three taxonomies provide guidelines for developing instructional objectives

and learning outcomes in a curriculum plan. The taxonomies serve as a guide to
encourage teachers to move their learners from the lower outcomes to higher
levels of learning in each domain.

• Curriculum development is the more comprehensive term, which includes

determination of aims and goals, design, implementation and evaluation.
• The Tyler model focuses on four aspects: the purpose of education, the
educational experiences to be provided, organisation of educational
experiences, and evaluation to determine attainment of goals.
• The Taba model emphasises the need for teachers, who teach the curriculum,
to participate in developing it.
• The Alexander and Saylor model consists of four phases: goals and domains,
curriculum design, curriculum implementation and evaluation.
• Levels of goals: educational philosophy, educational goals, curriculum goals,

curriculum objectives, instructional goals and instructional objectives.
• An instructional objective or learning outcomes specifies the behaviour

desired, the conditions in which the behaviour is to be exhibited and the
criteria for evaluating achievement.
• The learning domains are: the cognitive domain (intellectual abilities), the
affective domain (emotions and feelings) and the psychomotor domain
(skills).
Affective domain Curriculum goals

Cognitive domain Curriculum objectives
Curriculum development Educational philosophy
Curriculum development models: Instructional goals
• Tyler model Instructional objectives
• Taba model
• Alexander & Saylormodel Psychomotor domain

1. If you heading a project on developing a curriculum for a particular

course or subject, which of these 3 models of curriculum
development would you adopt to guide you? Why?
2. Have a look at any course or programme.

(a) Is there a clear statement of curriculum objectives and
instructional objectives to be achieved?
(b) Would you say that students would be clear about what they
are expected to do in the course, or do the objectives simply
delineate the content areas that the course will cover?
(c) Is there an explicit relationship between the objectives and the
teaching-learning methods employed in the subject?
(d) Is summative assessment carried out by anything other than
class tests and examinations?
(e) Is there any mention in them of the affective side to learning in
the subject?
(f) If not, what do you think would be appropriate affective
objectives for the subject?
Henchey, N. (1999). The new curriculum reform: what does it really mean?
McGill Journal of Education, 34(3), p. 227. [Available at ProQuest].
Reimer, B. (1989). A comprehensive arts curriculum model. Design for Arts in
Education, 90(6), pp. 39-43. [Available at ProQuest].
Chapter 9: Aims, goals and objectives.
NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Chapter 4: Studies of subject matter.
Dalton, J., & Smith, D. (1986) Applying Bloom's taxonomy.
http://www.teachers.ash.org.au/researchskills/dalton.htm

MagerÊs tips on instructional objective.

http://www2.gsu.edu/~mstmbs/CrsTools/Magerobj.html

6 Design
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Define what is curriculum design;
2. Recognise the criteria for the selection of content;
3. Explain the principles of content organisation;
4. List the criteria for the selection of learning experiences; and
5. Compare subject matter-centred, learner-centred and problem-centred
curriculum design models.
X INTRODUCTION
The curriculum development process aims towards
producing a plan that stipulates the kinds of
teaching-learning experiences students will engage
in. In Topic 5, we discussed the initial step in the
curriculum development process which is
curriculum planning in which decisions are made
as to what we want students to be able to do. This
is derived from the educational philosophy and
aims of education. It also includes the kinds the
objectives that are to be achieved by teachers or
instructors at the classroom level. To guide
discussion of the curriculum development process, three well-known models
were examined; namely, the Tyler model, the Taba model, and the Saylor and
Alexander model. In this Topic, we will deal with the next phase of the
curriculum development process which is curriculum design.

TOPIC 6 CURRICULUM DESIGN W 123
'Prevention is Better than Cure'

As society becomes increasingly Adopting the curriculum infusion
complex, the incidence of various approach, educators have designed
at-risk behaviours among students lesson plans to include prevention
has increased. These include issues in the regular curriculum.
substance abuse (tobacco and They have used real-life issues as the
drugs), teen pregnancies, road context for addressing the critical
safety, sexual promiscuity, health and social issues while
violence, HIV infection, teaching academic subjects. In fact
gangsterism, bullying and others. prevention strategies are ideally
Parents and society have not suited to infusion into academic
adequately taught students to subjects.
avoid such high-risk behaviours
and have passed on the task to Some educators are beginning to
schools. As such we see „add-on‰ resent having to be the sole
programmes which often are a ÂcustodianÊ of society with parents
series of brief, fragmented units on and the community not doing
critical life issues, squeezed into enough to prevent such negative
the regular curriculum. behaviours among students and
youths. Through the years, more and
Unfortunately there is never more societal issues have been
enough hours in a school day and brought into the curriculum and
they have to compete for valuable schools are expected to teach them in
class time. So, instead of "doing an already crowded curriculum.
more", curriculum planners have
decided to introduce prevention
programmes by using existing
school subjects.
Source: Adapted from Critical issues: Infusing prevention into the curriculum, NCREL.
Available at http://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/envrnmnt/drugfree/sa300.htnm
ACTIVITY 6.1
Read the report on "Prevention is Better than Cure."
1. To what extent is this happening in your school?
2. Give other examples of critical issues your schools have to deal with.
3. Do you agree that prevention issues should be included in the school
curriculum?

124 X TOPIC 6 CURRICULUM DESIGN
6.1 WHAT IS CURRICULUM DESIGN?

Curriculum design is deciding about the "shape" or "configuration" of a
curriculum plan. It involves selection of content in line with the goals and
objectives of the curriculum. The selected content will have to be arranged in a
form that will help the teacher in choosing and organising appropriate learning
experiences for the classroom. Sometimes, curriculum design is also referred to
as 'curriculum organisation'. In short, designing the curriculum involves the task
of organising or arranging the four components; namely, objectives, subject
matter, teaching-learning experiences and evaluation procedures into a cohesive
and comprehensive plan that can be implemented with minimal difficulties.
According to Giles (1942) these four components; are intertwined and interactive.
Unfortunately, not all curriculum plans give equal emphasis to each component.
There are cases of plans that emphasise the subject matter or the content while
others stress mainly the objectives and evaluation procedures. Still, others give
primary emphasis to learning experiences or activities (Ornstein & Hunkins,
1998).
In this topic, we will focus on two main aspects of curriculum design, namely;
• selection and organisation of content (or subject matter) for learners,
• selection and organisation of learning experiences (or activities).
Among the questions to be addressed are: What content or subject matter is to be

included? What learning activities should be planned for learners? What
teaching-learning or instructional strategies should be used? What educational
resources should be used in the teaching-leaning situations?
Obviously, the selection of content and learning experiences will be based on a

sound theoretical framework. This is where one's philosophical beliefs and
conceptions of human learning come into play [Discussed in Topic 2 and Topic
3]. Your philosophical stance and your understanding of human learning will
affect your interpretation and selection of objectives which in turn will influence
the content selected and how it will be organised and how it will be taught or
delivered. This is what Ralph Tyler meant by the philosophical screen and the
psychological screen in his curriculum development model [refer to Topic 5:
Curriculum Development Process].

6.2 CONTENT SELECTION
6.2.1 What is Content?

All curricula have content and how individuals view content is affected by their
view of knowledge and philosophical position. There are varying conceptions of
content. Some curriculum designers conclude that content is really another term for
knowledge consisting of a collection of facts, concepts, generalisations, principles
and theories. For example, an important concept in geography would be spatial
relationships while in physics it would be acceleration. However, a distinction has to
be made between disciplines and content.
The disciplines such as biology, chemistry, sociology and psychology are concerned
with advancement of understanding and the exploration of the unknown. In
contrast, content as found in school subjects (or even undergraduate courses) do not
provide students with opportunities for advancing understanding or creation of new
knowledge in the strictest sense. The content selected is aimed towards helping
students understand knowledge that may be new to them but is already known by
scholars and practitioners in the field. From this body of knowledge or discipline,
content is selected for educational purposes and organised according to the cognitive
level of learners.
6.2.2 How Should Students Learn Content?

Some people feel that content should be prescribed and transmitted to learners
(behaviourism) while others feel that content should be constructed by learners
(constructivism) based on their experiences. In the former setting, learners are
passive recipient of the facts, concepts and generalisations of a subject while in
the latter situation learners seriously engage in the construction of meaning.
Content is not just something told to students but rather something that students
personally construct. Similarly, some educators argue that it is more important to
learn the processes of content than the products of content itself. Such a view
divides content as consisting of product and process, when in reality both should
be given equal emphasis [We discussed this in Topic 1]. Cognitive psychologists
refer to:
• content as declarative knowledge or what students should know (the facts,
concepts and principles of a body of knowledge), while
• process as procedural knowledge or what should be able to do (the
procedures, thinking skills and methods of inquiry embedded in any body of
knowledge).

6.2.3 How Should Content be Selected?

There is so much pressure from parents, academics, the government, the business
community, religious institutions, non-governmental organisations and so forth
as to what to content should be selected and taught in schools. In addition, there
is abundant information and it is doubling at a very rapid rate. Schools do not
have the luxury of time to include all the concerns of society in its curriculum.
Choices have to be made on what to include in the curriculum. Ornstein and
Hunkins (1998) list the following five criteria to guide the selection of content:
• Significance:
It is obvious that content selected should be significant. But, the definition of
significance varies with an individual's beliefs. For example, curriculum
developers who favour subject matter designs think of significance in terms
of the concepts and principles of each subject area. Those who favour learner-
centred designs think of significance in terms of the needs and interests of the
learner. While those who favour a problem-centred design would regard the
problems and issues in society as significant. Taba (1962) further argues that
we should not just select content based on the cognitive aspects of learners,
but also on their affective dimensions.
• Utility:
Utility refers to the usefulness of content. This again depends on your
philosophical beliefs. If you subscribe to the subject-centred design, then you
believe that the content learned from the various subject areas will be useful
in the workplace. If you subscribe to the learner-centred design, then you will
take into consideration the needs and interests of learners which will enable
them to realise their potential to function effectively in the workplace.
Alternatively, if you subscribe to the problem-centred design, then you
believe that learning about societal issues will enable students to apply
directly what they have learned to their daily lives and the world of work.
• Validity:
Validity refers to whether the information passed on to students is authentic
and obtained from credible sources. This is especially significant today with
the deluge of information that is easily accessible which may not necessarily
be credible or reliable. How much of the billions of pages on the internet are
credible? Content needs to be checked to determine its accuracy and
constantly updated.
• Learnability:
It may seem strange that anyone would select content that is not learnable.
Unfortunately, it does happen. Can you give examples of this happening? For

example, the content selected for a particular age group might be too difficult
and teachers need more time but insufficient time is allotted. Eventually,
teachers will end up rushing through the material and some students left
behind not understanding the content.
• Feasibility:
Educators who select content have to take into consideration the constraints
of time, expertise of staff, funding and other educational resources that
schools might face when implementing the curriculum. For example, the
number of days allotted for teaching may be insufficient to cover all the
content because schools have to allocate time for extra-curricular activities
and other schools events. Content selection has to be considered within the
context of existing reality of economics and the role of the government.
SELF-CHECK 6.1
1. What is the difference between content and a discipline?

2. What is the difference between significance and utility in the
selection of content?
3. What is the difference between validity and feasibility in the
selection of content?
6.3 PRINCIPLES OF CONTENT ORGANISATION

After having decided on the content, the next step is to organise the content in a
form that will facilitate learning. The following principles have been proposed
when deciding on content organisation (Sowell, 2000; Ornstein & Hunkins, 1998):
6.3.1 Scope
Scope refers to both the breadth and depth of content and includes all topics,
learning experiences and organising threads found in the curriculum plan. Scope
not only refers to cognitive learning but also affective learning, and some would
argue spiritual learning (Goodland & Zhixin Su, 1992). Sometimes the scope of a
curriculum is narrow, consisting of just a simple listing of key topics and
activities.

"The physics syllabus is overloaded"

"Laboratory sessions has increased with the
introduction of the new chemistry curriculum"
"Scientific literacy of secondary school students is
Low"
When we talk of scope, we are concerned with questions such as: How much
science should students in primary school know? What is the level of
mathematics required of students before they graduate from secondary school?
When curriculum developers are engaged in deciding how much content should
be included, they are determining the scope of the curriculum. When deciding
about the scope of a curriculum, the following guidelines may be useful:
• You might want to ask about the usefulness of the content selected.
• You might want to ask whether the content caters to diverse student abilities.
• You might want to ask if the amount of content selected can be covered in the
specified period of time.
• You might want to ask if there is a balance in the content selected between
cognitive, psychomotor and affective or spiritual outcomes.
ACTIVITY 6.2
1. Do you think the scope (breadth and depth) of the subject you
teach (or are familiar with) appropriate?
2. Give examples of subjects which you think the scope is
inappropriate. Explain.
6.3.2 Sequence
Sequence refers to the organisation of content and the extent to which it fosters
cumulative and continuous learning (referred to as vertical relationship among
sections of the curriculum). Do students have the opportunity to make
connections and enrich their understanding of content? It is important that the

sequencing of content lead to cumulative development of intellectual and

affective processes.
The sequence of content and experiences should be based on the logic of the
subject matter and the way in which individuals learn. It should be based on
psychological principles and understanding of human development and learning
[refer to Topic 3: Psychological Foundation of Curriculum]. The following are
some principles identified as guidelines in sequencing the curriculum: (Ornstein
& Hunkins, 1998; Taba, 1962; Bruner, 1960).
(a) Simple to complex ă content is organised going from simple subordinate
components to complex components depicting interrelationships among
components. Optimal learning occurs when students are presented with
easy, often concrete content and to more difficult and abstract content.
(b) Spiral - In a "spiral curriculum", concepts may be introduced on a simple
level in the early grades, then revisited with more and more complexity and
application later on (Bruner, 1960).
(c) Prerequisites ă it works on the assumption that bits of information or
learning must be grasped before other bits of information can be
understood.
(d) Whole to part ă content is better understood if an overview (whole) is first
presented to show the connections between the parts.
(e) Chronology ă this is a useful organiser for sequencing content especially in
subjects such as history, political science and world events.
(f) Vertical organisation - This simply means that content and skills are
arranged so that they build on one another; that they align with the general
sequence of cognitive development. They indicate what students have
learned and what they will learn later.
(g) Horizontal organisation - It involves how skills and content that are taught
during one level or one period of time relate to another. For example, in a
social science course, you might consider particular issues from a historical,
sociological, political and economic point of view.
6.3.3 Integration
Integration is the bringing together of the concepts, skills and values of different
subject areas to reinforce each other. Bits of information from different subject
areas are brought together in such a way to present the learner with a unified
picture of knowledge. Some have argued that however much curriculum
planners try to integrate information; it is the learners who integrate what they

are learning in their minds. It is something that happens within the individual
learner.
The idea of integration was popularised in the 60s by Hilda Taba because of
concern that school curriculum was too disjointed, fragmented and detached.
Lately, there has been a surge of interest in curriculum integration due to rapid
accumulation of information that is doubling in a shorter period of time.
Increasingly, there is a realisation that knowledge has to be viewed in a much
broader sense, particularly in dealing with ideas that cut across disciplines. When
faced with real-world situations, seldom is one area of content sufficient to
explain complex phenomena. The need to examine phenomena drawing from
various disciplines has intensified interest in the integrated curriculum.
Examples of the integrated curriculum include science-technology-society and
reading across the curriculum. In the science-technology-society (STS)
curriculum, science is combined with social sciences in attempting to solve
practical, everyday problems. The integrated approach takes the student outside
the laboratory and away from the textbook into the local community.
6.3.4 Continuity
Continuity ensures that ideas, themes and skills are repeated as the learner
progresses through the grades. Why? This is because students may not grasp
certain concepts and skills in one experience and have to be presented again
before they become clear. For example, students in the primary grades are taught
the principles of essay writing. The same principles are repeated in the
succeeding years. Continuity ensures the reappearance of certain major ideas at
different grade levels at increased depth and complexity over the length of the
curriculum. For example, doing experiments is a learning experience that is
repeated throughout the teaching of science at increasing levels of complexity
and abstraction.
SELF-CHECK 6.2
1. Name the different ways of sequencing content.
2. What do you understand by integration as one of the principles of
content organisation?
3. Why is there need to ensure continuity in content organisation for
certain concepts and skills?
4. Give examples of continuity other than those given in the text.

6.3.5 Case Study: The Integrated Curriculum

The integrated curriculum is receiving much attention even
though it is not necessarily a new way of looking at teaching
and learning. The expanding body of knowledge, concerns
about curriculum relevancy, lack of connection among subjects
and the need for future workers to have the ability to draw
from many fields in solving problems has been cited as reasons
for a moving towards an integrated curriculum. The integrated curriculum is
organised in such a way that cuts across subject matter, bringing together various
aspects of content to focus upon broad areas of study. It views teaching and
learning in a holistic way that reflects the real world.
Among the common areas of integration are:
1. art, mathematics and reading;
2. writing across the curriculum;
3. history, science and mathematics;
4. history and literature;
5. integrated humanities;
6. health and reading;
7. social studies, health and the arts;
8. physical education, the arts, health and literature; and
9. science, social studies, health and the arts.
For example, 'water' as a theme can be studied from the following areas: science
(composition of water), geography (distribution of water resources), literature
(poems on water), language (vocabulary related to water), history (disputes
related to water), economics (supply and demand of water) and so forth.
Education journal and teachers' own anecdotal records report many examples of
educators linking subject areas to provide meaningful learning experiences. It has
been suggested that the integrated curriculum helps students apply skills, leads
to faster retrieval of information, encourages depth and breadth in learning and
promotes positive attitudes (improved team spirit and work habits).

Successful implementation of an integrated curriculum requires a great deal of

planning. It requires teachers to go out into the community to see what
mathematics, science, social sciences, language arts, artistic and occupational
skills are required in the contemporary workplace. Representatives from
business, industry, government and labour need to provide suggestions for
curriculum redesign.
Source: Lake, K. Integrated curriculum. Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory.

Available at http://www.nwrel.org/scpd/sirs/8/c016.html
ACTIVITY 6.3
Refer to the Case Study: The Integrated Curriculum and
answer the following questions:
1. Why is there a revival of interest in the integrated curriculum?
2. What are some positive effects of curriculum integration?
3. Suggest ways in which the subjects or courses in your institution
may be integrated.
6.4 SELECTION OF LEARNING EXPERIENCES
6.4.1 What are Learning Experiences?

While content is the "meat" of the curriculum plan, we can consider learning
experiences planned for the students as the "heart" of the plan (Ornstein &
Hunkins, 1998). The learning experiences are the means towards achieving the
goals and objectives of the curriculum. Tyler (1960) used the term Âlearning
experiencesÊ in his curriculum development model (discussed earlier in Topic 5).
Learning experiences is the instructional component of the curriculum providing
for the interaction between teacher, student and the content. Learning
experiences, designed for the purpose of achieving the goals and objectives of the
curriculum plan can be divided into:
• teaching methods adopted; and
• learning activities.
There are many types of teaching methods and some examples of teaching
methods include; the inquiry method, the discovery approach, the lecture
method, small group discussion, role-playing, fieldwork and so forth. The term
learning activities was used by Taba (1962) in her curriculum development
model (discussed in Topic 5). Learning activities are opportunities for students to
question, clarify, create and apply knowledge. Examples of learning activities are
answering questions, solving problems, journal writing, viewing videos, doing
experiments, playing games and so forth. Both teaching methods and learning
activities are equally important parts of the learning experience and should be
carefully planned. In many instances, there is overlap between teaching methods
and learning activities and some people may find the distinction problematic.
6.4.2 Criteria for Selection of Learning Experiences
ACTIVITY 6.4
Malaysian Primary 6 Science
Topic: Conservation
Objectives:
• List waste materials that can be reused and recycled.
• Explain the paper recycling paper.
• Carry out recycling projects.
Content:
• Concept of recycling and reusing.
• Components of the paper recycling process.
Learning Experiences:
• View photos and video-clips on recycling of waste materials.
• Class project on collecting newspapers for recycling.
• Visit to a paper recycling plant.
Source: Curriculum Development Centre, Ministry of Education Malaysia (July,

1997). Curriculum specifications for SMART SCHOOLS. Kuala Lumpur: Author.
1. How are the objectives, the content selected and learning

experiences related?
2. Suggest other learning experiences for the same content.
3. Does the subject or course you teach make the distinction between
content and learning experiences?

Learning experiences (teaching methods and learning activities) are selected to

translate the goals and objectives of the curriculum plan. It includes all the
actions of teachers necessary to influence student behaviour and ultimately, their
learning. The particular actions of the teacher may vary according to the teaching
method adopted and learning activities used, but they all are aimed towards
bringing about learning.
The most important criterion for the selection of learning experiences is to ensure
that there is alignment between objectives, content and learning experiences. Will
the learning experiences selected achieve the objectives of the curriculum? This
criterion is termed as validity. Learning experiences should also be selected in
terms of feasibility. In other words, whether the experiences suggested can be
carried out given the time, available facilities and expertise of teachers. It would
be futile to propose learning experiences which may be good on paper but
difficult to implement in the classroom because teachers are not trained and
facilities are inadequate. For example, learning experiences which require using
the internet when the school does not have internet connection.
Learning experiences should also be selected on the basis whether they will
enhance students' learning of the content as well as motivate them to continue
learning. The learning experiences should also attempt to develop thinking skills
of students and to stimulate greater understanding of their own existence as
individuals and as members of groups. In other words, the learning experiences
selected should encourage group interaction and collaborative learning which
are skills required in the world of work. Learning experiences should foster
cognitive, affective, psychomotor and spiritual development of the learner.
In the selection of learning experiences, educators should not separate content

and experiences. In reality, both content and learning experiences do not exist in
isolation. For example, a student cannot just engage in learning or studying
without experiencing some activity and some content. Likewise, teachers cannot
deal with content without being engaged in some experience or some activity.
[You will notice that each topic in this course has a number of learning activities
such as 'self-test' &'activity' to encourage you to 'play' with the content]
6.5 CURRICULUM DESIGNS

Most curriculum designs can be grouped into the following three basic designs;
namely, subject-centred designs, learner-centred designs and problem-centred
designs (see Table 6.1). Subject-Centred Designs include 5 types of designs:
academic subject designs, discipline designs, broad field designs, correlation
designs and process designs. Learner-Centred Designs include 3 types of designs
identified as child-centred, romantic/radical designs and humanistic designs.
Problem-Centred Designs include 3 types of design identified as life-situations

design, core design and social problems design (Ornstein & Hunkins, 1998).
Table 6.1: Summary of major curriculum designs
(a) Academic Subjects

• Separate subjects or courses.
Design
• Use structure of the discipline.

(b) Discipline Based
• Approach physics as a physicist.
Design
• Use inquiry methods of the discipline.
(c) Broad Fields • Interdisciplinary or cross-disciplinary.

Subject-Centred
Design • E.g. Integrated science, whole language.
Designs
• Relate one subject to another with each
(d) Correlation Design keeping its identity.
• Thematic approach or Team teaching.
• Teaching thinking processes such as critical &

(e) Process Design creative thinking, problem solving.
• Metacognitive training.
• ChildÊs interest, need and experiences are

(a) Child-Centred emphasised.
Design
• E.g. project method.
• Learning is reflective and not externally

imposed.
Learner-Centre (b) Radical Design
Designs • Society is flawed and curriculum should
emancipate the learner.
• Stress development of self-concept of

(c) Humanistic students.
Design • Uniqueness of individuals and importance of
self-actualisation.
• Life situations design.

(a) Life-Situations
Design • Subject matter focuses on pressing social
issues and solutions.
• Social functions core.

Problem-Centred
(b) Core Design • Students work on problems crucial in todayÊs
Designs
society
• Social problems and reconstructionist designs.

(c) Social Problems
Design • Analyse severe problems confronting
humankind
Source: Adapted from Ornstein, A., & Hunkins, F. (1998). Curriculum: Foundations,
principles and issues. Boston: Allyn & Bacon, p.264.

6.5.1 Subject-Centred Designs

Subject-Centred Designs are by far the most popular and widely used curriculum
design. This is because knowledge and content are well accepted as integral parts
of the curriculum. Since acquiring a body of content is integral in any school
system, much thought has focussed on how best to present the knowledge, skills
and values of subjects to learners and five approaches have been proposed:
(a) Academic Subject Design:

The academic subject design is both the oldest and best known design to
most people because it was the way many of them were educated. Is this
true of you? This design is based on the belief that humans are unique
because of their intellect and the quest for and acquisition of knowledge is
to feed this intellect. In the 1930s, Robert Hutchins indicated that the
academic subject design model for American schools should comprise;
language and its uses (reading, writing, grammar, literature), Mathematics,
Science, History and foreign languages. Has it changed today?
Why is this model of curriculum design widely adopted? One reason given
is that it is much easily interpreted in textbooks and commercially available
support materials. Since teaching is essentially a verbal activity (whether it
be lecture, recitation, group discussion) teachers find it easier to
communicate the ideas and knowledge of a subject presented in verbal
form in textbooks. Also, people are familiar with this format, having gone
through themselves when in school.
However, critics argue that this design deemphasises the learner by taking
away their rights to choose the content that is most meaningful to them.
Stress on subject matter fails to foster social, psychological and physical
development and to some extent fosters an elite ruling class based on
knowledge (Ornstein & Hunkins, 1998). Do you agree?
(b) Discipline Design:

A discipline is a specific body of knowledge that has its own methods of
inquiry, has its specialised words and terminology, has a tradition, has a
collection of literature and persons involved in the field as theoreticians and
practitioners. Proponents of the discipline design model emphasise the
teaching of the disciplines in its pure form. In other words, a student who
studies biology would approach the subject as a biologist while those who
study history will study it as historians. What is the rationale for teaching
the disciplines? According to its proponents, the school is a mini version of
the world of intellect and that the disciplines reflect that world.

SELF-CHECK 6.3
1. Why is curriculum based on the academic subject design model
popular even today?
2. What is the main difference between the academic subject design
model and the discipline based design model? Give examples
(c) Broad Fields Design:

The broad fields design is also known as the interdisciplinary design. The main
reason for this design arose from the concern that subjects taught were too
compartimentalised and fragmented. For example, geography, geometry,
literature, algebra and so forth. The suggestion was to bring together content
from different subject to form one logical subject. For example, Economics,
Sociology, Political Science, Geography and History were combined to form
the social studies. Another example is language arts (composed of literature,
grammar, linguistics and spelling) and general science (composed of Biology,
Chemistry and Physics). At one time there was a subject called Man and the
Environment (Alam dan Manusia) implemented in Malaysian primary
schools.
What do you see as some problems with this model? One is the issue of
breadth versus depth. For example, in studying the social studies over one
year, students are exposed to a variety of social science concepts compared to
only studying economics concepts for one year. Certainly, treatment of the
various social science concepts will be superficial. For sure, a year of economics
will expose students to more economics concepts and principles than would a
year of social studies. However, some may argue whether students need such
in-depth knowledge of a particular subject. If the educational philosophy is to
give students an overview of the social sciences, then the social studies might
be a logical choice.
(d) Correlation Design:

The correlation design model lies in between the academic design model and
the broad fields design. If you do not want your curriculum to consist of five
separate subjects and neither do you want the five different subject areas to be
fused into one subject, then the correlation design model might be an
alternative. For example, you may want to just fuse or correlate history with
literature at the secondary school level. For example, in a history lesson the
class learns about the Japanese occupation of Malaysia. During the literature
class, students read novels about life during that time period. However, each
subject retains its own distinct identity.

(e) Process Design:

In the discipline based design discussed earlier, students learn the methods of
inquiry used by experts in the respective discipline. For example, in studying
anthropology, students will learn the various ethnographic procedures used in
the field. Advocates of the process design model stress the learning of general
procedures and processes that are not applicable to any particular discipline.
The most popular example of the process design model is the teaching of
thinking skills. Various educators have suggested that students should be
taught to think. Curriculum has focussed on the teaching of decision making,
problem solving, critical thinking and creative thinking. Ennis (1963) identified
a list critical thinking skills that should be taught, such as identification of
fallacies, checking the credibility of sources and so forth.
In the process design curriculum students are also taught to be aware of their
thinking and to take action when necessary. The good thinker is able to
monitor his or her thinking and take steps to remedy faulty thinking. The
general assumption is that there are general thinking skills and processes are
common regardless of the subject area. The aim of the curriculum is to enhance
these process skills applicable to all disciplines. Thinking critically is not
unique to geography or physics. Neither is thinking creatively the sole domain
of art or literature.
SELF-CHECK 6.4
1. What is the main difference between the broad field design model
and the correlation design model? Give examples.
2. How is the teaching of thinking skills in the discipline based design
model and process design model different?
6.5.2 Learner-Centred Designs

While subject-centred designs are popular, there is also an emphasis on learner-
centred designs. The early supporters of the child-centred curriculum were
largely the progressives [we have covered this in topic 2]. Emphasis was on the
development of the whole child and this was most evident in primary schools.
(a) Child-Centred Design:

Proponents of the child-centred design believe that learners should actively
participate in the teaching-learning process. Learning should be related
closely to the daily lives of students unlike the subject-centred design which
tends to separate content from the daily lives of learner. In the child-centred

design focus is on the needs and interests of learners. An early advocate of

the child-centred curriculum was French philosopher Jean-Jacques
Rousseau (1712-1778) who in his book Emile made the child the focus of the
educational process. He emphasised that "Living is the business that I wish
to teach him. When he leaves my care he, I grant, be neither magistrate, nor
soldier, nor priest: he will be, primarily, a man" (cited in Soetard, M., 1994,
p.423). This did not mean children were allowed to run free. Children need
to be guided by the teacher according to their level of development.
Perhaps, the most well-known advocate of the child-centred design is John

Dewey [we have discussed some of his ideas in Topic 2- Progressivism]. He
argued that children are not blank slates and they bring with them four basic
impulses ă the impulse to communicate, to compare and contrast, to inquire and
to express themselves through language. In the child-centred design teaching
and learning draw on the experiences of learners and the vast amount of
information they bring to the classroom. Using this design teachers and students
negotiate what if of interest to learners and what content is to be included in the
curriculum. Teachers and students participate in planning lesson units, its
purposes, the focus of the content, the learning activities to be introduced in the
teaching-learning situations. Hence, in meeting the needs of students, the child-
centred curriculum will be constantly changing.
In the child-centred model, the interests and experiences of the learner become
subject-matter of the curriculum. Children are given the freedom to discover,
first hand, by doing things for themselves rather that being told how to do
something. The "project method" became a popular pedagogical strategy in the
child-centred design in which children solved problematic situations calling on
their knowledge and skills of science, history, art and so forth. In other words,
the traditional subjects are not rejected but rather used to solve problems that
are of interest to learners.
(b) Radical Design:

In this design, the focus is the learner which is quite similar to the child-
centred design. The difference being that greater emphasis is placed on the
need for the curriculum to reform society [we dealt with this in Topic 2 ă
Reconstructionism]. Proponents of the radical design operate on the
assumption that society is corrupt and repressive. Children should be
educated towards the goal of social reform. A well-known proponent of the
radical design was Paulo Freire who opposed treating students as empty
vessels to be filled with knowledge by the teacher. He objected to the
teacher-student dichotomy and proposed the relationship between teacher
and student be reciprocal, that is, 'the teacher who learns and the learner
who teaches'.

According to proponents of this curriculum design, learning is reflective

and not externally imposed by those in power. The curriculum should be so
designed to free the learner from indoctrination. Knowledge is not the
finished product to be acquired by learners because this is indoctrination.
Learning is something that results from the interaction between and among
people. Learners should challenge content and allowed to give their
opinions about the information given to them. Learners will value what
they learn if they are allowed to construct their own knowledge. [These
ideas have been discussed in Topic 3 ă Constructivism]. When learners
create meaning, they have ownership over what they have learned
resulting in genuine thought.
(c) Humanistic Design:

The humanistic design became popular in the 60s and 70s in response to
excessive overemphasis on the disciplines during the 50s and early 60s in
the United States. Proponents of the humanistic design based their
arguments on the principles of humanistic psychology [we have discussed
this in Topic 3 ă Humanistic Psychology]. A basic question asked is whether
the curriculum has allowed a person to truly achieve his or her full
potential. The curriculum should be designed to empower learners to be
involved in the process of realising their potential. Greater emphasis was to
be placed on the affective domain to permit students of feel and value.
One of the proponents of the humanistic curriculum design was Carl

Rogers (1902-1987) who argued that the aim of education is the facilitation
of learning. To facilitate learning, the teacher accepts learners as persons,
placing importance on their feelings, their opinions and caring for them. In
other words, the teacher is able to view the world through the studentÊs
eyes. With such a curriculum, learners will be able to become fully
functional persons, capable of intelligent choice, are critical learners and
able to approach problems situations with flexibility and work
cooperatively with others (Ornstein & Hunkins, 1998). The humanistic
curriculum design focuses on the interconnectedness of the cognitive,
affective and psychomotor domains. The design stresses the development
of positive self-concept and interpersonal skills of learners. The humanistic
curriculum requires teachers with great skills and competence in dealing
with individuals. This may be difficult to obtain in all teachers. There is also
a tendency to overemphasise the individual and ignore the needs of society.

SELF-CHECK 6.5
1. What is the main focus of curriculum based on the Learner-

Centred Designs?
2. What is the main difference between the child-centred design
model and the radical design model?
3. What is the main feature of the humanistic design model?
6.5.3 Problem-Centred Designs

Besides the Subject-Centred and Learner-Centred curriculum design models, a third
category called the Problem-Centred Designs is proposed. The focus of this category
of models is the problems faced by society. Problem-centred designs are pre-
determined before the arrival of students. In other words, genuine life problems are
selected and teaching-learning activities organised around these issues. The learner
is placed in the social setting to address the problem. Unlike the learner-centred
designs, the problems or issues discussed originate from issues that are of concern to
society. It aims to prepare students with relevant knowledge and skills to fit into
society when they leave school.
(a) Life-centred situations:

In any society there are persistent life situations that are crucial to a society's
successful functioning. Examples of such life situations are healthy living, use
of leisure time, ethical character, racial tolerance, citizenship skills and so forth.
It was argued by its advocates that it makes educational sense to organise a
curriculum around such life situations. Students will see direct relevance in
studying such social issues when they are related to their world. Also, having
students study social or life situations will encourage them to see ways to
improve society. The life situations that need to be emphasised in schools will
depend on what students' need before entering the world of work and
assuming adult responsibilities. However, some needs and interests have
already been met by the family, religious institutions and other community
organisations. So, the school should address those needs not met through these
institutions.
This life-centred situations curriculum has been criticised because students

do not learn much subject matter. However, proponents of the model state
that this is not true because the design draws heavily from the traditional
subject areas. The content is organised in a manner that allow students to
see problems faced by society. In addressing society's pressing problems,

content is drawn from different subject areas to explain and find solutions
to current issues.
(b) Core-design:
A variation of the life-centred situations design is the core-design model. Focus
is still on the pressing problems of society. The difference being that certain
problems are selected to form the core. It is carefully planned before students
enter school and adjusted when necessary. The core problems are taught to all
students in a block-time format whereby two or more periods of class time is
used. A problem solving approach is adopted in analysing social problems.
Students select a problem through consensus and work either individually or
in groups. Data is collected, analysed, interpreted and presented in class.
Findings are evaluated and discussed.
SELF-CHECK 6.6
1. What is the main focus of curriculum based on the Problem-Centred
Designs?
2. What is the main difference between the life-centred design model
and the core-design model?
ACTIVITY 6.5
The following are some problems with the problem-centred designs:
• The difficulty in determining the scope and sequence of social
problems faced by society.
• Textbooks and other teaching material do not support the problem-
centred design.
• Teachers are uncomfortable with the design because it departs too
much from their training.
• The design requires an exceptional teacher, well versed in subject
matter, problem-solving skills and general knowledge.
You are leading a team in designing a curriculum for the primary school
using the problem-centred design. Suggest how you would overcome the
problems listed above.

• Curriculum design involves making decisions about the selection and

organisation of content and learning experiences in line with the goals and
objectives of the curriculum.
• Content is usually selected from a body of knowledge or discipline for

educational purposes and organised to meet the cognitive level of learners.
• Content is selected based on significance, validity, feasibility, learnability and

utility.
• The principles guiding content organisation are scope, sequence, integration

and continuity.
• Content may be sequenced horizontally, vertically, chronologically, simple to

complex, spirally and whole to part.
• Most curriculum design models may be classified as either subject-centred

models, learner-centred models or problem-centred models.
Content organisation Curriculum design

• scope Curriculum designs
• sequence • subject-centred designs
• integration • problem-centred designs
• continuity • learner-centred designs
Content selection Learning experiences
• significance
• feasibility Selection of learning experiences
• learnability
• validit
• utility

1. Choose a course or subject you teach or have taken. Explain how

the content in the course is organised.
2. "The content selected and organised in a particular curriculum is
closely related to the textbook". How does this affect the scope of
the curriculum? Its sequence? Its continuity? Its integration?
3. Would a learner-based design be easier or more difficult to
implement compared to a subject-based design for your subject or
course?
4. Which curriculum design model is more prevalent in your
institution? Explain why?
5. What is your preferred curriculum design? Why?
6. How much freedom are you given to change the curriculum
design for the course or subject you teach?
Gatewood, T. (1998). Integrated curriculum in today's middle schools. The

Education Digest, 63 (9). p. 24-29. [Available at ProQuest].
Wragg, T. (1997). Cubic curriculum. London: Routledge.
Chapter 2: Subjects, the first dimension [Available at eBrary].
Chapter 8: Curriculum design. pp. 232-267.
NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Chapter 3: Curriculum organisation. pp. 41-64.
Cherry, C. (2000). Interdisciplinary curriculum project for grade 10.
http://www.health-careers.org/resources/Physical%20
Differences%20Project.pdf
McGinty, E. (2004). The spiral theory of curriculum.
http://www.uprite.net./spiral.html

Manitoba Curriculum Development and Implementation. Elements integrated

into curriculum.
http://www.edu.gov.mb.ca/ks4/cur/elements.html

Topic X Curriculum
7 Implementation
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain what is curriculum implementation;
2. Describe Lewin's change model;
3. Differentiate between the types of curriculum change;
4. Explain why people resist change;
5. Suggest ways of overcoming resistance to change; and
6. List the roles and responsibilities of individuals involved in the
implementation of a curriculum.

TOPIC 7 CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION W 147
'Homework Must Be More Fun and Meaningful'

The Education Ministry is to Homework that is interesting to
regulate homework assignment of pupils would not only make their
school pupils to make it more learning more meaningful and
interesting. Homework is clearly productive, but also facilitate
one key area in which things can teaching. When school children are
and should improve in the interest better motivated in their studies,
of all concerned. Homework teachers also find their task easier.
should have more quality than Students learn better and faster
quantity. It needs a finer focus with when their innate inquisitiveness is
less bulk, and in the process fired with more participatory
become more interesting to give observation and enquiry of the
students an added incentive to world about them. Good teachers
studying harder. Young people can make this vital difference.
have energy, imagination and a
natural curiosity that can help Pupils must constantly be
them to learn if properly chanelled. encouraged to do more than answer
Otherwise homework can become set questions, as it is essential to
a hindrance to the learning process. think their way to unrehearsed
answers. True learning is more than
Teachers should be guided to 'spotting exam questions'. It is more
learning rather than be fountains of important for pupils to experience a
infinite knowledge. They should sense of achievement in all aspects
present material in intellectually of study, which would give them a
stimulating ways, without spoon- feel of their own development and
feeding. Pupils need to know that growth. A more enlightened
learning is part of their own life approach to learning such as this
experience, not something separate may also apply to regular class
and removed from it. Teachers work besides homework.
should therefore avoid dishing out
homework mechanically as routine
chores, which would make studies
boring and brain-deadening.
Source: Adapted from The Sunday Star, 13 February, 2005

148 X TOPIC 7 CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION
X INTRODUCTION
In Topic 5 we discussed what was involved in
curriculum planning and in Topic 6 we looked at
different techniques of designing the curriculum
focusing on some curriculum design models. The
next stage in the curriculum development process
according to Tyler, Taba and Alexander & Saylor is
the implementation of the curriculum plan. The final
destination of any curriculum (whether it be a school,
college, university or training organisation) is the
classroom involving students, teachers, administrators and the community.
Implementing the curriculum is the most crucial and sometimes the most
difficult phase of the curriculum development process. Those responsible for
implementing a curriculum often hear comments and concerns such as:
• Teachers are already overloaded ă how are they going to implement the new
ideas.
• Parents and education officers are only interested in a high pass rate in
examinations ă how are schools to incorporate suggested changes.
These are real concerns and made worse when persons implementing the
curriculum are not clear what is expected of them. How often have we heard
people say, 'the plan was good but implementation was poor'? On the other
hand, if a curriculum plan is not implemented and remains on the shelf then all
efforts in planning will be a sheer waste. A curriculum must be delivered and
that means it must be implemented in the classroom if it is to make an impact on
student learning. Good plans reaching the classroom are not properly
implemented because of a lack of planning and preparation. In some curriculum
development projects, implementation is not been given due consideration; not
realising that innovations need careful planning and monitoring. We hear of
teachers not being properly trained and are required to implement changes in the
classroom within a short period of time.

ACTIVITY 7.1
Read the newspaper report at the beginning of the chapter and answer
the following questions.
1. What are some suggestions proposed for making homework fun
and meaningful?
2. Do you agree with the statement that teachers should not 'spoon-
feed' but rather be guides to learning? Why?
3. Give other suggestions for making homework meaningful and fun.
7.1 WHAT IS CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION?

Implementation is an interaction between those who have created the
programme and those who are charged to deliver it. According to Ornstein and
Hunkins, 1998;
• implementation requires educators to shift from the current programme
which they are familiar with to the new or modified programme.
• implementation involves changes in the knowledge, actions and attitudes of
people.
• implementation can be seen as a process of professional development and
growth involving ongoing interactions, feedback and assistance.
• implementation is a process of clarification whereby individuals and groups
come to understand and practice a change in attitudes and behaviours; often
involving using new resources.
• implementation involves change which requires effort and will produce a
certain amount of anxiety and to minimize these, it is useful to organise
implementation into manageable events and to set achievable goals.
• implementation requires a supportive atmosphere in which there is trust and
open communication between administrators, teachers educators and where
risk-taking is encouraged.
Even though large sums of money are spent on implementing new curriculum,
several of these efforts have failed. According to Sarason (1990), the main reason
for the failure is the lack of understanding of the culture of the school by both
experts outside the school system and educators in the system. Successful
implementation of curriculum requires understanding the power relationships,
the traditions, the roles and responsibilities of individuals in the school system.

Implementors (whether they be teachers, principals, district education officers)

should be well-versed with the contents of the curriculum. They must be clear of
the purpose, the nature and the real and potential benefits of the innovation.
As stated by Fullan and Pomfret (1977); "effective implementation of innovations

requires time, personal interaction and contacts, in-service training and other
forms of people-based support" (p.391). Curriculum implementation requires
winning people over and it takes time. Teachers need to feel appreciated and
their efforts recognised. Some may argue that they should be given financial
rewards but there is evidence to suggest that external motivation contributes
minimally to the venture. Individuals contribute their best talents when they are
internally motivated and derive a good feeling from being involved.
7.2 CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION AS A

CHANGE PROCESS
Implementation is the carrying out of something or the practical application of a
method, procedure or desired purpose. Loucks and Lieberman (1983) define
curriculum implementation as the trying out of a new practice and what it looks
like when actually used in a school system. For example, a curriculum plan in
enhancing technology integration across the curriculum is introduced and you
would want to know whether what was intended in the plan is actually being
done in the classroom. Your aim for developing a curriculum is to make a
difference to learners. Simply, put, curriculum implementation is bringing about
change and hopefully improvement.
How do you bring about change? In other words, how do you ensure that the
curriculum brings about the desired changes? Before you can bring about
change, you need to know what change is. You may say whatÊs the big deal? We
all know what change is! You know how your job has changed. You know how
government policy changes. But what is change in relation to curriculum?
Basically, change is doing something differently. Change results from new
knowledge. However, the presence of new knowledge is not sufficient for
change. People generally are reluctant to change because they are comfortable
with what they are currently doing. So, to change, they must recognise the need
for change. People are more likely to recognise the need for change if they
understand change and how it works. DonÊt you agree?
Kurt Lewin (1951), considered to be the father of social psychology suggested a

model explaining change (see Figure 7.1). According to him, all persons are faced
with two competing forces:

(a) Driving Forces:

These are forces that that are driving or pushing you to do something and
change in a particular direction. They tend to initiate a change and keep it
going. In the workplace, pressure from your boss, financial incentives and
competition for promotion may be examples of driving forces.
(b) Restraining Forces:

These are forces restraining or preventing you from doing something and
changing. In the workplace, apathy, hostility, obsolete equipment may be
examples of restraining forces.
(c) Equilibrium:
When these two forces (driving and restraining) are equal, the status quo is
maintained. In other words, there is no effort towards change and so you
do the same thing you did before.
For example, in the school setting, the principal who is autocratic and
constantly pressures his or her staff which may bring about change in the
short run. In other words, the driving forces have overpowered the
restraining forces and when this happens, change is initiated. As long as the
driving forces are more powerful than the restraining forces, change will
continue. The methods used by the principal may lead to increased hostility
and antagonism and manifest themselves in teachers refusing to cooperate
and reluctant to do more than is required. In other words, the restraining
forces have got stronger and change slows down.
Lewin emphasised that to bring about change, it is better to reduce the

power of the restraining forces rather than increase the driving forces. This
has been termed as unfreezing whereby the powers of the restraining forces
are decreased to stimulate the driving forces. For example, the principal
could instead encourage more discussion and group problem solving in an
attempt to eliminate hostility and apathy. If there is fear among teachers
that they would not have the know-how to implement change it is best that
they be trained before implementing the new ideas.

Figure 7.1: Force Field Model (Kurt Lewin, 1951)
SELF-CHECK 7.1
1. What does curriculum implementation involve?

2. How does Kurt LewinÊs model explain curriculum change?
7.3 TYPES OF CURRICULUM CHANGE

If you are responsible for implementing curriculum, it is important that you
understand the nature of change. Understanding the change process can be a
challenging and exciting process. If you do not comprehend the complexities of
change you are likely to introduce ideas and actions that may result in confusion
and tension within the school or district. Curriculum change is a complex and
difficult process and requires careful planning, adequate time, funding, support
and opportunities for teacher involvement. McNeil (1990) categorised curriculum
change as follows:
(a) Substitution:
One element may be substituted for another already present. For example,
the substituting of a new textbook for an old one.
(b) Alteration:
This occurs when a change is introduced into existing material in the hope
that it will appear minor and thus be readily adopted. For example,
introducing new content such as road safety in the primary school

curriculum; use of new materials such as the graphing calculator in

mathematics teaching.
(c) Perturbations:
These are changes that are disruptive but teachers adjust to them within a
fairly short time. For example, the assistant principal changes the timetable
or schedule to allow for longer teaching time.
(d) Restructuring:
These are changes that lead to a modification of the whole school system.
For example, the introduction of an integrated curriculum requiring team
teaching or involving the local community in deciding what is to be taught.
(e) Value Orientation:

These are shifts in the fundamental value orientations of school personnel.
For example, if the new teachers who join the school place more emphasis
on personal growth of students than academic performance, then the value
orientations or fundamental philosophies of the school changes.
It should be realised that a particular curriculum change may not exactly fit
according to the five categories given. But, the categories are general
enough to help you plan change and arrange resources to bring about the
change. However, you should be aware that change is not synonymous
with improvement and you might decide that change should not be
undertaken.
SELF-CHECK 7.2
1. What are the FIVE types of curriculum change listed by McNeil?
Give examples of each category other than those given in the text.
2. Identify other types of curriculum change which you have come
across but do not fit into those given.
7.4 RESISTANCE TO CHANGE

As mentioned earlier, bringing about change is not an easy task. There are many
barriers to the successful implementation of a curriculum. If you are given the job
of implementing a curriculum, whether it is in the school system, college,
university or training centre, you will encounter people resisting change. Keep
things as they are! Many people think that it is easier to keep things as they are.
We often hear people say, "If it is not broken, why fix it". People are happy with
the current situation in their institution and feel that the change suggested will
not meet the objectives of the school, college or training centre. The status quo
tends to be maintained when the persons introducing change are themselves not
clear as to the intent and what is required of the new programme. To make
matters worse, the implementation of the programme is poorly planned.
Teachers who are to implement the curriculum frequently view change as

meaning more work. In addition to their already overloaded schedule, there is no
extra financial reward for the extra work they have to put in. Also, they view
new curriculum programmes will require them to learn new teaching skills and
competencies which will mean attending courses and seminars. It has also been
found that teachers or practitioners tend to reject pedagogical strategies or
teaching methods that are different from what they are currently using. They are
reluctant to change or modify their current instructional strategies and
understandings of classroom practice.
Let us examine in more detail why people resist change. By knowing why people
resist change, it may be possible to plan more effective strategies to overcome
resistance and improve receptivity to change. Persons charged with the task of
curriculum implementation must understand how people react to change and
how to encourage them to be receptive to change. The following are the main
reasons why people resist change (Harvey, 1990; Woldring, 1999; Lippitt, 1966).
(a) People resist because they do not understand ă They simply do not follow
what is being introduced. They do not understand where they are going.
They are not clear as to what is required of them.
Overcome:
The key is "communication". You have to explain to them "Why". You have
to answer the Why, What, When, How and Where questions. Remember,
the effectiveness of communication is not the "message sent" but of the
"message received."
(b) People resist because of lack of ownership ă Individuals will not accept
change if they consider it coming from outside or imposed on them.
Unfortunately, most curriculum reform efforts are initiated from the
outside which may be at the national, state or district level.
Overcome:
You have to convince teachers that even though it comes from the outside,
their view and opinions have been considered at the planning and design
stages of curriculum development. Involve teachers in exploring the
relevance of the new curriculum and give them the freedom to explore the
new skills needed for utilising or implementing the curriculum. This will

get them to feel that they are an important part of the curriculum
implementation process.
(c) People resist if they do not have the competencies to cope with the changes
ă It is natural for persons to resist if they do not have the knowledge and
skills to cope with the changes. Nobody wants to be told that they are
incompetent. There is the likelihood that the implementation of the new
curriculum has been rushed or due to budgetary constraints, the training
period has been greatly reduced and teachers are not adequately equipped.
Overcome:
Adequate time and resources have to be set aside for the training of
teachers involved in implementing the new curriculum.
(d) People resist if there is a lack of incentives or benefits ă If teachers are

unconvinced that the new programme will make things better for students
(in terms of learning) or themselves (such as greater recognition, respect or
reward), they are likely to resist the suggested change.
Overcome:
Make sure that teachers who are actively involved in curriculum change are
rewarded. The reward need not necessarily be financial, but their efforts
need to be given due recognition.
(e) People resist if they do not have the time to engage with the change ă
Teachers find it difficult having to juggle between bringing about change
handling their current responsibilities. Focusing their energy on change
activities, may run the risk of neglecting their current responsibilities.
Overcome:
Lighten their workload so they can participate in the change. Re-prioritise
their work. Do not expect people to have the energy to change when this
means failing on the tasks for which they are held responsible.
SELF-CHECK 7.3
1. Why do people resist change?

2. Suggest other reasons why people resist change.

7.5 CASE STUDY: CURRICULUM REFORM AND

IMPLEMENTATION IN INDONESIA
In 1994, the Indonesian government introduced curriculum reform which
consisted of a national curriculum (80%) and flexibility given to the provinces in
adjusting the curriculum to local needs. The Local Content Curriculum (LCC)
was aimed at the local situation and context while the national curriculum
focused on national development. The Curriculum Development Centre (CDC)
transferred 20% of its authority to each provincial level (LCC).
Teachers, principals and supervisors were given autonomy to redesign the

curriculum to more closely match students' needs and interests. However, in
reality not all teachers took advantage of the opportunity. Teachers have not
responded in modifying the curriculum or experimenting with new instructional
techniques. Moreover, parents and interested groups in the locality have not been
invited to participate in the planning or management of the LCC program.
According to LCC policy, schools are supposed to reorganise the curriculum into
a new set of subjects. In some cases teachers have made connections between the
subject matter they disseminate to the world outside, but the basic curricular
foundations in junior secondary school has remained essentially the same as the
previous curriculum.
National Curriculum (80%) Local Content Curriculum (20%)

Pancasila and civic education Agriculture
Religion (Islam, Christianity, Catholicism, Environmental education
Hinduism, Buddhism) Computer and information
Indonesian language Local culture (dance, local language,
Reading and writing traditional games, etc
Mathematics English
Science & technology
Geography
National and World history
The following are some limitations and obstacles found in the LCC
implementation: lack of communication between the provincial and local levels,
the lack of training, teachers' attitudes toward the LCC, lack of resources, and
lack of funding allocation.
• First, in the process of curriculum decentralization some decisions made at
the provincial level tend to not meet each district's needs and conditions.

• Second, was a lack of teachers to teach the LCC. In the LCC implemented in
the provinces of Jambi, Lampung, Maluku Island, South Sulawesi and East
Java. Most of the local content subjects were taught by teachers who do not
have any specific skills and experience, such as teaching specific traditional
culture and local languages.
• Third teachers' attitudes toward the LCC implementation. Teachers did not
respond to the innovation because they do not have enough background
knowledge or skills for its implementation. In fact, they did not have
necessary support from the government and provincial levels to develop
their knowledge and skills.
While it is easy for the government to establish policies, conditions at the school
level are completely different. Most teachers tended to concentrate on the
national curriculum. Finally, there was lack of funds to develop the LCC which
required regular meetings at the school/district level for LCC subject
development. This caused a lack of participation in LCC implementation.
Source: MinHo, Y., Clementina, A., & Erry, U. The reform of secondary education in
Indonesia during the 1990s: Improving relevance and quality through curriculum
decentralisation implementing the curriculum in Indonesia. Available at:
http://www.ginie.org/cstudies/indonesia/cs-asia-pacific.htm
ACTIVITY 7.2
Refer to Case Study 7.5 and answer the following questions:
1. What are some of the reasons given for poor implementation of the
local curriculum content (LCC) in Indonesia?
2. To what extent is such flexibility given to teachers in your country?
7.6 INDIVIDUALS INVOLVED IN CURRICULUM

IMPLEMENTATION
Implementing a curriculum requires the involvement of many different people.
Each is a 'key player' in the change process. Without the coordinated
involvement of these individuals the implementation of the curriculum
programme will encounter many problems. Among the key players identified
are: teachers, students, principals/headmasters, assistant principals, district
education officers, state education officers, curriculum developers, academics,
parents, interested political officials and lay citizens. In a centralised system, the

national curriculum is developed at the national level and passed on to the

individual districts and schools to be implemented.
7.6.1 Teachers
Without doubt, the most important person in the curriculum implementation
process is the teacher. With their knowledge, experience and competencies,
teachers are central to any curriculum improvement effort. Regardless of which
philosophical belief the education system is based on, there is no denying that
teachers influence students' learning. Better teachers foster better learning.
Teachers are most knowledgeable about the practice of teaching and are
responsible for introducing the curriculum in the classroom.
The key to getting teachers committed to an innovation is to enhance their

knowledge of the programme. This means teachers need be trained and
workshops have to be organised for professional development. Unfortunately, in
any curriculum implementation process not all teachers will have the benefit of
such exposure. There are just too many teachers and insufficient funds to go
around. The most common approach is to have one-day workshops given by
experts with the lecture method being the dominant pedagogical strategy.
Among the many extrinsic factors identified that may impede curriculum change
are adequacy of resources, time, school ethos and professional support. The
intrinsic factors are; professional knowledge, professional adequacy and
professional interest and motivation (see Table 7.1).
Hence, professional development of teachers is as an important factor

contributing to the success of curriculum implementation. To what extent have
teacher education programmes required prospective teachers to study
curriculum development? Some view teachers as technicians and as such do not
include curriculum development in their teacher education programmes. [Did
you study curriculum development in your training as a teacher?] Certainly an
adequate teacher education programme should include curriculum development
(both the theory and the work of curriculum development) if teaching is to be a
profession and if educational opportunities for learners are really to be
improved.
Below are some topics to be addressed in designing professional development

opportunities for teachers who are implementing a new programme.
• Programme philosophy: It is important for teachers to understand both the
philosophy behind the programme as well as how the new programme may
impact students, parents, administrators and other stakeholders.

• Content: Teachers may find the curriculum introduces content with which
they are unfamiliar, which they have not taught in a while, or is familiar but
presented in an unfamiliar way. For example, using a problem-solving
approach rather than a topical approach.
Table 7.1: Factors influencing the implementation of a curriculum in schools

Factors Description
Adequacy of equipment, facilities and general resources
Adequacy of resources
required for implementing a new curriculum.
Time available for preparing and delivering the requirements
of the new curriculum; e.g. teachers need enough time to
Time
develop their own understanding of the subject they are
required to teach.
Overall school beliefs towards the new curriculum. Status of
the curriculum as viewed by staff, administrators and
School ethos
community; e.g. school administration recognises the
importance of the subject in the overall school curriculum.
Support for teachers from both within the school and
Professional support outside; e.g. opportunities to receive ongoing curriculum
professional support.
TeachersÊ own ability and competence to teach the
Professional adequacy
curriculum; i.e. confidence in teaching.
Knowledge and understandings teachers possess regarding
Professional
the new curriculum; e.g. different ways of teaching to foster
knowledge
student learning.
Professional attitude Attitudes and interest of teachers toward the new
and interest curriculum; e.g. keen to teach the subject.
Source: Adapted from the Science Curriculum Implementation Questionnaire (SCIQ).

Available at http://home.cc.umanitoba.ca/~lewthwai/introSCIQ.html
• Pedagogy: Teachers need opportunities to become familiar with the new
programme's pedagogical approach. They may need to work on particular
teaching skills emphasised in the new programme, such as teaching of values,
or perhaps to become familiar with a tool such as the internet.
• Components of the programme: Teachers will need opportunities to learn
about the components of the new programme early in the implementation
phase. For example, the new programme might place greater emphasis on
school-based assessment while teachers are more accustomed to national or
centralised assessment.

ACTIVITY 7.3
According to Friendenberg, people who go into teaching tend to be

conformist in nature and reluctant to innovate. These people have
succeeded in the school system as it has existed. They have learned to
play it safe and to keep a low profile in a bureaucratic system run by
administrators who do not like to create waves. They have found
success and fulfilment as students and now as teachers in this system,
and for this reason many see no reason to change it.
Source: Friendenberg, E. ( 1965). Coming of age in America. New York: Random
House.
1. To what extent do you agree with FriedenbergÊs views about

teachers and curriculum change?
2. Is this characteristic of other professions?
7.6.2 Students
There is a tendency among curriculum implementers to ignore the role of
students as agents of change. Increasingly, there is the realisation that even
primary school children can contribute to meaningful change. Students must be
willing to participate in the programme. If students do not see the relevance of
the programme there is the likelihood that they will not be motivated to
participate or learn. However, it is still not clear how students should be
involved in the curriculum implementation phase even though they are the main
recipients of the programme. Students may be so entrenched in their thinking
and behaviour that changes proposed in the curriculum may not be
enthusiastically received. For example, students may be used to being given
notes by their teachers and the new programme requires them to make their own
notes. Some students may not know how to make notes and have to be taught
how to go about it. Even getting students to participate in discussions may not be
well received if they have been accustomed to being passive recipients to
information.
7.6.3 Principals or Headmasters

Principals or headmasters are important players the curriculum implementation
process in a school.
• They should understand the need for change as well as the steps that have to
be taken along the way.
• They should have in-depth knowledge about the planned change and of the
implementation process. They should be familiar with the goals and
components of the curriculum and be able to see a shift in teachers' role in the
classroom and the way in which teachers interact with students.
• They should be accessible and willing to communicate with others involved
in the process. Establishing a two-way information flow will give principals
or headmasters a chance to stay on top of issues that need to be addressed. It
will also allow attending to critical problems or concerns before they lead to
frustration or even anger among teachers. Lines of communication are best
set early to get out information to people as well to provide a platform in
which they can voice their concern. Information gathered from listening and
talking to people will also help principals or headmasters decide where to
focus and needs attention.
• They should be able to convince parents on the merits of the new curriculum
and how the new pedagogical strategies can become more meaningful for
their children. For example, they may need to speak to parents and the
community on the new curriculum. It is important that they give the message
that they have thought carefully about the need for change, that the have
anticipated the issues that will arise and have a plan for addressing the
issues.
• They should keep in mind, that even the best-laid plans can meet unexpected
challenges. For example, insufficient teachers in a particular subject area due to
resignation, unexpected introduction of programmes by the government,
sudden change of government policy. For this reason, a flexible implementation
plan may be necessary which is adapted and revisited along the way.
• They must be committed to the change and be able to employ a variety of
leadership strategies to meet the needs of teachers such as; building on the
strengths of their staff, being willing to take risks; being positive about the
planned change and to use this optimism to motivate others.
7.6.4 Parents
Besides teachers, students and school administrators, parents also play an
important role in the implementation process. For example, when parents see a
subject being taught in way that is unfamiliar to them, they naturally have
questions about what is going on. When children bring homework from school
that parents feel unable to help with, they feel confused and lost. To be
successful, any new programme needs to be embraced by parents. One way of
reaching out to parents is to organise workshops for them focusing on the new
curriculum. The workshops should be designed to help parents better

understand the content and philosophy of the new programme. Parents need an
opportunity to share their concerns and voice their support in an open forum.
These workshops should be conducted by teachers so that they may explain what
is really going on in the classroom.
Another approach in reaching out to parents is to make available information on

curriculum change on the internet. For example, the government of the province
of Alberta in, Canada has on its website a curriculum handbook for parents
containing information on subjects offered, programmes and courses available in
all schools. The information is updated each year as changes are made to the
curriculum (refer to http://www.education.gov.ab.ca/parents/handbooks).
Similarly, print-based newsletters can be made available to parents informing
them of the changes that are taking place with the introduction of the new
curriculum.
SELF-CHECK 7.4
1. What should principals or headmasters do to ensure the

successful implementation of any curriculum?
2. How should parents be involved in the curriculum
implementation process?
7.7 CASE STUDY: ENGLAND' NATIONAL

CURRICULUM FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS
The law requires that all schools in England provide for all pupils a balanced and
broadly based curriculum which provides for all pupils to learn and achieve;
promotes students' spiritual, moral, cultural, mental and physical development;
prepares students for the opportunities, responsibilities and experiences of adult
life. The following subjects must be taught:
• English
• Mathematics
• Science
• Design and Technology
• Information and Communication Technology
• History

Other statutory requirements are: Religious Education, Sex and Relationship

Education, and Careers Education (from Year 9). The core subjects: English,
Mathematics and Science will be given priority to ensure that they are secure.
Beyond this, each school can decide which subject to give more time to and,
within a subject, which aspects or skills to emphasise. The priority or emphasis
might apply across subjects, to particular year groups, to groups of pupils or to
individuals.
For example:
• A school with particular strengths in its ICT and language departments offers
Spanish as a second foreign language using ICT facilities for weekly video-
conference sessions with students in a partner school in Spain.
• A school with substantial low-achieving students emphasises literacy across
the curriculum. Teachers plan into their schemes of work where and how
they will teach literacy objectives in their subject.
• In an area of high-technology industries such as computing and
pharmaceuticals, school gives priority to Mathematics and Science to help its
students to make the most of local job opportunities. Scientists from local
companies visit the school as part of the science and engineering
ambassadors scheme, and year 9 students undertake project work to achieve
creativity in science and technology (CREST) awards.
Source: Department for Education and Skills. Key stage 3 national strategy: Designing the
key stage 3 curriculum. England: Author.
ACTIVITY 7.4
1. What flexibility is given to teachers in EnglandÊs secondary

school curriculum?
2. Do you agree with the flexibility given to schools in meeting
local needs? Give reasons.
3. Do you think such flexibility should be given to schools in your
country? Why?

7.8 IMPLEMENTING CURRICULUM IN THE

CLASSROOM
The final destination of any curriculum is the classroom. As we enter the
classroom, decision making becomes the responsibility of the teacher. Up to this
point curriculum implementation was discussed at the programme level and
decision making was of a programmatic nature (though we did discuss briefly
the role of the teacher). Now classroom teachers will take over and make
decisions of a methodological nature. They will be answering question like:
• What objectives do I hope to accomplish as a result of instruction?
• What topics or content will I have to cover?
• What teaching methods or strategies should I use to direct learning and
achieve the objectives?
• How do I evaluate instruction to determine whether I have successfully
achieved the objective?
Figure 7.2: An example of an instructional model
Implementing instruction in the classroom includes specifying instructional or

learning goals (discussed in Topic 5), selecting content, selecting learning
experiences and choosing techniques or tasks to evaluate instruction (see Figure
7.2). Where and how does the teacher begin to plan for instruction? LetÊs look at
three examples of planning for instruction.

• Teacher X takes the textbook and divides the number of topics by the
number of weeks in the school year. For example, one topic may be
taught over two or three lessons. The sequence and subheadings of the
respective topic guides the presentation of content. He or she may
prepare some notes for students, ask some questions during class (which
may come from the textbook) and give group assignments to clarify
points in the topic or topics.
• Teacher Y selects a topic for study for the week or over a number of
lessons using all kinds of resources related to the topic. The resources
may include the textbook, reference books, websites, magazines, etc. A
problem-solving approach is adopted where students look through
various sources of information to solve a problem.
• Teacher Z comes to class without knowing what he or she will cover. A
theme or issue is written on the blackboard and students are expected to
contribute their understanding and interpretation about the theme or
issue. While some may argue that this is spontaneity, others, less kind,
might term it non-planning.
These three approaches may be extreme, but there are many teachers who fall
into one of these categories. These teachers may follow the curriculum or follow
the plan in general terms. All three approaches may not specify the instructional
objectives or learning outcomes students are expected to accomplish. In most
cases, teachers adopted an eclectic approach, i.e. they combine one or more
methods.
Instructional objectives or learning outcomes are statements indicating what you

want students to know, to do and to value after having completed a lesson. Why
instructional objectives? [The issue of instructional objectives has been discussed
in Topic 1 and Topic 5]. Instructional objectives:
• make it clear to teachers what changes they want students to achieve.
• help in choosing the appropriate learning experiences to achieve the changes
or learning desired.
• inform students of what is expected of them.
• indicate what will be important in assessing the lesson.
In planning for instruction lesson plans are used. A lesson plan is "simply an
outline prepared in advance of teaching, so that time and materials will be used
efficiently" (Peter, 1975. p.194). Ideally, different lessons require different lesson
plans and different students require different lesson plans. The following is
generic outline for a lesson plan which consists of: (see Figure 7.3):

(a) objectives
(b) pre-requisite knowledge
(c) learning experiences (teaching methods and learning activities)
(d) instructional aids and resources
(e) assignment
(f) evaluation tasks or techniques
The teacher with less experience will have more details included in the lesson
plan. However, it is desirable for both experienced and inexperienced teachers to
prepare complete lesson plans to fully communicate their ideas. It is common
practice for experienced teachers to simplify or shorten lesson plans. As teachers
gain experience, less detail in planning is possible. Once the lesson plan has been
made, the teacher can begin to demonstrate his or her style and skills of teaching.

Date: When is the lesson to be conducted?

Time: Time when the lesson is to be conducted.
Duration: How long will the lesson take?
Grade Level: State what level.
Topic: From one topic two or lessons plans may be developed.

Objectives:
(a) Cognitive
1. Mastery and understanding of the content (e.g. able to give three
characteristics, able to give reasons).
(b) Affective
2. The affective outcomes desired (e.g. express an opinion, take a
position, empathise with the issue discussed).
Pre-Requisite Knowledge:
1. List all skills and content knowledge needed prior to teaching this
lesson.
Instructional Aids and Resources:

1. The instructional aids that will be used (e.g. maps, pictures, video-
clip).
2. Show how they will be used.
Learning Experiences:
1. Set induction: how the lesson will begin (e.g. review previous lesson).
2. The teaching strategy used (e.g. inductive approach).
3. Questions posed (to increase understanding and thinking).
4. What students will be required to do (e.g. listen, manipulate data).
5. How students interact with the instructional aids.
6. Closure: ask students questions and summarise lesson.
Assignment:
1. Learning activity students are required to do after the lesson (e.g.
refer to newspaper article).
Evaluation Techniques:
1. How will student learning be assessed? (e.g. oral questioning).
2. What criteria or rubric will be used to evaluate the lesson?
Figure 7.3: Generic components of a lesson plan

• Curriculum implementation is an interaction between those who have

created the programme and those who are charged to deliver it.
• Implementation is the carrying out of something or the practical application

of a method, procedure or desired purpose.
• According to Lewin change is determined by driving forces and restraining

forces. To bring about change, it is better to reduce the power of the
restraining forces rather than increase the driving forces.
• People resist change because they lack understanding, competencies,

ownership, incentives and time.
• Curriculum change can take the following forms: substitution, alteration,

perturbations, restructuring and value orientation.
• The factors influencing curriculum implementation in schools are: adequacy

of resources, time, school ethos, professional support, professional
knowledge, professional attitude and interest.
• An instructional model consists of the following four components: learning

objectives, content, learning experiences and assessment tasks.
• Principals and headmasters play an important role in the successful

implementation of curriculum.
Curriculum implementation Resistance to change

Force field model • National curriculum
• Restraining forces • Local curriculum
• Driving forces • Curriculum in the classroom
• Lesson plan
Forms of Curriculum change • Role teachers
• Role of students

1. Identify some problems in the implementation of the Primary

School Integrated Curriculum (KBSR) and the Secondary School
Integrated Curriculum (KBSM)?
2. Describe how the teaching of science and mathematics in English
was implemented in your school?
3. "New curriculum often fail to become established in schools
because the importance and complexity of the implementation
phase is not understood." Discuss.
Ben-Peretz, M. (1990). The teacher-curriculum encounter. Buffalo: State

Chapter 1: Patterns of teacher's involvement in the curriculum endeavour.
Chapter 3: Teacher's concerns about curriculum issues.
Chapter 7: Implications for teacher education and staff development.
[Available at eBrary].
Chapter 10: Curriculum implementation.
NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Bennie, K. & Newstead, K. (2004) Obstacles to implementing a new curriculum.
http://academic.sun.ac.za/mathed/MALATI/Files/Statistics99.pdf
Keys, P. (2000). Developing a good science syllabus for an optimistic future: A
classroom teacherÊs perspective.
http://www.aare.edu.au/00pap/key00212.htm

Topic X Curriculum
8 Evaluation
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. State what is curriculum evaluation;
2. List reasons for evaluating the curriculum;
3. Explain the characteristics of the CIPP model;
4. Describe the features of Stake's model of curriculum evaluation;
5. Explain the characteristics of Eisner's Connoisseurship model; and
6. Compare the different instruments of data collection.

TOPIC 8 CURRICULUM EVALUATION W 171
'Don't Make Physical Education (PE) an Examination Subject'

The ministry of education has The sporting calendar for Term 1
asked ministry officials to look (January to April) had football,
into introducing physical athletics, cross country. In term 2
education (PE) as an examination (May to August), it was athletics
subject. I think PE should not be and cricket. In term 3 (september to
an exam subject. december) it was hockey and rugby.
As for the court games, they were
In the 1950s, 1960s, 1970s and played all around the year.
1980s, PE was never an exam
subject and yet the country There were inter-house games and
produced world-class sportmen if your school has six houses would
and sportwomen in badminton, paly at least five matches for your
weightlifting, hockey, athletics and house. There were inter-school
other events. People like gamesare extinct and even they do
Jegathesan, Mokhtar Dahari, Tan have them, it is on a knock-out
Aik Huang, Rajamani, Ng Boon basis. It is the same for inter-school
Bee, Nurul Huda, Marina Chin, games.
Karu Selvaratnam, Nastar Singh,
Zaiton Sulaiman, Ghani Minhat, Sporting activities have become a
Tan Aik Mong, Dhanapal Naidu, burden for a schools. There is little
and many others. organisation and the faster they are
over, the better. The school saves
We had no sports schools in those money and teachers have more time
days. All schools were sport for completing the syllabus and
schools. How did we produce revision in preparataion for national
excellent sportmen and examinations.
sportwomen. We had supportive
parents, interested headmaster, - Retired Physical Education Teacher
dedicated and comitted PE
teachers, coachersand disciplined
sportmen and sportwomen.
Source: Letters to the Editor, New Straits Times, February 1, 2005
X INTRODUCTION
In Topic 7, we discussed the implementation of the
curriculum plan. We looked at why people resist
change, the role of teachers, students, administrator
and parents in ensuring the successful implementation
of change. In this topic, we will focus on determining
172 X TOPIC 8 CURRICULUM EVALUATION
whether the curriculum plan implemented has achieved its goals and objectives
as planned. In other words, the curriculum has to be evaluated to determine
whether all the effort in terms of finance and human resources has been
worthwhile. Various stakeholders want to know the extent to which the
curriculum has been successfully implemented. The information collected from
evaluating a curriculum forms the basis for making judgements about how
successfully has the programme achieved its intended outcomes and the worth
or value of the programme.
ACTIVITY 8.1
Read the newspaper report „DonÊt Make Physical Education (PE) an

Examination Subject‰ at the beginning of the chapter and answer the
following questions.
1. Do you think physical education be made an 'examination subject'?
2. Do you agree with the writer's opinions on the state of sports in
schools?
8.1 CURRICULUM EVALUATION

What is evaluation? Evaluation is the process of collecting data on a programme
to determine its value or worth with the aim of deciding whether to adopt, reject,
or revise the programme. Programmes are evaluated to answer questions and
concerns of various parties. The public want to know whether the curriculum
implemented has achieved its aims and objectives; teachers want to know
whether what they are doing in the classroom is effective; and the developer or
planner wants to know how to improve the curriculum product.
• McNeil (1977) states that „curriculum evaluation is an attempt to throw light
on two questions: Do planned learning opportunities, programmes, courses
and activities as developed and organised actually produce desired results?
How can the curriculum offerings best be improved?‰ (p.134).
• Ornstein and Hunkins (1998) define curriculum evaluation as "a process or
cluster of processes that people perform in order to gather data that will
enable them to decide whether to accept, change or eliminate something- the
curriculum in general or an educational textbook in particular" (p.320).
• Worthen and Sanders (1987) define curriculum evaluation as "the formal
determination of the quality, effectiveness or value of a programme, product,
project, process, objective or curriculum" (p.22-23).

• Gay (1985) argues that the aim of curriculum evaluation is to identify its
weaknesses and strengths as well as problems encountered in
implementation; to improve the curriculum development process; to
determine the effectiveness of the curriculum and the returns on finance
allocated.
• Oliva (1988) defined curriculum evaluation as the process of delineating,
obtaining, and providing useful information for judging decision alternatives.
The primary decision alternatives to consider based upon the evaluation
results are: to maintain the curriculum as is; to modify the curriculum; or to
eliminate the curriculum.
Evaluation is a disciplined inquiry to determine the worth of things. 'Things' may

include programmes, procedures or objects. Generally, research and evaluation
are different even though similar data collection tools may be used. The three
dimensions on which they may differ are:
• First, evaluation need not have as its objective the generation of knowledge.
Evaluation is applied while research tends to be basic.
• Second, evaluation presumably, produces information that is used to make
decisions or forms the basis of policy. Evaluation yields information that has
immediate use while research need not.
• Third, evaluation is a judgement of worth. Evaluation result in value
judgements while research need not and some would say should not.
8.2 FORMATIVE AND SUMMATIVE

EVALUATION
As mentioned earlier, evaluation is the process of determining the significance or
worth of programmes or procedures. Scriven (1967) differentiated evaluation as
formative evaluation and summative evaluation. However, they have come to
mean different things to different people, but in this topic, Scriven's original
definition will be used.
8.2.1 Formative Evaluation

The term formative indicates that data is gathered during the formation or
development of the curriculum so that revisions to it can be made. Formative
evaluation may include determining who needs the programme (e.g. secondary
school students), how great is the need (e.g. students need to be taught ICT skills
to keep pace with expansion of technology) and how to meet the need (e.g.
introduce a subject on ICT compulsory for all secondary schools students). In
education, the aim of formative evaluation is usually to obtain information to

improve a programme.
In formative evaluation, experts would evaluate the match between the

instructional strategies and materials used, and the learning outcomes or what it
aims to achieve. For example, it is possible that in a curriculum plan the learning
outcomes and the learning activities do no match. You want students to develop
critical thinking skills but there are no learning activities which provide
opportunities for students to practice critical thinking. Formative evaluation by
experts is useful before full-scale implementation of the programme. Review by
experts of the curriculum plan may provide useful information for modifying or
revising selected strategies.
In formative evaluation learners may be

included to review the materials to When the cook tastes the
determine if they can use the new soup, that’s formative
materials. For example, so they have the evaluation;
relevant prerequisites and are they when the guests taste the
motivated to learn. From these soup, that’s formative
formative reviews, problems may be evaluation.
discovered. For example, in curriculum - Robert Stakes
document may contain spelling errors,
confusing sequence of content, inappropriate examples or illustrations. The
feedback obtained could be used to revise and improve instruction or whether or
not to adopt the programme before full implementation.
8.2.2 Summative Evaluation

The term summative indicates that data is collected at the end of the
implementation of the curriculum programme. Summative evaluation can occur
just after new course materials have been implemented in full (i.e. evaluate the
effectiveness of the programme), or several months to years after the materials
have been implemented in full. It is important to specify what questions you
want answered by the evaluation and what decisions will be made as a result of
the evaluation. You may want to know if learners achieved the objectives or
whether the programme produced the desired outcomes. For example, the use of
a specific simulation software in the teaching of geography enhanced the
decision making skills of learners. These outcomes can be determined through
formal assessment tasks such as marks obtained in tests and examinations. Also
of concern is whether the innovation was cost-effective. Was the innovation
efficient in terms of time to completion? Were there any unexpected outcomes?
Besides, quantitative data to determine how well students met specified

objectives, data could also include qualitative interviews, direct observations,

and document analyses.
SELF-CHECK 8.1
1. Identify the key words in the five definitions of curriculum
evaluation.
2. Why do you need to evaluate curriculum?
3. WhatÊs the difference between formative and summative evaluation?
8.3 CURRICULUM EVALUATION MODELS

How should you go about evaluating curriculum? Several experts have proposed
different models describing how and what should be involved in evaluating a
curriculum. Models are useful because they help you define the parameters of an
evaluation, what concepts to study and the procedures to be used to extract
important data. Numerous evaluation models have been proposed but three
models are discussed here.
8.3.1 Context, Input, Process, Product Model (CIPP

Model)
Daniel L. Stufflebeam (1971), who chaired the Phi Delta Kappa National Study
Committee on Evaluation, introduced a widely cited model of evaluation known as
the CIPP (context, input, process and product) model. The approach when applied
to education aims to determine if a particular educational effort has resulted in a
positive change in school, college, university or training organisation. A major
aspect of the Stufflebeam's model is centred on decision making or an act of making
up one's mind about the programme introduced. For evaluations to be done
correctly and aid in the decision making process, curriculum evaluators have to:
• first delineate what is to be evaluated and determine what information that
has to be collected (e.g. how effective has the new science programme has
been in enhancing the scientific thinking skills of children in the primary
grades);
• second is to obtain or collect the information using selected techniques and
methods (e.g. interview teachers, collect test scores of students); and
• third is to provide or make available the information (in the form of tables,
graphs) to interested parties. To decide whether to maintain, modify or

eliminate the new curriculum or programme, information is obtained by

conducting the following 4 types of evaluation: context, input, process and
product.
StufflebeamÊs model of evaluation relies on both formative and summative

evaluation to determine the overall effectiveness a curriculum programme (see
Figure 8.1). Evaluation is required at all levels of the programme implemented.
Figure 8.1: Formative and summative evaluation in the CIPP Model
(a) Context Evaluation (What needs to be done and in what context)?

This is the most basic kind of evaluation with the purpose of providing a
rationale for the objectives. The evaluator defines the environment in which
the curriculum is implemented which could be a classroom, school or
training department. The evaluator determines needs that were not met and
reasons why the needs are not being met. Also identified are the
shortcomings and problems in the organisation under review (e.g. a sizable
proportion of students in secondary schools are unable to read at the
desired level, the ratio of students to computers is large, a sizable
proportion of science teachers are not proficient to teach in English). Goals
and objectives are specified on the basis of context evaluation. In other
words, the evaluator determines the background in which the innovations
are being implemented.
The techniques of data collection would include observation of conditions

in the school, background statistics of teachers and interviews with players
involve in implementation of the curriculum.

(b) Input Evaluation (How should it be done?) is to provide information for

determining how to utilise resources to achieve objectives of the curriculum.
The resources of the school and various designs for carrying out the
curriculum are considered. At this stage the evaluator decides on procedures
to be used. Unfortunately, methods for input evaluation are lacking in
education. The prevalent practices include committee deliberations, appeal to
the professional literature, the employment of consultants and pilot
experimental projects.
(c) Process Evaluation (Is it being done?) is the provision of periodic feedback
while the curriculum is being implemented.
(d) Product Evaluation (Did it succeed?) or outcomes of the initiative. Data is

collected to determine whether the curriculum managed to accomplish it
set out achieve (e.g. to what extent students have developed a more positive
attitudes towards science). Product evaluation involves measuring the
achievement of objectives, interpreting the data and providing with
information that will enable them to decide whether to continue, terminate
or modify the new curriculum. For example, product evaluation might
reveal that students have become more interested in science and are more
positive towards the subject after introduction of the new science
curriculum. Based on these findings the decision may be made to
implement the programme throughout the country.

SELF-CHECK 8.2
1. What is the difference between context evaluation and input

evaluation according to the CIPP model? Give specific examples
2. What is the difference between process evaluation and product
evaluation according to the CIPP mode? Give specific examples.
8.3.2 Case Study: Evaluation of a Programme on

Technology Integration in Teaching and
Learning in Secondary Schools
The integration of information and communication technology (ICT) in teaching
and learning is growing rapidly in many countries. The use of the internet and
other computer software in teaching science, mathematics and social sciences is
more widespread today. To evaluate the effectiveness of such a programme
using the CIPP model would involve examining the following:
Context: Examine the environment in which technology is used in teaching and

learning.
• How did the real environment compare to the ideal? (E.g. The programme
required five computers in each classroom, but there were only two computer
labs of 40 units each for 1000 students).
• What problems are hampering success of technology integration? (E.g.
technology breakdowns, not all schools had internet access).
• About 50% of teachers do not have basic computer skills.
Input: Examine what resources are put into technology integration (Identify the
educational strategies most likely to achieve the desired result).
• Is the content selected for using technology right?
• Have we used the right combination of media? (Internet, video-clips, etc).
Process: Assess how well the implementation works (Uncovers implementation

issues).
• Did technology integration run smoothly?
• Were there technology problems?
• Were teachers able to integrate technology in their lessons as planned?

• What are the areas of curriculum in which most students experienced

difficulty?
Product: Addresses outcomes of the learning (Gather information on the results

of the educational intervention to interpret its worth and merit).
• Did the learners learn using technology? How do you know?
• Does technology integration enhance higher order thinking?
ACTIVITY 8.2
With reference to Case Study 8.4.2

1. Suggest other questions you would ask regarding process
evaluation (i.e. implementation issues).
2. What data collection techniques would you recommend for
carrying out product evaluation to determine the teaching and
learning outcomes of technology integration?
8.3.3 Stake's Countenance Model

The model proposed by Robert Stake (1967) suggests three phases of curriculum
evaluation: the antecedent phase, the transaction phase and the outcome phase.
The antecedent phase includes conditions existing prior to instruction that may
relate to outcomes. The transaction phase constitutes the process of instruction
while the outcome phase relates to the effects of the programme. Stake
emphasises two operations; descriptions and judgements. Descriptions are
divided according to whether they refer to what was intended or what actually
was observed. Judgements are separated according to whether they refer to
standards used in arriving at the judgements or to the actual judgements.

Figure 8.2: StakeÊs Countenance Model
8.3.4 Eisner's Connoisseurship Model

Elliot Eisner, a well known art educator argued that learning was too complex to
be broken down to a list of objectives and measured quantitatively to determine
whether it has taken place. He argued that the teaching of small manageable
pieces of information prohibits students from putting the pieces back together
and applying them to new situations. As long as we evaluate students based on
the small bits of information students we will only learn small bits of
information. Eisner contends that evaluation has and will always drive the
curriculum. If we want students to be able to solve problems and think critically
then we must evaluate problem solving and critical thinking, skills which cannot
be learned by rote practice. So, to evaluate a programme we must make an
attempt to capture the richness and complexity of classroom events.
He proposed the Connoisseurship Model in which he claimed that a

knowledgeable evaluator can determine whether a curriculum programme has
been successful, using a combination of skills and experience. The word
'connoisseurship comes from the Latin word cognoscere, meaning to know. For
example, to be a connoisseur of food, paintings or films, you must have
knowledge about and experience with different types of food, paintings or films
before you are able to criticise. To be a food critic, you must be a connoisseur of
different kinds of foods. To be a critic, you must be aware and appreciate the
subtle differences in the phenomenon you are examining. In other words, the
curriculum evaluator must seek to be an educational critic. When employing the
procedure of educational criticism the following questions may be asked:
• What has happened in the classrooms as a result of implementation of the

new curriculum?
• What are some of the events that took place? (E.g. more students are
participating in field work, more students are asking questions in class, even
academically weak students are talking in group activities)
• How did students and teachers organise themselves in these events?
• What were the reactions of participants in these events? (E.g. students
enjoyed working collaboratively in projects)
• How can the experiences of learners be made more effective as suggested by
students, teachers and administrators? (E.g. more resources are needed for
fieldwork; more computers are needed to integrate the internet in teaching
and learning).
You will notice that these questions places more emphasis on the process of
learning and the quality of experiences by those involved in the implementation
of the curriculum; namely, students, teachers and administrators. According to
the Connoisseurship Model, evaluators provide a description and interpretation
of the curriculum plan implemented:
(a) Description:
The evaluator records the actions, the features of the environment and
experiences of students, teachers and administrators. People who read the
evaluation report will be able to visualise what the place looks like and the
processes taking place. The aim here is to help the reader "see" the school or
classroom and get a feel of what the curriculum evaluator or critic is
attempting to understand and help others understand.
(b) Interpretation:
The evaluator explains the meaning of events reported by putting it in its
context. For example, why academically weak students were motivated to
ask questions; why reading comprehension skills improved; why
enthusiasm for doing science experiments increased and so forth.
To be able to describe and interpret the implementation of a curriculum the

evaluator has to collect data and the following are examples of activities an
evaluator may engage in:
• The evaluator observes what is going on the classroom and records teachers
and students in action using videotapes, audiotapes and photographs.

• The evaluator keeps notes of what is done, what is said and more importantly
what is not said. The evaluator should strive to describe the tone of the
curriculum in action (Ornstein & Hunkins, 1998).
• The evaluator interview students, teachers and administrators about the quality
of the curriculum
• The evaluator would analysis student's work.
One of the great benefits of Elliot W. Eisner's activities has been the way in which
he has both made the case for a concern with connoisseurship and criticism, and
mediated these concerns for educators and researchers. The importance of his
advocacy of these ideas cannot be underestimated - especially at a time when
rather narrow concerns with instrumental outcomes and an orientation to the
technical dominate. Together they offer educators a more helpful and
appropriate means to approach evaluation, for examples:
• Advocating moving beyond technocratic and behaviouristic modes of
thinking and for having a concern for 'expressive outcomes'.
• Calling to attend to fundamentals. Eisner has consistently warned against
educational fads and fashion. He has criticised dominant paradigms and
invited educators and others to ask questions such as 'what is basic in
education?'
• Arguing that schools should help children create meaning from experience,
and that this requires an education devoted to the senses, to meaning-making
and the imagination. Eisner argues for a curriculum that fosters multiple
'literacies' in students (especially by looking to non-verbal modes of learning
and expression) and a deepening of the 'artistry' of teachers.
Over the time that Eisner has been writing there have been significant shifts in
the context in which schools have to operate. While there have been other voices
calling for changes in the culture of schooling (notably Howard Gardner in this
arena), the impact of globalisation, growing centralisation in many schooling
systems, reaction against more process-oriented forms of pedagogy and a
growing instrumentalism education have served to make Eisner's message both
more pertinent to schools and more difficult to respond to.

8.4 PHASES OF CURRICULUM EVALUATION

Figure 8.3 shows the phases of curriculum evaluation.
Figure 8.3: Phases of curriculum evaluation
8.5 INSTRUMENTATION FOR CURRICULUM

EVALUATION
No matter what evaluation model is used in evaluating a curriculum, the
methods of data collection and the instruments used are more or less similar. The
common instruments used in curriculum evaluation are interviews, observations,
tests, survey, content analysis and portfolios (record of work or products).

8.5.1 Questionnaires and Checklists

When you need to quickly and/or easily get lots of information from people in a
non threatening way, questionnaire and checklist are useful data collection
techniques. Questionnaires and checklists can complete anonymously and
relatively inexpensive to administer. Since data collected is quantitative, it is easy
to compare and analyse and can be administered to many people. Massive
amount of data can be obtained. It is also easy to design as there are many
sample questionnaires already in existence. However, the information obtained
may not be accurate as it relies how truthfully subjects respond to the questions.
There is also the fear that the wordings used can bias client's responses.
Questionnaires are impersonal and since only a sample of subjects is given the
instrument, we not get the full story.
8.5.2 Interviews
Interviews are usually one-on-one situations in which an individual asks
questions to which a second individual (which may be a teacher, principal,
student, parent) responds. The person asking the questions is called the
interviewer while the person giving answers to the questions is called the
interviewee. Interviews are used when you want to fully understand someone's
impressions or experiences, or learn more about their answers to questionnaires.
There are two general types of interviews depending on the extent to which the
responses required are unstructured or structured.
In an unstructured interview, the interviewer does not follow a rigid script and
there is a great deal of flexibility in the responses. For example; "Why do you
think the recommended textbook for the course is difficult for low ability
learners? The teacher responding to such a question will give a variety of
reasons. Some of the reasons given may be of a general nature while others may
be specific to certain sections of the textbook. This makes the task of keeping
track of responses more difficult. The open-endedness of the question will
require that the interviewer record all responses and make sense of it later. The
advantage of the unstructured interview is that it allows the evaluator to gather a
variety of information, especially in relation to the interviewee's knowledge,
beliefs or feelings toward a particular situation.
In a structured interview, the questions asked usually require very specific

responses. For example, "Is the recommended textbook difficult for low ability
learners because:
(a) there is too much content;
(b) the language used is beyond the comprehension of low ability learners;

(c) or there are too few examples and illustrations.
Regardless of which type of interview is used, evaluators should ensure that each
question is relevant for its intended purpose. In the end, the data must be
translated into a form that can be analysed and this has to be dome carefully to
preserve accuracy and to maintain the sense of the data. The advantage of
interviews is that it can get a full range and depth of information and it develops
a relationship with teachers and students and it is more flexible. However,
interview can take much time, can be hard to analyze and compare, can be costly
and interviewer can bias client's responses.
8.5.3 Observations
Observations are about gathering accurate information about how a program
actually operates, particularly about processes: -view operations of a program as
they are actually occurring -can adapt to events as they occur -can be difficult to
interpret seen behaviours -can be complex to categorise observations -can
influence behaviours of program participants -can be expensive.
8.5.4 Documents
When want impression of how program operates without interrupting the
program; is from review of applications, finances, memos, minutes, etc -get
comprehensive and historical information.
• Doesn't interrupt program or client's routine in program
• Information already exists
• Few biases about information
• Often takes much time
• Info may be incomplete
• Need to be quite clear about what looking for
• Not flexible means to get data; data restricted to what already exists

Method Overall Purpose Advantages Challenges

Questionnaires, When need to • can complete • might not get
Surveys, Checklists quickly and/or anonymously careful
easily get lots of • inexpensive to feedback
information administer • wording can
from people in a bias client's
non threatening • easy to compare
and analyse responses
way
• administer to • are impersonal
many people • in surveys, may
• can get lots of need sampling
data expert
• many sample • doesn't get full
questionnaires story
already exist
Interviews When want to • can take much
fully • get full range time
understand and depth of
information • can be hard to
someone's analyse and
impressions or • develops compare
experiences, or relationship
learn more with client • can be costly
about their • can be flexible • interviewer can
answers to with client bias client's
questionnaires responses
Documentation When want • get • often takes
review impression of comprehensiv much time
how program e and • info may be
operates historical incomplete
without information
interrupting the • need to be quite
• doesn't clear about
program; is interrupt
from review of what looking
program or for
applications, client's
finances, routine in • not flexible
memos, program means to get
minutes, etc. data; data
• information restricted to
already exists what already
• few biases exists
about
information
Observation To gather • view • can be
accurate operations of difficult to

information a program as interpret seen

about how a they are behaviours
program actually • can be
actually occurring complex to
operates, • can adapt to categorise
particularly events as they observations
about processes occur • can influence
behaviours of
program
participants
• can be
expensive
Focus groups Explore a topic in • quickly and • can be hard
depth through reliably get to analyse
group discussion, common responses
e.g., about impressions • need good
reactions to an • can be efficient facilitator for
experience or way to get safety and
suggestion, much range closure
understanding and depth of
common • difficult to
information in schedule 6-8
complaints, etc.; short time
useful in people
evaluation and • can convey key together
marketing information
about
programs
Case studies To fully • fully depicts • usually quite
understand or client's time
depict client's experience in consuming to
experiences in a program collect,
program, and input, process organise and
conduct and results- describe
comprehensive powerful • represents
examination means to depth of
through cross portray information,
comparison of program to rather than
cases outsiders breadth

8.6 CASE STUDY: EVALUATION OF A

MATHEMATICS CURRICULUM IN SOUTH
AFRICA
Background: Mathematics Learning and Teaching Initiative (MALATI) was
commissioned by the Education Initiative of the Open Society Foundation for
South Africa in 1996 to develop, pilot and disseminate alternative approaches
and tools for teaching and learning mathematics.
Method: Based on project workers' observation and written field notes made
during the implementation of the MALATI curriculum the following findings
were obtained:
Findings:
(a) A number of teachers had not yet received the most basic communications
issued to schools regarding Curriculum 2005.
(b) Teachers had difficulty interpreting certain aspect of the official curriculum
document. Lack of clarity led to confusion.
(c) The curriculum document had content errors.
(d) Content knowledge of teachers was not adequate to handle some of the
topic in the curriculum such as statistics.
(e) Learners did not have the prior experience assumed in the curriculum; e.g.
in grade 9, the teaching of probability assumes that learner had done some
statistics in the earlier grades.
(f) Teachers are continuing to teach the topics they are used to and are
reluctant to use the MALATI materials.
(g) The curriculum suggested that group work be used in teaching probability
and data handling. Learners were not accustomed to group discussion and
listening to one another.
(h) The teaching of the topic took a longer time as teachers struggled to deal
with learners' everyday experiences in the teaching of probability.
Recommendations:
(a) Teachers need workshops on selected aspects of the content.
(b) Selected parts of the curriculum documents need to be rewritten to reduce
confusion.

(c) To convince teachers not to treat the teaching of probability and statistics as
"new content" but teach it for its mathematical value.
Source: Brodie, K., & Pournara, C. (2003). Towards a framework for developing and
researching groupwork in mathematics classrooms. Available at
http//www.hsrcpress.ac.za
ACTIVITY 8.3
1. What are some of the problems identified with the implementation
of the MALATI programme?
2. Based on the findings list the recommendations made.
Curriculum implementation Local curriculum

Curriculum in the classroom National curriculum
Force field model Resistance to change
• Driving forces Role of students
• Restraining forces
Role teachers
Forms of Curriculum change
Lesson plan

1. Identify some problems in the implementation of the Primary

School Integrated Curriculum (KBSR) and the Secondary School
Integrated Curriculum (KBSM)?
2. Describe how the teaching of science and mathematics in English
was implemented in your school?
3. "New curriculum often fail to become established in schools
because the importance and complexity of the implementation
phase is not understood." Discuss.
Ben-Peretz, M. (1990). The teacher-curriculum encounter. Buffalo: State

Chapter 1: Patterns of teacher's involvement in the curriculum endeavour.
Chapter 3: Teacher's concerns about curriculum issues.
Chapter 7: Implications for teacher education and staff development.
[Available at eBrary].
Chapter 10: Curriculum implementation.

NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Bennie, K., & Newstead, K. (2004) Obstacles to implementing a new curriculum.
http://academic.sun.ac.za/mathed/MALATI/Files/Statistics99.pdf
Keys, P. (2000). Developing a good science syllabus for an optimistic future: A
classroom teacher's perspective.
http://www.aare.edu.au/00pap/key00212.htm

9 Issues and
Trends
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain how the information age, changing workplace, media and
greater democracy impact curriculum development;
2. Evaluate efforts by schools in catering to individual difference;
3. Justify the importance of character education in the curriculum;
4. Support performance assessment as an alternative form of evaluating
students;

192 X TOPIC 9 CURRICULUM ISSUES AND TRENDS
'Don't Make Physical Education (PE) an Examination Subject'

The task of developing a strong "As they have little life experiences,
pool of technopreneurs in the they have to learn by experience
country is important to ensure the and doing, and also through
sustainability of the information mentoring by more experienced
and communication technology entrepreneurs who serve as their
(ICT) sector and to create wealth business coaches and models", said
for the local sector in the future. Tay.
According to Dr. Wilson Tay, Other skills and knowledge that can
Vice-President in-charge of be picked up include how to
Technopreneur Development, develop a business plan and
Industry Development, Division of understanding of the commercial
Multimedia Development viability of the business venture and
Corporation (MDC), "there is how to grow the venture.
always the question posed as to
whether technopreneurs are These, according to Tay, can be
created by nature or nurtured". taught through action learning and
experimental programmes, and also
The drive of entrepreneurship, through business coaching and
which is needed to create mentoring.
technopreneurs for the country,
can be taught at schools and Apart from developing a culture for
universities through engaging learning entrepreneurship, a
students with a passion for conducive environment is also
business said Tay. important to create and nurture
technopreneurs for the local ICT
Here various methods can be sector.
introduced such as entrepreneurial
or business projects for students to
gain experience and learn to
create, start-up, commercialise and
manage their enterprises.
Source: Sharifah Kasim (2005, March 3). Venturing into technopreneurship.
CompuTimes, New Straits Times

TOPIC 9 CURRICULUM ISSUES AND TRENDS W 193
X INTRODUCTION
In Topics 2, 3 and 4, we discussed the
factors influencing curriculum. In
Topics 5, 6, 7 and 8, we examined the
curriculum development process. In this
topic we will focus on certain issues that
concern curriculum which will bw
discussed in Topic 10. There are
different opinions on the direction
education should take, and library
shelves are filled with documents and
books describing current and
anticipated changes in society and how
education and, more specifically
curriculum should respond accordingly.
Despite differing opinions, there is
consensus on the broad trends that are
likely to have a major impact on
curriculum.
ACTIVITY 9.1
Read the newspaper report „Developing More Technopreneur‰ at the
beginning of this chapter and answer the following questions:
"⁄..there is always the question posed as to whether technopreneurs
are created by nature or nurtured".
1. What is your opinion of the above statement?
2. List the strategies suggested to develop technopreneurs?
3. Suggest other ways of developing technopreneurs.
9.1 SOME CHALLENGES

The world is changing rapidly and each day the pace quickens. Many nations are
striving to achieve the status of a modern and prosperous state. The rate at which
such status is achieved varies, with some countries getting there earlier than
others. Towards this goal, nations are pushing towards greater industrialisation,
automation, computerisation and modernisation of agriculture. More countries
are realising that to achieve the status of a developed nation, decentralisation and

empowerment go hand-in-hand. As pointed by Naisbitt and Aburdence (1989)

the shift will be towards self-help rather than welfare, networking rather than
hierarchy, a global economy rather than a national economy. Decisions will have
to be made based on consideration of multiple options rather than an either/or
situation. These developments have prompted society to ask whether the next
generation is adequately prepared to meet these challenges which invariably
refers to the education system. Four main challenges face the education system
(see Figure 9.1).
Figure 9.1: Some challenges impacting curriculum
9.1.1 Information Age

It has been reported that more information has been produced in the last 30 years
than the previous 5000 years. In the United States alone, as much as 50,000 books
are published annually and the amount of information doubles every five years,
and this doubling is predicted to be shortened to every 20 months. Not only is
the stockpile of information increasing, its accessibility has been enhanced with
the internet and advancements in telecommunications. With the millions of pages
added on to the internet each month, all sorts of information are made available
to anybody, anywhere and anytime. In a matter of seconds, one has at his or her
fingertips a vast body of information covering various fields of information. A
new disease called "information anxiety" has emerged which has been defined as
the ever-widening gap between what one understand and what one thinks one
should understand (Wurman, 1988). It is the feeling of helplessness of being
unable to cope with abundance of information and feeling of frustration at never
finding the time to mull over the mass of information. Has the present
curriculum in educational institutions taken into consideration these
developments? Do we know how to respond to these developments?

9.1.2 Changing Workplace

Automation and computerisation is another development that is rapidly
changing the workplace and types of jobs performed. It has been suggested that
more individuals will change careers 5 to 8 times in their lifetime. The new
generation will have to continuously learn, unlearn and relearn (Toffler, 1972).
Occupations and careers in the information age and the knowledge-based
economy will revolve around processing and management of information. The
shift towards knowledge-based jobs will require people who are able to acquire
new skills and knowledge efficiently and effectively. Brain power will be the
dominant force and muscle-power will be performed by machines and
automation. The workforce of the future will need to acquire skills in shorter
periods of time and at a faster rate to keep pace with knowledge that is fast
becoming obsolete; emphasising the need for lifelong learning to stay
competitive and relevant.
9.1.3 Influence of the Media

Increasingly, more people are having access to many television channels and
together with the internet entertainment is brought within easy reach of many
households. The onslaught of the media 24 hours a day and 7 days a week has
brought with it both positive and negative content. The average household is
being bombarded with hours of Western and American movies, music and
advertisements; some of which may challenge and erode traditional values held
by many societies. Increasingly, violence, sex, horror, racism, extremism,
stereotypes and misinformation are portrayed in the different types of media.
Attempts to 'scramble' and censor transmission through the airwaves has been a
loosing battle. A plethora of forces are competing for the attention of children,
adolescents and adults. Are schools adequately preparing children with the skills
and knowledge to make wise decisions?
9.1.4 Participation in the Democratic Process

More and more countries are moving towards a democratic system of government.
Together with it comes the practice of free enterprise which may be alien to some
people coming from a centrally planned economy. Democracy and the free
enterprise system require greater involvement of ordinary citizens in the decision
making process. Relying on a few selected leaders to decide what is best for the
people is slowly giving way to more "bottom-up involvement". However,
involvement in the governing process will only be effective if the young are
prepared for such roles. The ability to think is imperative for participation in the
democratic process because "it helps the citizen to form intelligent judgements on
public issues thus contribute democratically to the solution of social problems"

(Glaser, 1985, p. 27). In a democracy, citizens have an obligation to think deeply
about important issues affecting themselves directly and society at large. They
should be able to think critically, transcending ethnic, cultural and religious barriers.
ACTIVITY 9.2
1. How do you think the changing workplace will impact school

curriculum development and design?
2. List the kinds of knowledge and skills that will be required of
students to effectively participate in the democratic process and
counter the forces of the mass media?
9.2 CURRICULUM ISSUES

We often hear of educational systems making the claim that it caters for learner
differences. Broadly, this would include gifted students, at-risk students and
students with disabilities. Some schools have divided classes according to
academic performance while others have grouped students of varying abilities in
one class. Debate is continuing on the merits of each approach with its
proponents arguing the benefits of each method. Though students have been
divided according to ability, the one-size-fits-all curriculum continues to be
implemented. Then, there is the issue of students with disabilities such as the
physically challenged. Should they be kept in a class with others of similar
abilities or should they be included with others who do not have such
disabilities?
9.2.1 Differentiated Curriculum for the Gifted

The purpose of a differentiated curriculum is to provide appropriate learning
opportunities for gifted and talented students. The rationale for such an
approach is because of the capacity of gifted students to learn faster, solve
problems more readily, and grapple with abstract ideas. Gifted students need the
opportunity to work through the curriculum at a quicker pace since they take less
time to acquire the basics. When tasks are consistently too easy boredom sets in
and inhibits a studentÊs motivation to learn and eventually may harm
achievement. Students differ in readiness, needs, interest and abilities and a
differentiated curriculum is designed to tap into these differences and academic
diversity.

What is the differentiated curriculum? It is not giving advanced students extra

mathematics problems, extra readings, more independent study or to do their
own thing since they have mastered the basics. Curriculum differentiation is a
broad term referring to the need to tailor teaching environments and practices to
create appropriately different learning experiences for different students. It is a
philosophy of teaching in which teachers modify lessons to meet the needs,
interest and abilities of gifted and talented students. Gifted and talented students
are those whose potential is distinctly above average in one or more of the
following domains of human ability: intellectual, creative, social and physical
that places them at least among the top 10% of age peers (Tomlinson, 2000).
There are numerous models of curriculum differentiation that cater for the range
of individual differences in the classroom. Basically, these models show how an
existing curriculum such as science, economics or history can be modified,
extended or adjusted to cater to the needs of gifted students. In this topic, the
model proposed by C.J. Maker, which has been adopted in many American
schools systems is discussed.
Figure 9.2: MakerÊs Differentiated Curriculum Model (1982)

Maker (1982) devised a very practical model of curriculum differentiation which

shows how content can be adjusted to accommodate the ability of gifted students
to manipulate abstract ideas and deal with complexity (see Figure 9.2). The
process component of the model involves the methods and learning activities
used by teachers to present information, the questions asked of students and the
mental and physical activities expected of them. The emphasis is on higher-level
thinking, creative problem-solving, decision making, planning and forecasting.
With regards to the product component, students would be allowed to create
products that solve real-world problems. It is also important to provide students
with the opportunity to present work to a variety of audiences for constructive
appraisal. Gifted students benefit from negotiating evaluation criteria and being
involved in the process of evaluation itself. However, Maker argues that not
everything in the curriculum needs to be modified or adjusted; only those that
will lead to meaningful outcomes for gifted students should be incorporated.
9.2.2 Compensatory Education

As primary education is made accessible to more children, more children from
disadvantaged backgrounds are entering schools. These are students from poor
socio-economic backgrounds who have low language and quantitative literacy
skills, have limited English proficiency and learning styles which are not
conducive for success in traditional learning environments. In the context of
formal schooling, being different has too often meant being deficient, and being
deficient has meant "being at risk of academic failure". What can be done to
effectively engage and educate students who are at risk of low achievement,
failure and, eventually, of dropping out of school?
Compensatory education was initiated in the 1960s and 1970s to provide extra
help to chronic underachievers and equalise educational resources and
opportunities across schools. Compensatory education was introduced based on
the assumption that many students, because of poverty and low academic
achievement, are disadvantaged and should be provided with extra help and
programmes to "compensate" for the disadvantages. Two common strategies
adopted were:
(a) Grouping: Students are placed in homogeneous learning groups within a

grade or within a classroom according to their academic performance.
Among the labels used for this practice is "ability grouping" and "tracking".
The grouping of students is designed to enable teachers to more efficiently
match content with students' ability levels and learning paces. Ability
grouping has been criticised because poor students and disadvantaged
students are disproportionately represented in low ability classes. The
stigma of being in such classes has produced poor climate for learning and
lower expectations for student achievement. Students in these classes are

reported to have low self-esteem and the source of discipline problems. In
addition, teachers have not been adequately trained to teach such groups
and instead implement teaching-learning strategies that are similar to high
ability groups.
(b) Retention: This is the practice of holding back students who fail to
demonstrate required level of achievement. Research seems to indicate that
retention, as it is currently practiced in most schools has few positive effects
and mostly negative effects on student learning (Shepard and Smith, 1989).
Of late, there has been a shift in thinking about compensatory education and its
strategies. Among the emerging strategies suggested and adopted to solve the
problem of academic under-achievement in schools are:
(a) Compensatory education programmes that have focused only on
improving basic skills should emphasise higher order thinking and
problem-solving skills.
(b) Less emphasis should be on compensating what poor children lack, and
greater emphasis on teaching-learning techniques that make use of
studentsÊ strengths and experiences as stepping stones for further learning.
(c) Mainstreaming should be encouraged. Mainstreaming or inclusion is an
educational method that includes many different kinds of learners
(including students with learning disabilities) in the same classroom,
instead of separating them according to their learning abilities. In the
mainstreamed classroom, all students, regardless of ability levels learn
together in the same classroom. The purpose of mainstreaming is to give
every student a typical classroom experience. Teachers need to be trained to
use teaching methods that provide different things for different students,
making sure there is something for everyone. Students may be divided into
groups and provided with different learning situations. Mainstreamed
classrooms have specialised equipment and learning materials at hand. For
example, there might be a variety of books for different reading levels.
(d) Early Prevention targeted at young children is advocated to reduce the
inequalities of academic performance through the grades. Preschool and
kindergartens have to be been made more accessible to children from poor
socioeconomic backgrounds. Preschool and kindergartens should aim to
develop language skills and social competencies of disadvantaged children
to help them enter school at the same level as their more advantaged peers.
For example, in the United States the Head Start Project started in 1965
made available preschool and kindergarten opportunities to millions of
young children to prepare them enter the main school system.

SELF-CHECK 9.1
1. What is the differentiated curriculum? What is the rationale for such

a curriculum?
2. Explain the TWO common strategies adopted to help low achievers
in schools.
3. What are some emerging trends in helping low achievers?
• Four main challenges face the education system: the information age, the
changing workplace, the mass media and participation in the democratic
process.
• The differentiated curriculum aims to provide appropriate learning

opportunities for gifted and talented students. It is a philosophy of teaching
in which teachers modify lessons to meet the needs, interest and abilities of
gifted and talented students.
• Compensatory education was introduced based on the assumption that many

students are disadvantaged and should be provided with extra help and
programmes to "compensate" for the disadvantages. Two common strategies
adopted were: grouping and retention.
Changing workplace Information age

Compensatory education Participation in democracy
• Mainstreaming Personalised schools
• Retention
• Grouping Role of the mass media
Differentiated curriculum

1. Do you agree with mainstreaming? Give reasons.

2. 'No child left behind'. Discuss.

Chapter 1: What is the curriculum? [Available at eBrary].
Woods, R. N. (1989). Introduction to philosophy of education. London:
Routledge.
Chapter 3: Curriculum theory [Available at eBrary].
Chapter 11: Curriculum issues and trends.
NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Cromwell, S. (1998). The school of the future. Education World.
http://www.education-world.com/a_curr/curr046.shtml
Thornburg, D.D. (1998) Reading the future. Online Electronic School (June).
www.electronic-school.com/0698f1.html

Top i c X Future
10 Directions
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Identify some methods of studying the future; and
2. Critically evaluate suggestions for retooling schools.
10.1 CHARACTER EDUCATION

Character education (also referred to as moral education or values education) has
always been the concern of educators. The focus is on how curriculum can be
designed to teach children about basic human values such as honesty, kindness,
generosity, courage, freedom, equality, respect and so forth. The goal of character
education is to raise children to become morally responsible and self-disciplined
citizens. It is a deliberate and proactive effort to develop good character in
students; or more simply, to teach students right from wrong. It is assumed that
right and wrong do exist, that there are objective moral standards that transcend
individual choice; standards like respect, responsibility, honesty and fairness;
and that we should teach these directly. Traditionally, good character is shaped
by the family and religious institutions. With rising crime rates, violence among
youths, drug addiction, sexual promiscuity, breakdown of the family unit,
disrespect for authority, increasing dishonesty and drug abuse; the move is for
schools to seriously engage in character education.
There is a kind of values vacuum which is further reinforced by the influence of

television, advertising and the movies to the extent that traditional values have
been challenged. Together with religious instruction (formal and informal) and
parents, schools have also taken responsibility for character education in
attempting to teach students right from wrong and teach them a core set of
values that will guide their lives towards building a decent society. The
development of good character is really part of every childÊs birthright. Parents,
schools and the community have an obligation to meet that needs of children.
TOPIC 10 FUTURE DIRECTIONS W 203
You may have children who have not been brought up in environments where
certain values are stressed. For example, there could be children who do not
believe that honesty really is really important issue.
However, Kohn (1997) notes that character education in schools have tended to
be an exercise in indoctrinating students in the ways of right behaviour. The
curriculum tends to emphasise drilling students on desired behaviours rather
than engaging them in deep, critical reflection on what it means to be a moral
individual or to act morally.
A person unaware of why he or she believes or behaves even when such

beliefs or behaviours are good is not really a moral person. A person of good
character knows the difference between right and wrong, knows the bases
for his or behaviour, and chooses right over wrong, action that is of benefit to
the person and society over that which is not. There is a difference between
having a person engage in behaving rightly and behaving morally. The latter
implies an awareness of the bases for action or nonaction.
(Ornstein & Hunkins, 1998. p.372)
Problem solving, decision making and conflict resolution are important parts of
developing moral character. Through role playing and discussions, students can
see that their decisions affect other people and other things. It is only through
such teaching-learning activities will students understand and internalise the
desired values and habits that they will require for living and maintaining their
well-being.
SELF-CHECK 10.1
1. Why should schools engage in character education?

2. What is the main weakness of teaching character education in
schools?
10.2 PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT

An issue that has often been hotly debated relates to how students are assessed.
We have not changed very much in the way students are assessed in schools.
Paper and pencil tests continue to dominate from primary school until secondary
school and even in higher education. Though there is consensus on the need to
assess the overall development of the individual, assessment continues to be
204 X TOPIC 10 FUTURE DIRECTIONS
confined to a segment of the abilities of learners. What about the affective or

emotional outcomes of education? What about the problem solving and critical
thinking skills of learners? They have been acknowledged as important learning
outcomes but are not adequately assessed. What options do we have?
One of these options is performance assessment. Performance assessment is

assessment based on authentic tasks. These tasks are activities, problems or
exercises in which students demonstrate what they can do (Brandt & McBrien,
1997). Some performance tasks are designed to have students demonstrate their
ability in applying knowledge to a particular situation. For example, students in
an economic lesson examine the price trends and production figures of
petroleum in the last five years to determine how supply and demand
determines price per barrel. Performance tasks often have more than one
acceptable solution.
Performance assessment is about performing with knowledge in a context that

relates to the real world. Learners are provided with opportunities to show their
understanding and ability to use knowledge in different ways. The goal of
performance assessment is not only to find out whether students understand but
also whether they are able to do what they have learned after having left school.
In other words, have the knowledge learned, skills acquired and values
inculcated have long lasting or enduring effects.
• The implementation of performance assessment requires that one works
backwards. In other words, think first about purpose of assessment and
about the performances you want students to be able to do, and then work
backwards. What concepts and skills do I want students to know? At what
level should my students be performing? For example, you want primary
school students to be able to write creatively.
• Having agreed upon what you want students to perform and intend to
measure, than you decide what knowledge is to be emphasised and what
skills need to be cultivated. In other words, what activities should be
introduced that will provide opportunities for students to show what they
can do. For example, if you want primary school students to show their
creative writing skills, you should provide a topic, time and resources that
allow them to show their creative writing skills.
• After having determined the activity, you need to set the criteria that will
indicate whether students have acquired the knowledge and skills.
Why is performance assessment given importance? The reason is simple. It is

what people want from students in the real world; the ability to use wisely and
effectively what they know. We often hear of society complaining that students
are not able to 'apply' their knowledge and skills in authentic situations. This is
because students are not provided with settings in which they can apply such
knowledge and be assessed accordingly. For example, in a language test students
may indicate that they know that a story has an introduction, body and
conclusion. However, we cannot be sure that students can write a story with
these criteria. Performance assessment is vital to give the link between school and
the real-world and to give students the confidence to bridge the gap. From the
studentsÊ point of view, there is no guessing in performance assessment. Teacher
and students work together and state what needs to be improved. The role of the
teacher is more of a coach.
While there are many benefits of performance assessment, some teachers are
hesitant to implement it in the classrooms. One reason being that is teachers are
not confident enough to adopt this assessment approach. The second reason is
that earlier failures with the approach have prompted some teachers to reject the
approach and to implement performance assessment in the classroom.
SELF-CHECK 10.2
1. What is performance assessment?
2. What is the rationale for encouraging widespread use of
performance assessment in the classroom?
3. Briefly describe how performance assessment can br implemented
in the classroom.
ACTIVITY 10.1
Critical Issues in Science Curriculum
The science curriculum has remained largely unchanged for decades.

Often, the natural curiosity of children, eager to understand their
surroundings is often diminished by instruction that discourages inquiry
and discovery. Science instruction has become increasingly textbook-
centred. Even though laboratory experiences are included, students are
rarely encouraged to use scientific methods to solve problems relevant to
their perception of the world.

A new vision of science learning is needed; one that calls for instructional
strategies far different from most traditional approaches. The new paradigm
for science learning should emphasise engagement and meaning in ways
that are not consistent with past practices. The constructivist teaching and
learning models calls for learning that is:
• Hands-on: students are actually allowed to perform science as they
construct meaning and acquire understanding.
• Minds-on: activities focus on core concepts, allowing students to
develop thinking processes and encouraging them to question and seek
answers that enhance their knowledge.
• Authentic: students are presented with problem-solving activities that
incorporate authentic, real-life issues in a format that encourages
collaborative effort, dialogue with informed expert sources, and
generalizations to broader ideas and application.
This approach to teaching and learning will enable students to participate

fully in a learning community where the teacher is not the only source of
knowledge and information. Technology (internet) becomes a tool,
supporting the learning process as students seek new knowledge and
understanding. Accordingly, teachers will use a variety of alternative
assessment (eg. performance assessment, portfolio assessment) tools to
allow students to demonstrate their understanding of science by solving
authentic, real-life problems.
Source: Adaptation from Christensen, M. (1995). North Central Regional

Educational Laboratory (NCREL). Available at:
http://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/content/cntareas/science/sc500.htm
1. What are the critical issues with regards to the science curriculum?
2. Are these issues similar to the science curriculum in your school
system?

10.3 RETOOLING SCHOOLS FOR THE FUTURE

Mental models are ways, in which one views the world and how one makes
decisions; which often goes unrecognised as one of the main obstacles in bringing
about change in an organisation (Senge, 1999). In education, they refer to the
invisible assumptions or beliefs educators have about their studentÊs ability to
learn. According to Senge (2000), current school systems evolved on a set of
beliefs or "theories in use" that;
• children are deficient and schools fix them;
• everyone learns or should learn in the same way;
• learning takes place in the classroom, not in the world;
• there are smart kids and dumb kids,
• knowledge is inherently fragmented,
• schools communicate Âthe truthÊ;
• learning is primarily individualistic; and
• competition accelerates learning.
These are mental models that influence almost everything that is done in schools
today. For instance, knowledge is divided into discreet topics ranging from the
Melaka Sultanate to Newton's laws of motion. Each topic is taught at appropriate
time slots to learners sitting in rows listening passively, monitored and
motivated by grades. While, this approach is not necessarily wrong, research in
cognitive science reveal that this approach is not compatible with how humans
learn best. Retooling schools to meet the challenges of the knowledge economy
does not mean replacing existing mental models with new ones but rather to
recognise the power of mental models in limiting an educator from thinking
differently about his or her educational practice. More important is for educators
to suspend their mental models long enough to seek new knowledge and to
reconsider some of their beliefs about learning, thinking and the role of
technology.

Human learning is a multifaceted process that invokes the prior knowledge

of learners, is innately motivated by the search for meaning, is influenced by
emotions, is reinforced by social negotiation, is regulated by knowledge of
cognition, is lead by the construction of reality and enhanced in authentic
situations.
Source: Bransford, J. D. Brown, A. L., & Cocking, R. R. (1999). How people learn:
Brain, mind, experience and school. Washington. DC: National Academy Press
In other words, learning is dynamic and the role of educators is to facilitate the
making of dynamic knowledge. Learners need to be introduced to a world that is
beset with uncertainty, multiple answers and infinite possibilities involving
elements of trial and error because that is reality. Emanating from these revised
beliefs about learning, thinking and the role of technology, it is argued that
retooling schools be based on four guiding principles, namely; schools for all,
personalised schools with thinking and understanding being the main goal, and
students immersed in a technology-based learning environment (see Figure 9.3).
10.3.1 Schools for All

Malaysia can be proud of having made schooling accessible to most children, but
there is increasing awareness that it is not working for all children and ironically
acknowledged as normal. The bell curve has made it legitimate to say that "we
can't educate all children because not all children are educable." The tests used
pinned to a bell curve allows us to say that some will fail, some will succeed and
the majority fall in the middle. Few people realise that the tool was designed for
inanimate objects and low level organisms and may not necessarily apply to
human beings engaged in learning. It is common practice in our schools to label
children early on and respond to them according to the labels that been have
created because of the belief that in any classroom there is a certain percentage of
gifted, average and low achievers. Four times a year newspapers, radio and
television stations proudly announce schools that have obtained near perfect
scores in the UPSR, PMR, SPM and STPM examinations.

Figure 10.1: Retooling Malaysian schools based on revised mental models about learning,
thinking and technology
High scorers are given extensive media coverage but there is no mention as to the
number of adolescents deficient in language, quantitative and scientific literacy
skills. There is less concern with "Why Ahmad can't read?" and a decade later
"Why Ahmad still can't read?" One can only imagine how Ahmad feels being in a
class of low achievers throughout his schooling life and told repeatedly he is not
good enough. Theoretically Ahmad should be taught by the best teachers in the
system but unfortunately the Matthew effect prevails which loosely interpreted
states that "those who need it don't get it and those who need it don't get". It is
common knowledge that learners do not do as well in environments where
adults are continually critical, constantly accentuating the negative, and not
accepting them for who they are. On the contrary, students learn and thrive in a
nurturing environment and schools are obliged to foster a warm and caring
environment in which children will bloom. It is from this realisation that the
impetus comes to create schools that work for all children.
Malaysian society is rapidly changing and so too, must the educational beliefs
that underlie the goals of schooling. For example, it is time that tribute is given to
schools that record the lowest number of students who are unable to read and
write. Schools can ill-afford to educate just some of its students and ignore the
rest because of examination priorities. 'No child left behind' (Education Act, 2001)
should be the slogan for all schools in Malaysia to ensure that schools really work
for all students, not just for some. "When it comes to the education of our
children, failure is not an option" (Bush, 2001). Schools should set high
expectations for all students as students have a natural inclination to rise to the
level of expectation held of them (Edmonds, 1986). Expectations communicated

overtly or subtly by educators are immediately felt by students. Unfortunately,

many educators and schools do not effectively communicate high expectations to
all students either because they do not really have them or because they do not
believe that all children can learn. Some believe that not all students need to
realise their full potential as there are always jobs on the farms, in the factories
and low level jobs in the service sector.
These beliefs have to be revised and educators need to believe in the incredible
potential to learn that is present in all children and that it can be realised in all
children in any school and in any classroom, if the conditions are right. From the
onset students from disadvantaged backgrounds who are at-risk should be
identified and given all the cognitive coaching to succeed and not left behind.
Cognitive strategy instruction (CSI) should be given to all students, especially
academically weak students, where 'learning how to learn' is embedded in all
instructional practices (Phillips, 1993). In addition, schools for all must also be
grounded in a value system of cooperation and relationships, in contrast to the
ethic of competition and individualism. Reaching goals is important, but how
they are reached and with who is just as important. The value system of
cooperation and relationship does not discard competition, but puts it in the
context of cooperation and how people get along.
In our increasingly diverse world, creating schools for all children is the right
thing to do while acknowledging it is not easy. It means a major rethinking of the
very core values upon which schools are built. It means focusing on both equity
and excellence in the same classroom in the same school for all children.
ACTIVITY 10.2
1. Do you agree with 'school of all' concept? Why?
2. To what extent is the Matthew effect common in your school?
3. 'When it comes to the education of our children, failure is not an
option'. Explain.

10.3.2 Thinking Goes to School

While some people would agree that developing the thinking
skills of students is the main aim of education, there is less
agreement on what is thinking. Over the decades a range of
terms and definitions have been proposed which has led to
further confusion. Among the common terms used to describe
thinking are; reflective thinking, critical thinking, creative
thinking, lateral thinking, whole-brain thinking, analytical
thinking, mechanical reasoning, spatial thinking, logical
thinking, deductive thinking, inductive thinking, analogical Figure 9.4: RodinÊs
thinking to name a few. sculpture
ure of ÂThe
ThinkerÊ
Fraenkel (1980) defined thinking as the formation of ideas, reorganisation of
oneÊs experience and the organisation of information in a particular form. Chafee
(1988) characterises thinking as an unusual process used in making decisions and
solving problems. According to Bourne, Ekstrand and Dominowski, "Thinking is
a complex, multifaceted process. It is essentially internal, involving symbolic
representation of events and objects not immediately present, but is initiated by
some external event. Its function is to generate and control overt behaviour"
(1971, p.5). Nickerson, Perkins and Smith (1985) looked upon thinking as a
collection of skills or mental operations used by individuals. Since thinking is a
collection of mental skills, it can be performed well or poorly. In other words;
all people classify, but not equally perceptively,

all people make estimates, but not equally accurately,
all people use analogies, but not equally appropriate,
all people draw conclusions, but not with equal care,
all people construct arguments, but not with equal cogency
(Nickerson, 1987, p.28)
A synthesis of the various definitions reveals certain common threads running

through these descriptions. Thinking is a process that requires knowledge
because it is quite impossible to think in a vacuum; thinking involves the
manipulation of mental skills; thinking is targeted at the solution of a problem;
thinking is manifested in an overt behaviour or ability and thinking is also
reflected in certain attitudes or dispositions that are indicative of good and poor
thinking. For example, a good thinker welcomes problematic situations, is open
to multiple possibilities, uses evidence skilfully, makes judgement after
considering all angles, listens to other people's views, reflective and perseveres in
searching for information (Glatthorn & Barron, 1985; Nickerson, 1987).
(a) Why has thinking not been widely emphasised in schools?

• First, there is the belief among some educators that the development of
thinking skills should be confined to academically superior students
because they 'can think'. Teaching thinking to weak learners would be
futile and even frustrating because it is a serious mental activity
involving philosophising, deep thought, contemplation and
deliberation that would be too arduous for low achievers.
• Second, is the belief that students should have a complete
understanding of a subject area before they can deliberate and think
about the facts, concepts and principles. Educators who subscribe to
this belief are preoccupied with coverage of course content rather than
ensuring understanding. Understanding is the consequence of thinking
and if learners are taught to think about the content, then
understanding is enhanced.
• Third, relates to assessment and in particular public examinations
which tend to test the acquisition of facts and how well learners are able
to remember the facts. There are few questions that demand higher-
order thinking and so schools are rather reluctant to venture into
teaching for higher-order outcomes.
(b) What is a 'culture of thinking'?

'Thinking goes to schools' is the title of a book by Hans Furth and Harry
Wachs (1975) which reports about a project aimed at developing the
thinking ability of primary and secondary school students based on
Piagetian principles. 'Thinking will go to school' to when a culture of
thinking permeates all Malaysian schools where language, values,
expectations, habits and behaviour reflect the enterprise of good thinking.
Tishman, Perkins and Jay (1995) identified four ways of bringing the
culture of thinking to the classroom.
• First is to have models or people who demonstrate good thinking
practices and exhibit behaviours of good thinking, such as checking the
credibility of sources or suspending judgement until all information is
available or tolerating ambiguity.
• Second is to develop thinking through explanation, whereby teachers
explicitly explain why a particular thinking skill needs to be used, when
it is to be used and how the skill is to be used.
• Third is through interaction with other students where opportunities
are provided to work in groups when solving a problem, brainstorm,
exchange and accept ideas.

• Fourth is feedback, when teachers provide evaluative or corrective

information about student's thinking processes. For instance, a teacher
may praise a student for the way he or she arrived at a particular
conclusion or for the views expressed. Such feedback provides students
with information about their own thinking behaviours which helps
them become better thinkers.
(c) What is the role of teachers?

Teachers play a crucial role in the creation of a thinking culture as they are
the ones who establish the educational climate, structure learning
experiences and have almost complete power over the processes that take
place in the classroom. Students from more affluent homes where parents
level of education is higher, questions are more frequently asked and the
language used is relatively more complex (Sternberg and Caruso, 1985).
But, students coming to school lacking the experiences of their more
affluent counterparts "succeed because of teachers who served as mediators
of their environment; by discussing, asking questions, modelling and
teaching (Swartz and Lowery, 1989, p.4). Teachers have at their disposal a
variety of ways to organise their classroom to stimulate thinking. The
underlying principle of classroom organisation is to encourage greater
participation of learners in the teaching-learning process; it would be quite
impossible to develop the thinking skills of students if the teacher did most
of the talking. Students need to be involved and this might take the form of
teacher-led Socratic-type discussion, cooperative small-group or total-
group investigations (Fisher, 1992).
Teacher response behaviours have a significant effect in stimulating

thinking. Most importantly is the manner in which teachers or even parents
react to answers given by learners and whether these behaviours extend or
terminate thinking. For example, what would happen when a teacher or
parent responds to a child's ideas with such statements as "What a dumb
idea" or "You're not good enough". The chances are, that child might be
reluctant to give ideas in the future for fear of being ridiculed or
humiliated. The language of thinking plays an important role in
encouraging thinking in the classroom. Using specific thinking terminology
will show learners how to perform particular skills and when used
repeatedly chances are they will become part of their repertoire of
vocabularies (Costa & Marzano, 1987). For example, instead of saying "Let's
look at these two pictures", it would be more precise to say "Let's compare
these two pictures".

SELF-CHECK 10.3
1. What is thinking?
2. Why has development thinking not been emphasised in schools?
3. How does one create a culture of thinking?
4. What is the role of teachers in developing thinking among
students?
10.3.3 Personalised Schools

Many schools have become too large and impersonal and students are just a
statistic. This is especially evident in urban areas where schools have an
enrolment of between 1000 to 2000 students and some with as many as 2500
students which inadvertently disconnects the majority of learners from teachers
and other adults possibly leading to alienation, boredom and even conflict. Why
should a teenager respect a teacher who knows nothing about him or her?
Personalised schools are schools with a smaller student enrolment. Research is
inconclusive as to the appropriate size of such schools but there is some
consensus that for a primary school it should not exceed 400 students and not
more than 800 students for secondary schools (Cotton, 1996). In smaller schools,
teachers and students build strong relationships, and teachers can help students
learn more effectively because they know their students as individuals.
'Everybody knows your name'. There is also greater bonding among students as
they get to know and learn from each other.
However, even though a school may be small, it need not necessarily be

'personalised'. Personalised school are learning communities where students,
teachers, and parents know each other personally, and work together to help
young people learn and succeed. In personalised schools, students are cared for,
nurtured, and supported and this is significant given the increasing number of
students experiencing a lack of relationships with caring, attentive, engaged
adults when parents are working full-time. Partnerships between parents,
teachers and administrators tend to be stronger because the opportunity to
communicate and understand each other is enhanced. Generally, personalised
schools have lower rates of negative social behaviour such as classroom
disruptions, vandalism, fights, thefts, substance abuse or gang membership
(Cotton, 1996). Such schools report higher school attendance and lower drop out
rates compared to larger impersonal schools. Students in smaller schools have a
greater sense of belonging and relationship tends to be more cordial. With the

decline of the extended family and both parents having to work full time,
students turn to teachers for advice and role models which may be more readily
available in personalised schools.
10.3.4 Technology-Based Schools

The unprecedented advances in internet interactivity and multimedia
capabilities, is seeing the emergence of the Technology-Based Learning
Environment which has given a new perspective to classroom learning. The
Technology-Based Learning Environment based on a cognitive-constructivist
theoretical perspective emphasises the following seven processes (Phillips, 2001).
• First, is situated cognition in which learning of certain knowledge and skills
is best done in situations or contexts that reflect the way the knowledge will
be useful in real life? In other words, students are introduced to authentic
tasks and the many tools of technology enable the creation of microworlds
(Jonassen, 1996). These are miniature environments that mimic situations in
the real world providing learners with the opportunity to apply concepts,
principles and skills learned. For example, telecommunications and the
internet provide access to emerging disciplinary and interdisciplinary
databases, real-time phenomena, and social communities not accessible
through print-based curricula.
• The second process is cognitive flexibility which is the ability to represent
knowledge from different perspectives tailored to the needs and levels of the
learner. Multimedia technology such as virtual reality permits knowledge
and skills to be presented in a variety of different ways, adapting content to
individual student learning styles.
• The third process is exploration wherein learners try out different
hypotheses, methods and strategies to see their effects. The resources of the
web and the related internet tools allow learners to make these discoveries on
their own. Computers and ancillary electronic devices facilitate the
manipulation of data and visualisation which assists with experimenting and
understanding actual, futuristic, and hypothetical concepts, principles,
relationships and probabilities.
• The fourth process is cooperative learning in which learners work in groups
by questioning each other, discussing and sharing information towards the
solution of a problem using communication tools such as e-mail and chat
rooms.
• The fifth process is collaborative learning in which learners or groups of
learners discuss and try out their ideas and challenge the ideas of others
across state and international borders. For example, a group of learners in

Malaysia could be working on a project in cyberspace on 'what teenagers do

besides schooling' with a group of learners in Canada or Kuwait using both
asynchronous and synchronous tools. Cooperative and collaborative learning
practiced are skills required in the workplace.
• The sixth process is articulation which refers to methods of getting learners to
make their tacit knowledge explicit through websites and electronic
portfolios. When learners make available to others (even across long
distances) what they have done, learners are able to compare strategies and
provide insight into alternative perspectives.
• The seventh process is reflection which refers to learners looking back over
what they have done and analysing their performance. It enables them to see
the thinking processes they used in solving problems and based on the
product and be able to determine if their strategies were appropriate.
Technology integration into teaching and learning has not been widespread
because of insufficient equipment and internet connection, inadequate training of
teachers and more importantly a lack of understanding on how to use the new
technologies. As more schools are wired with the relevant hardware and
software, the technology-based learning environment provides a convenient
framework with a theoretical basis for realisation of technology-based schools.
SELF-CHECK 10.4
1. What do you understand by personalised schools?

2. What are processes emphasised in the Technology-Based Learning
Environment?
• Character education is designed to teach children about basic human values

with the aim of raising children to become morally responsible and self-
disciplined citizens.
• Performance assessment is assessment based on authentic tasks. These tasks

are activities, problems or exercises in which students demonstrate what they
can do.

• Schools for all emphasises that an environment should be provided for all
students to realise their potential and setting high expectations so that all
students will be encouraged to excel.
• A culture of thinking has to be created to encourage students to think.
• The technology-based learning environment has to be developed in as many

schools as possible.
Character education Schools for all

Culture of thinking Technology-based learning environment
Performance assessment Thinking goes to school
Personalised schools
1. To what extent is performance assessment practiced in your

school?
2. Do you agree that students are not provided with sufficient
opportunities to develop their thinking skills?
3. What do you think the curriculum of the future should be?

Chapter 1: What is the curriculum? [Available at eBrary].
Woods, R. N. (1989). Introduction to philosophy of education. London:
Routledge.
Chapter 3: Curriculum theory [Available at eBrary].


Chapter 11: Curriculum issues and trends.
NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Cromwell, S. (1998). The school of the future. Education World.
http://www.education-world.com/a_curr/curr046.shtml
Thornburg, D.D. (1998) Reading the future. Online Electronic School (June).
www.electronic-school.com/0698f1.html

MODULE FEEDBACK
MAKLUM BALAS MODUL
If you have any comment or feedback, you are welcome to:
1. E-mail your comment or feedback to modulefeedback@oum.edu.my
OR
2. Fill in the Print Module online evaluation form available on myINSPIRE.
Thank you.
Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

(Pusat Reka Bentuk Pengajaran dan Teknologi )
Tel No.: 03-27732578
Fax No.: 03-26978702

HPGD1103: Curriculum Development

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HPGD1103: Curriculum Development

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Faculty of Education and Languages

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Module Writer: Prof Dr John Arul Phillips

Adapted by: Teh Lai Ling

Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

First Edition, October 2010

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 1 What is Curriculum? 1

Topic 2 Philosopical Foundations of Curriculum 20

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Topic 3 Pyschological Foundations of Curriculum 45

Topic 4 Social and Historical Foundations of Curriculum 72

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4.6 Knowledge that is Most Worth 82

Topic 5 Curriculum Planning 96

Topic 6 Curriculum Design 122

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6.3.4 Continuity 130

Topic 7 Curriculum Implementation 146

Topic 8 Curriculum Evaluation 170

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8.3.3 Stake's Countenance Model 179

Topic 9 Curriculum Issues and Trends 191

Topic 10 Fiture Directions 202

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Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

What is this Course All About? xii

How Will You be Assessed? xvi

Final Remarks xvii

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WELCOME TO HPGD1103 CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

WHAT IS THE COURSE ALL ABOUT

Objectives of the Course

1. Compare, apply and disseminate the various definitions of curriculum;

2. Explain and formulate how philosophy, psychology, history and society

3. Elaborate the four phases of the curriculum development process, namely;

4. Evaluate the issues of curriculum development;

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5. Apply curriculum concepts, principles and theories to the teaching and

6. Demonstrate an ability to communicate ideas in written form.

HOW CAN YOU GET THE MOST OUT FROM THIS

1. The Course Guide, which you are currently reading;

Topic 1 examines different definitions of curriculum, what is the hidden

Topic 2 analyses four main philosophical beliefs (perennialism, essentialism,

Topic 3 evaluates four psychological perspectives (behaviourism, cognitivism,

Topic 5 compares the curriculum development models of Tyler, Taba, Alexander

Topic 6 examines the criteria for content selection (significance, utility,

Topic 7 discusses curriculum implementation as a change process, the categories

Topic 8 compares three curriculum evaluation models (CIPP, Stakes

Topic 9 critically evaluates different curriculum issues such as the impact of

Topic 10 focuses on character curriculum suggest possible scenarios of future in

Organisation of Course Content

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These are situations drawn from research projects to show how

Questions are interspersed at strategic points in the topic to encourage

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HOW WILL YOU BE ASSESSED?

WHAT FORMS OF SUPPORT WILL YOU GET IN

MyINSPIRE Online Discussion

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your understanding of course content, how to go about doing the assignments