HIGH RISE BUILDINGS
The high-rise building is generally defined as one
that is taller than the maximum height which
people are willing to walk up; it thus requires
mechanical vertical transportation. This includes a
rather limited range of building uses, primarily
residential apartments, hotels, and office
buildings, though occasionally including retail and
educational facilities. A type that has appeared
recently is the mixed-use building, which contains
varying amounts of residential, office, hotel, or
commercial space. High-rise buildings are among
the largest buildings built, and their unit costs are
relatively high; their commercial and office
functions require a high degree of flexibility
Foundations
The foundations of high-rise buildings support very
heavy loads, but the systems developed for low-
rise buildings are used, though enlarged in scale.
These include concrete caisson columns bearing
on rock or building on exposed rock itself. Bearing
piles and floating foundations are also used
Structural systems
Wind loads
The structural systems of tall buildings must carry
vertical gravity loads, but lateral loads, such as
those due to wind and earthquakes, are also a
major consideration. Maximum 100-year-interval
wind forces differ considerably with location; in
the interiors of continents they are typically about
100 kilograms per square metre (20 pounds per
square foot) at ground level. In coastal areas,
where cyclonic storms such as hurricanes and
typhoons occur, maximum forces are higher,
ranging upward from about 250 kilograms per
square metre (50 pounds per square foot). Wind
forces also increase with building height to a
constant or gradient value as the effect of ground
friction diminishes. The maximum design wind
forces in tall buildings are about 840 kilograms per
square metre (170 pounds per square foot) in
typhoon areas.
The effect of wind forces on tall buildings is
twofold. A tall building may be thought of as a
cantilever beam with its fixed end at the ground;
the pressure of the wind on the building causes it
to bend with the maximum deflection at the top.
In addition, the flow of wind past the building
produces vortices near the corners on the leeward
side; these vortices are unstable and every minute
or so they break away downwind, alternating from
one side to another. The change of pressure as a
vortex breaks away imparts a sway, or periodic
motion, to the building perpendicular to the
direction of the wind.
Earthquake loads
Earthquake or seismic forces, unlike wind forces,
are generally confined to relatively small areas,
primarily along the edges of the slowly moving
continental plates that form the Earth’s crust.
When abrupt movements of the edges of these
plates occur, the energy released propagates
waves through the crust; this wave motion of the
Earth is imparted to buildings resting on it. Timber
frame buildings are light and flexible and are
usually little damaged by earthquakes; masonry
buildings are heavy and brittle and are susceptible
to severe damage. Continuous frames of steel or
reinforced concrete fall between these extremes
in their seismic response, and they can be
designed to survive with relatively little damage.
Classification of structural systems
The types of structures used for high-rise buildings
must meet the lateral load performance criteria
outlined above, and they must be reasonably
efficient in the use of material and of reasonable
cost. The most efficient high-rise structure would
meet the lateral load criteria using no more
material than would be required for carrying the
building gravity load alone; in other words, it
would have no premium for height.
High-rise structures begin at the lowest range with
the rigid frame in both steel and concrete. Some or
all of the joints between the beams and columns
are rigidly joined together by welding the steel or
pouring the concrete in situ, and lateral resistance
is provided by the rigid joints; this system can rise
about 90 metres (300 feet) with little premium.
The next type is the rigid frame with a vertical
shear truss in steel or a shear wall in concrete to
provide greater lateral rigidity; it has a range of 38
to 150 metres (125 to 500 feet). The framed tube
structure in both steel and concrete brings more
gravity load and more structural material to closely
spaced columns at the building’s perimeter, again
increasing lateral rigidity; this type is reasonably
efficient from 38 to 300 metres (125 to 1,000 feet)
in height
Enclosure systems
The enclosure systems for high-rise buildings are
usually curtain walls similar to those of low-rise
buildings. The higher wind pressures and the
effects of vortex shedding, however, require
thicker glazing and more attention to sealants. The
larger extent of enclosed surfaces also requires
consideration of thermal movements
Life-safety systems
Life-safety systems are similar to those in low-rise
buildings, with stairways serving as vertical
emergency exits; in case of fire all elevators are
automatically shut down to prevent the possibility
of people becoming trapped in them. Emergency
generator systems are provided to permit the
operation of one elevator at a time to rescue
people trapped in them by a power failure.
Generators also serve other vital building functions
such as emergency lighting and fire pumps. Fire-
suppression systems often include sprinklers, but,
if none are required by building codes, a separate
piping system is provided with electric pumps to
maintain pressure and to bring water to fire-hose
cabinets throughout the building
Vertical transportation
Vertical transportation systems are of vital
importance in high-rise buildings. Escalators are
used on lower floors for moving high volumes of
people over short distances. A few retail or
educational buildings have escalators for up to 10
stories. The principal means of vertical transport in
tall buildings is the roped elevator. It moves by a
direct current electric motor, which raises and
lowers the cab in a shaft with wire ropes running
over a series of sheaves at the motor and the cab
itself; the ropes terminate in a sliding
counterweight that moves up and down the same
shaft as the cab, reducing the energy required to
move the elevator.
Plumbing
Plumbing systems in tall buildings are similar to
those of low-rise buildings, but the domestic
water-supply systems require electric pumps and
tanks to maintain pressure. If the building is very
tall, it may require the system to be divided into
zones, each with its own pump and tank

Electrical systems

Electrical systems for high-rise buildings are also

very similar to low-rise types. The major difference
is that, if the building is exceptionally tall, the
utility company may bring its high-voltage lines
inside the building to a number of step-down
transformers located in mechanical equipment
spaces. From each step-down transformer the
distribution of electricity is similar to that of a
smaller building

CASE STUDY

Structure: Freedom Tower

Location: Manhattan, New York As the tower rises from a cubic base, its edges are
chamfered back, resulting in a faceted form
Typology: Commercial & Office Building composed of eight elongated isosceles triangles.
At its middle, the tower forms a perfect octagon in
Architect: David Childs, Daniel
plan and then culminates in a glass parapet whose
Libeskind, T. J. Gottesdiener plan is a 150-foot-by-150-foot square, rotated 45
degrees from the base. The building’s overall
Owner - LOWER MANHATTAN DEVELOPMENT effect is that of a crystalline form that captures an
CORPORATION ever-evolving display of refracted light. As the sun
Land Use - Commercial & Office Buildings moves through the sky or as viewers move around
the tower, the surfaces appear like a kaleidoscope,
Lot Area - 833,945 sq ft changing with the weather and position of the sun.
Lot Frontage - 950 ft History
Lot Depth - 750 ft 1)The World Trade Center destruction by a
terrorist attack on
Year Built - 2009
September 11, 2001 not only plunged the
Building Class - Office Buildings - Office Only or
population of New
Office with
York and the world, in a panic too close, but also
Comm – 20 Stories or More ( O4 )
created a large
Number of Buildings - 8
debate on the future of the place occupied by the
Number of Floors - 104 complex.

Gross Floor Area - 8,837,500 sq ft 2)A first contest sponsored by the Lower
Manhattan
Floor Area Ratio - 105%
Development was a failure by the public rejection
BY LAWS - Separate by laws were made for the of design
security of the
concepts, leading to a second round in 2002, the
building which is different from the city by laws. project was
selected Daniel Libeskind.
3)In April 2006, after several months of
negotiations to allow the
reconstruction began, Silverstein ceded some of
their rights to
the Port Authority of the city, but got to be
granted architect
change to reform and carry out the project going
to take over
the same architect David Childs in SOM Architects.
About The Project
1)Criticism of the project submitted by Liebeskind
disapproved the few floors
dedicated to offices and other services, only 82
habitable floors, 280.000m2
reducing the space available to the World Trade
Center
2)The low height in this design was imposed by
Silverstein, who expressed concern
about another terrorist attack or other incident
and the high degree of
responsibility that would entail. Much of the
building height should be to a large
outdoor structure, a lattice of steel placed above
the roof of the tower, where they
would place wind turbines and some “open
gardens”. A later design corrected the
space, approaching the capacity of the original
building and removed the open
garden
3)The final design for the “Freedom Tower” as it
was called in its early days was
formally presented on June 28, 2005.
4)Building relocation of underground utilities and
foundations for construction
began on April 27, 2006. The steel structure of the
tower was crowned on August
30, 2012 and in May 2013 placed the last
component of the antenna.
Construction
1) When architect Daniel Libeskind first proposed
plans for the new World Trade
Center at Ground Zero in New York, described a
541-meter skyscraper called
Freedom Tower. Libeskind’s original design was
altered and the planes were
rediseñads to make the building more secure from
terrorist attacks.
2) In 2004, the architect David Childs became the
architect commissioned to
modify and implement the project for the
Freedom Tower, while Daniel Libeskind
focused on the master plan for the site of the
World Trade Center.
In contrast to Libeskind’s original plan, the final
design of the octagonal tower
tapers as it rises. Its designers stated that the
tower would be a “monolithic glass
structure which reflects the sky, topped by a
sculpted antenna.”
3) The April 26, 2006, the Port Authority of New
York and New Jersey approved a
conceptual framework providing the basis to begin
construction and a formal
agreement was signed the next day, 75th
anniversary of the opening in 1931 of
the Empire State Building. The building was
completed on May 2, 2013.
4) The May 10, 2013, the last component of the
antenna was installed on the rise,
making the One World Trade Center, the tallest
building in New York, provisionally
the highest in the western hemisphere and the Concept
third tallest building in the world
1) One World Trade Center is the first office tower
taking into account the height to the top of the built in
antenna, 541m. The Port Authority
the site of the World Trade Center Real. A
of New York and New Jersey confirmed that the memorable
legal name will be One World
architectural landmark for the city of New York
Trade Center, rather than the colloquial name and
Freedom Tower (Freedom Tower)
America will serve as an enduring beacon of
inspiration

for the city.

Construction of the complex is part of an effort to

remember and rebuild the World Trade Center

after the

destruction of the original during the terrorist

attacks of

September 11, 2001.

2) WTC One is a bold icon in the sky that

recognizes the

adjacent monument. While the memorial, carved

into the

earth, speaks of the past and remember, WTC One

talks

about the future and the hope that rises into the
sky with

a faceted, crystalline form that reflects light. This

tower

evokes the thin, triangular features diminishing the

landmarks of the city such as the Chrysler or

Empire State

Building

3) The new complex of the World Trade Center will

also

feature three other office towers, located along

Greenwich Street and the Memorial & National

Museum

September 11, which is located south of One

World Trade
Center, in the place once occupied by the Twin
Towers.
STRUCTURE
It has a hybrid concrete-and-steel structure. The
key to its strength is a massive, extremely strong
concrete core. This rises all the way to the
uppermost storeys, acting as the building’s
primary support
to resist gravitation, wind and seismic loads and
impact, as well as housing all means of egress.
Steel
beams set into the concrete core support the
floors, enabling vast column-free expanses.
The core is made of ultra-high-strength concrete,
at 14,000psi the strongest ever poured in New
York.
This strength also helped reduce the thickness of
the walls, maximizing the lettable area, while
minimizing the weight of materials required.
Replacing more than 50% of the cement content
with
industrial by-products further cut the carbon
footprint of the building, and more than 95% of
the
steel in the structure is recycled, contributing to a
LEED Gold environmental rating.
SPIRE
The tower consists of two main components:
• A mast of 134.42 m
• A communications platform in a ring with three
levels surrounding the needle
The tower consists of eight vertically stacked
sections that decrease in width as it
approaches the needle.
These sections are designed to support digital
broadcasting.
To strengthen the support against wind, four wires
radio frequency (RF)
transparent Kevlar connect from the mast to the
ring, in which structure also
incorporates the window washing equipment.
The tower culminates in a LED lamp that sends a
horizontal light beam visible up
to a distance
CORE
The core contains two interlinked access
stairs and a dedicated first-responders’
stair – to allow first responders to climb
the building quickly in the event of an
emergency, while people escape – a
feature that is now standard in New York
building codes.
The core is made of ultra-high-strength
concrete, at 14,000psi the strongest ever
poured in New York.
AESTHETIC
While this is largely hidden from public view, back
above ground the
architects were responsible for perhaps the most
highly visible
façade on the planet. Aesthetics were therefore of
paramount
importance. Aside from the sheer size of the
building, it’s the way
that it catches the light that makes the greatest
impression, the
luminescence of the structure somehow lightening
its monumental
presence on the skyline.This is thanks to the floor-
to-floor glazing –
the exterior of the building is composed of 1
million ft2 of specially
developed glass. It has a very high U-value to
maintain comfortable
conditions inside the building and support the
LEED Gold rating. It’s
also highly transparent, with a reflective, mirror-
like coating that
creates a constantly changing kaleidoscope. The
corners are clad in
laser-finished stainless steel that glints in the
sunlight.
PLAN
The large lobby surrounds the core and is
filled with natural light that enters the
space through the east and west entrances
and through openings in the north and
south walls.
Floors 1
-19
Being born from the level of the plaza, a
public lobby rises 15.24 m to be crowned
by a series of mechanical floors, which
together form the foundation of the
building.
Floors 20 to 90
70 floors for offices, from the 20th floor to
the 90th tower over this base to a height
of 345m.
From the 20th floor upwards, square edges
cubic base of the tower are beveled
inward, transforming the way the building
into eight tall isosceles triangles, or form

elongated antiprism. Near its center, the

tower forms a perfect octagon in plan and

then culminates in a glass parapet whose

shape is a square oriented 45 degrees from

the base.

Floors 91-99, 100-102, 103-104

Mechanical plants, plants 91-99 and 103-104, a

restaurant and two observation decks, floors 100-
102, culminating with a parapet of metal and glass,
with a communication platform over the parapet
and ceilings which make 415.13my 416.66m
respectively, the two heights of the original Twin
Towers.

On the parapet also placed the antenna cable

stayed, designed in collaboration with artist
Kenneth Snelson and structural engineer Hans
Schober of Schlaich Bergermann and Partners that
crowns the project

Flat 105

The top floor of One Wordl Trade Center is

designated as 105

The building has 5 levels below street level, in

which are located the parking areas and numerous
transport links
Mast

A sculpted mast, 124m high, holds the transmitting

antenna. This mast was designed in collaboration
with SOM, artist Kenneth Snelson who invented
the tensegrity structure, and structural engineer
Hans Schober of Schlaich Bergermann and Partner,
who also ran the crystal structure. The antenna is
secured by a system of cables, and rises from a
circular support ring contains additional
dissemination equipment and maintenance. At
night, it projects an intense beam of light above
the tower, which is visible to more than 3000 m
CONSTRUCTION TIMELINE

On November 18, 2006, 400 cubic yards (310 cubic

meters) of concrete were poured onto the
foundation of the One World Trade Center

30-foot (9.1 m) steel beam. This beam, the first to

be installed, was welded onto the building's base
on December 19, 2006.

On January 9, 2007, a second set of beams was

welded to the top of the first set.

In 2007, Tishman Construction Corporation of New

York completed a row of steel columns at the
perimeter of the construction site. Two tower
crane bases were erected

The tower's concrete core began rising in the first

months of 2008

On May 17, 2008, the tower's steel reached street

level when new sections were bolted to two of the
twenty-four jumbo steel columns marking the
building's footprint.

In June, the chamfered steel skeleton of the

tower's concrete base had begun to take shape

By August, 1 WTC had reached 25 feet (7.6 m)

above street level.

On October 10, poured an additional 520 cubic

yards (400 m3) of concrete for the tower's
concrete core, raising it to just above street level.
On July 2, 2009, over 1,200 cubic yards (920 m3) of
concrete were poured to form parts of the street-
level plaza.

Each steel column, was about 60 feet (18 m) long.

The columns at the bottom of the tower's Steel installation, as of March 26, 2007
foundation were about 35 feet (11 m) long.

In February, construction began on the sixth floor,

the last floor of 1 WTC's base, and the Port
Authority announced that the tower's steel
superstructure had reached 200 feet (61 m) above
street level.

In April, the 45-degree octagon was installed, the

building's steel frame had reached 26 floors, and
concrete was completed on the base structure in
the latter part of the month

The cocoon system was also installed, marking the

first time a cocoon safety system has been Foundation construction, as of October 7, 2007
installed on a steel superstructure in the city.

By June 15, 2011, One World Trade Center had

reached the 70th floor, the glass facade
installation had reached the 45th floor, and
concrete flooring had been installed up to the
63rd.

On December 12, 2012, the first of nine pieces of

the spire were lifted to the 104th floor

Concrete construction, as of October 7, 2006

Concrete foundation, as of April 20, 2008
 Construction as of September 28, 2010, as steel
reached the 42nd floor

One WTC above street level, as of February 28,

2009

As of January 13, 2011, with the glass facade

clearly visible.

Construction reaching the 17th floor, as of

December 10, 2009.

Progress as of May 2, 2011, Steel is up to the 64th

floor and glass is at the 36th floor.
One World Trade Center under construction on
July 24, 2012

3D MODEL IMAGE SHOWING STRUCTURAL

DETAILS FROM THE BASE AND UPPER PARTS

One World Trade Center on February 22, 2013.

The first two sections of the spire now in place

FOUNDATION STRUCTURAL FRAMING

3D MODEL SHOWING THE CHANGING FLOOR

CENTRE BASE STRUCTURE FRAMING PLATES OF THE BUILDING
 3D MODEL SHOWING THE CORE WHICH IS
INSIDE THE BUILDING

3D MODEL SHOWING THE SKELETAL STRUCTURE

TO CLEARLY SHOW THE CHAGING FLOOR PLATES
IN THE STRUCTURE
CONNECTION OF THE SPIRE OF THE BUILDING