October University For Modern Sciences & Arts

Technical Service
System I

Acoustic Research

Done by:
Esraa Abdalla Abbas 152035
Group D
 Sound Criteria & rules

Sound Criteria, Attenuation Techniques and Preventive

Measures to Limit Sound Problems (FA/123-03)
January 22nd, 2004

Sound is a very important consideration in the selection and

application of fans. If not properly evaluated, fan sound can turn an
otherwise completely acceptable application into a disaster. In spite
of this, fan sound continues to be one of the most misunderstood
topics in the air handling industry.
This is the fourth article in a series of four articles on sound. The
topics included may help you better understand how fan sound is
developed, rated, applied and controlled.
Part 1 Understanding the Development of Fan Sound Data and the
Product Line Rating Process (FA/120-02)
Part 2 The Basics of Sound (FA/121-03)
Part 3 Radiated Sound (FA/122-03)
Part 4 Sound Criteria, Attenuation Techniques and Preventive
Measures to Limit Sound Problems (FA/123-03)
This article contains descriptions of the most common sound criteria
and the approaches used to attenuate sound if the criteria is not
satisfied. Also included are some common sense approaches to
making sure the likelihood of sound problems are minimized.
Fan sound ratings are usually provided on a sound power level
basis in each of eight octave bands. It has been emphasized that
these ratings are independent of distance and environment not only
of the source, but also the listener. Sound power also cannot be
measure directly by instrumentation.
On the surface this would seem to be a contradiction since
instrumentation as well as our ears react to changes insound
pressure levels. Because instrumentation only measures sound
pressure levels, all sound criteria is provided on a sound pressure
level basis. Otherwise, how would you be able to determine whether
sound levels are satisfactory or whether attenuation is necessary to
either silence the source or acoustically treat the environment?
The success of calculating sound pressure levels from sound power
levels varies considerably depending upon the sensitivity of the
application. Sound pressure level predictions for a library or music
concert hall should be performed by an acoustical consultant. Non-
critical applications such as a gymnasium, kitchen, etc. may use
simplified approaches including “default assumptions” allowing use
of some sound pressure levels contained in catalogs. (Part 2 of this
series illustrates simplified calculations for converting sound power
to sound pressure.)

Simplified Sound Pressure Level Criteria

The following sections describe several different criteria used to
evaluate the acceptability of sound pressure levels.

Duration/Day Sound Level

Hours dBA
8 90
6 92
4 95
3 97
2 100
1.5 102
1 105
0.5 110
0.25 115
1. OSHA permissible noise exposure
Sound power levels can be converted to sound pressure levels in
each of eight octave bands. These sound pressure levels can then
be “A weighted” and combined into a single dBA sound pressure
level number. This process is covered in Part 2 of this series. OSHA
Standards are a means of limiting exposure to various dBA sound
levels so that loss of hearing does not occur. The following table
illustrates the number of hours per day allowed for a specific dBA
level.
Many specifications assume the strictest interpretation by specifying
a maximum of 90 dBA. In reality, it is very unlikely that a person will
spend a full eight hour day at any one level. The combined effect
should be considered rather than the individual effect of each
exposure. Also keep in mind that this is the exposure the listener
experiences at the dBA level indicated, not the dBA level of the fan
that may be located someplace else. Some specifications specify
that the fan must reach a dBA level from the table knowing that the
listener will be at another location removed from the source.
 Typical NC values

Application NC Curve

Conference rooms 25 - 35

Hospitals / Libraries 30 - 40

General offices 35 - 45

Factories 50 - 70

2. Recommended noise criteria (NC levels)

Sound pressure levels in each of eight octave bands at a specified
distance from the source may be plotted on a Noise Criteria chart.
This chart automatically compensates for any “AWeighting” due to
the shape of the NC curves being higher in the lower octave bands.
The maximum penetration of any one NC curve is the NC level for
that sound spectrum. Typical NC values are tabulated for reference.
An NC chart is also illustrated for reference.

Please keep in mind that the

sound pressure level spectrum
must correspond to that in the
actual application. In other
words, it is not appropriate to
apply a NC criteria for an office
to a fan located in an
equipment room without
considering the characteristics
of the ductwork and other
acoustical considerations.

3. Room criteria (RC)

Another sound pressure level
criteria is used to evaluate
HVAC systems as a whole, not
components such as a fan. The main difference between NC and
RC curves is an emphasis on the lower frequencies (16 Hz, 31.5 Hz)
and not the higher frequencies (8 KHz). These curves represent a
well-balanced neutral type of system. There are descriptors that
identify the perception of the sound as low frequency “rumble”, mid
frequency “roar” and high frequency “hiss”. The sound pressure
level spectrum is plotted on the RC curves in a manner similar to the
NC curves.
4. Sone criteria
Non-ducted fans such as propeller fans often have sound presented
in sones. The most definitive criteria for sones is contained in AMCA
Publication 302, Application of Sones Ratings. A table is contained
in this document titled, Suggested Limits for Room Loudness. Again,
these limits are not for fan sones, but sones present at the location
of a listener in a room. Fan sones are given at a distance of five feet
from the fan, but this may not match the actual application. The
limits are given in a range of sones for a particular location such as
a hotel lobby (4 to 12 sones). This emphasizes the subjective nature
of sound in that not all people find a particular sone level
objectionable. The sone range given in some applications is
sometimes quite large.
Attenuation Techniques

When the sound is louder than the allowable criteria, then some
form of attenuation technique must be used to reduce the sound to
acceptable levels. It is critical to determine the source of the
objectionable sound and the path it is taking to reach the listener.
This establishes the attenuation technique because in all instances,
the sound path to the listener must be interrupted to reduce the
sound level being experienced.
In general, there are four major sound paths to a listener and each
sound path has its own most practical approach to attenuating the
sound.
Sound Path #1 Airborne sound from a fan inlet or outlet
radiating directly into the atmosphere
Typical attenuation: Select the quietest fan available for the
intended service. This typically requires larger, lower speed, higher
efficiency fan designs. Install acoustical barriers, acoustical louvers
or create an acoustical plenum through treatment of walls, ceiling,
etc. Install the equipment in an equipment room isolated from
sensitive areas. An attenuator can be mounted directly upon an inlet
or outlet, but the pressure losses through the attenuator or resulting
system effect can be substantial. Some reduction in attenuation from
catalog values will also result.
Sound Path #2 Airborne sound from a fan inlet or outlet
traveling through a duct system
Typical attenuation: Select the quietest fan available for the
intended service. This typically requires larger, lower speed, higher
efficiency fan designs. Acoustically line the ductwork with duct liner.
Insert dissipative attenuators into the ductwork making sure
pressure drops and self-generated noise have been considered and
taken into account. Dissipative attenuators incorporate absorptive
material into their construction. There are also reactive attenuators
that do not use absorptive material but are tuned by wavelength,
and thusly are effective over a narrower frequency range. Active
attenuators utilize electronics to reduce sound by creating sound
opposite in phase to the offending sound. This cancels the offending
sound. This technique is good when a narrow frequency range is
present such as a tone like the blade frequency or a rumble due to
air rolling over itself. This technique is used for lower frequencies up
to 250 Hz.
Sound Path #3 Casing
radiated sound
Typical Attenuation: The
fan casing itself forms the
first layer of attenuation
assuming there are no
flanking paths through the
ductwork or flex
connections. This is
called a transmission loss
and is a function of the
type of material and its
thickness. Additional
attenuation can be obtained using leaded vinyl coverings. This is
typically expensive on a per square foot basis and attenuates only
the higher frequencies. The most effective attenuation technique is
to place an enclosure such as the Greenheck Sound Vault around
the fan. This type of enclosure is designed to reduce sound in all
octave bands and attenuates motor drive noise as well as the fan
sound. The flex connections are inside the enclosure so that break
out noise is not a consideration. Special attenuated air passages
allow for motor cooling. NC levels down to 35 are possible using this
approach.
Sound Path #4 Structureborne sound
Typical Attenuation: Structureborne sound paths can usually be
interrupted quite efficiently by using flex connections on the fan inlet
and outlet and isolators under the fan. Isolators may be elastomeric
for lighter fan equipment or springs for larger equipment. Isolation
bases in combination with inertia bases can obtain 95% efficiency
levels.
Preventive Measures to Limit Sound Problems
There are several common sense approaches which can be used to
minimize the likelihood of a sound problem. Some of these include:
 Select the quietest fan for the application. The lower the
sound at the source, the lower the sound at the listener.
 Establish the location of all low sound requirements and
what levels are required under what operating times and
under what operating conditions. Establish the appropriate
sound criteria that applies to the application.
 Obtain sound power or pressure values in each of the
eight octave bands and compare them to generally accepted
criteria. Determine whether there is a likely problem right in
the beginning.
 Establish and follow a
 For each sound path look for locations that may result in
system effects at the fan inlet or outlet, result in excessive
turbulence within the ductwork, or short circuits that would
cause unwanted sound ll possible sound paths that exist for
the sound to travel from the source to the listener. to leak
from one location to another. Look for excessive velocities
and/or pressure losses. Make sure areas requiring low sound
are not located adjacent to loud sound sources. Locate
storerooms or lavatories between loud sound sources and
the listener.
Summary

If there is a question about sound requirements and whether they

are being met, contact a sound consultant or expert in addition to
other authorities or personnel who need to be made aware. It is
always better to address problems up front so that a plan of
corrective action can be instituted. Once the equipment is installed,
it is often too late and too expensive to do much about it.

Methods of calculation of sound SPL

This article was written by Mike Bannon & Frank Kaputa

 Pretend for a moment you are Albert Einstein in
1905. You are working diligently on your soon-to-be five famous papers.  Your
ideas are about to turn the physics world on its head. In your papers you
introduce the world for the first time to light quanta, later to be renamed photons.
You propose a mathematical way to determine the size of atoms when their very
existence was still in question. You provide an explanation for Brownian motion:
that microscopic materials are moving in liquids because they are being
bombarded by millions of molecules. You upend Newton’s belief of absolute
space and time by proposing that time slows when acceleration is increased. And
most importantly, you introduce the world to the most eloquent formula in human
history: E=mc2.

In 1905 Einstein achieved more in one year than most physicists achieve in a
lifetime. Years later he would rise to his pinnacle by giving the world a better
understanding of gravity in his general theory of relativity.  With all this great
achievement, Einstein was plagued with an insecurity.  For most of his adult life,
Einstein complained that he didn’t know enough math.  On his death bed on April
17, 1955 he half-jokingly said to his son Hans Albert, “If only I had more
mathematics.” Before Einstein finished his General Theory of Relativity,
mathematician Tullio Levi-Civita had to help Einstein with his tensor calculus.

When it comes to sound pressure our intention is not to let you suffer with the
same math insecurities Einstein had. We want to make it easy for you to become
a sound pressure mathematical genius. Below you find sound pressure math
explained in an easy-to-learn fashion that will make you an authority on sound
pressure math. Imagine if someone had laid out tensor calculus for Einstein this
way. He may have finished his theory of relativity years earlier. Now let us dive
into the wonderful world of pascals, decibels, and other units and see how they
relate to sound.

Sound Pressure

When people talk of sound level, they usually refer to it in decibels.  This may be
when thinking about OSHA requirements, how loud a rock band is, jet engines,
or town ordinances. So what are decibels?  To answer that, let us first look at
sound pressure.   Sound is measured by changes in air pressure.  The louder a
sound is, the larger the change in air pressure is.  The change here is the change
from normal atmospheric pressure to the pressure disturbance made by the
sound.  This change in pressure can be measured by handheld devices or
computers with special microphones.

Sound pressure is usually measured in pascals, which is an SI (metric) unit.  A

pascal (symbol Pa) is equal to a force of one newton per square meter.  A pascal
is “small” compared to some of the pressure units one may be familiar with, such
as pounds per square inch.  For instance, a tire pressure of 35 pounds per
square inch is equal to about 241,000 pascals, or about 241 kilopascals. The
smallest sound pressure a human ear can hear is 20 micropascals (0.000020
Pa).  Writing this is scientific notation is convenient: 2.0×10-5 Pa.  Remember
this number – we will use this later as a reference.

The following table shows typical sound pressures of some recognizable things:
Source Sound Pressure (Pa)

Leaf rustling 0.0000632

Normal conversation 0.01

TV set at home 0.02

Passenger car as heard from roadside 0.1

 Jack hammer 2.0

Jet engine as heard from 100 yards 100

Extremely loud rock band 200

Jet engine as heard from 1 yard 630

As you can see, these numbers range from very small ones, with four zeroes
after the decimal point, to numbers in the hundreds. To make working with this
range of numbers more manageable, a special logarithmic scale has been
devised.

The Decibel

To refresh your memory, a logarithm function is the inverse of the exponent

function. Examples of exponents are:

10 = 100
2 

103 = 1000
10-1 = 0.1
The inverse of this, the logarithm function (log10), is as follows:

log (100) = 2
10

log (1000) = 3
10

log (0.1) = -1
10

The last equation can be spoken as, “the log base 10 of 0.1 equals -1.” The
decibel unit (symbol dB) is a logarithmic unit expressing the ratio between two
values. The decibel was named in honor of the famous scientist Alexander
Graham Bell (1847-1922). When measuring sound, we use the following
logarithmic formula to determine the sound pressure level (SPL) in decibels.
Here p is the sound pressure we are measuring, and Pref is our reference, the
pressure of the smallest sound we can hear, 2.0×10  Pa (you remembered this,
-5

right?). For example, if we measure a sound pressure of 0.4 Pa, we can

determine the SPL in dB:

So a pressure change of 0.4 Pa equates to about 86 dB. In case you do not want
to do the math on all of our examples above, here is that same table, now
including sound pressure level.

Source Sound Pressure (Pa) Sound Pressure Level (dB)

Leaf rustling 0.0000632 10

Normal conversation 0.01 54

TV set at home 0.02 60

Passenger car as heard from roadside 0.1 74

Jack hammer 2.0 100

Jet engine as heard from 100 yards 100 134

Extremely loud rock band 200 140

Jet engine as heard from 1 yard 630 150

As you can see, we now have a range of numbers that seems more convenient –
from 10 to 150 – instead of a range from a very, very, small number to a number
in the hundreds. If you played around with the formula and plugged different
pressure values in, you might notice that for every increase of 20 dB, the sound
pressure has increased 10 times. That is because the scale with decibels is not
linear, but rather logarithmic. That is a trade-off for using convenient numbers
instead of the range from very small to very large ones.

Fortunately for us, the devices that measure sound pressure level do the math
for us, and give us the sound pressure level in decibels.  Hopefully, this paper will
give you a feel for the relationship of pressure and decibels, and an
understanding of the logarithmic scale of decibels to aid you in your sound-
related endeavors.  We know Einstein would have enjoyed it!

How to measure Reverberation time

experimentally ?
What Is Reverberation Time?

When sound is produced in a room or other enclosed space echoes build up.
This is called reverberation. When the sound source is removed, the echoing
sound is absorbed by the surroundings and the sound level decays.

The reverberation time (or RT60) describes the time it takes for the sound to
decay by 60 dB after the sound source is removed.

The reverb time is affected by the size and shape of the room, the building
materials and techniques used and all objects (including people) within the room.
Long reverberation times can make speech unintelligible, short reverberation
times can make music sound "dead". The ideal reverb time depends on the size
and intended use of the space.

How to measure reverberation time?

Reverberation time is defined as the length of time required for sound to decay 60
decibels from its initial level. Classrooms should have reverberation times in the range of
0.4-0.6 seconds, but many existing classrooms have reverberation times of 1 second or
more. In such cases, the teacher is competing against the lingering reflections of his or
her own voice for the student's attention. The result is a chaotic jumble of sounds.

There are two ways to determine reverberation time: 1) to measure it with a meter or 2) to
estimate it. If you want to actually measure reverberation time, you'll need to hire
an acoustical consultant. But, you can make a fairly simple estimate for the classrooms
you suspect are problems. The following section from the booklet Classroom Acoustics
describes the procedure.

Don't be intimidated by the math. If you don't understand the procedure, someone at your
school or high school math department should be able to do the calculations for you if
you take the room measurements described below (the following is from Classroom
Acoustics I):

REVERBERATION TIME

Over 100 years ago, a Harvard physics professor named Wallace Clement Sabine
developed the first equation for reverberation time, which has since been named after him
and is still used today. Reverberation time is defined as the length of time required for
sound to decay 60 dB from its initial level. Sabine’s simple formula is:

where:

RT(60) = reverberation time (sec) 

V = room volume (ft3 ) 
S = surface area (ft 2 ) 
 = absorption coefficient of material(s) at given frequency 
 indicates the summation of S times ? for all room surfaces

To use this formula, the volume of the room, surface area of each material in the room,
and absorption coefficients for those materials must be known. Absorption coefficients
are measured in specialized laboratories, and represent the fraction of sound energy (not
sound level-dB) the material will absorb as a decimal from 0 to 1. Figure 15 gives
absorption coefficients for common classroom materials.
A commonly used one-number rating called NRC, Noise Reduction Coefficient, is
simply the average of the absorption coefficients at 250, 500, 1000, and 2000 Hz. This
simple, one-number rating can be useful for comparing the relative absorption of two
materials; however, examining absorption coefficients in each octave band gives a better
idea of the performance of a material at various frequencies.

Reverberation time is often calculated with the room unoccupied. Since people and their
clothing provide additional sound absorption, an unoccupied room is the worst-case
scenario, though not an unreasonable one, since occupancy of most classrooms varies. In
a complete analysis, this calculation should be performed for each octave band, as the RT
can vary widely at different frequencies. However, for a quick estimate, the RT of a
classroom can be calculated for just one octave band representative of speech
frequencies, such as 1000 Hz. If this RT is acceptable, then the RT throughout the speech
range will likely be acceptable.

To demonstrate the use of the Sabine equation, Figure 16 provides an example

calculation of the RT at 500 Hz for the acoustically poor classroom example given in
Figure 10a. Try calculating the RT at 500 Hz of the acoustically satisfactory classroom in
Figure 10b with only a sound-absorbing ceiling added. Note that the ceiling is lower in
that example, so the volume and surface areas will change. The RT of the satisfactory
classroom is approximately 0.4 seconds.
 
Measuring Reverberation Time - Interrupted Method

Before measuring the reverberation time a source of noise must be introduced,

and then removed. A pink noise source is usually used for this purpose.

As defined above, the RT60 is the time taken for the sound to decay by 60 dB
when the source is removed. In a real environment this can be difficult to
achieve, so it is more common to use the RT30 or RT20. These are based on the
time taken for the sound to decay by either 30 or 20 dB respectively, and this is
then extrapolated to 60 dB.

When measuring the RT30 or RT20 the sound level meter should ignore the first
5 dB of decay. As you should also avoid measuring any lower than 10 to 15 dB
above the background noise, it means that your noise source should be at least
45 dB above background for RT30 and 35 dB above background for RT20. It is
for this reason that RT60 is difficult to measure directly, as the background noise
would have to be low and the noise source exceptionally high.

The P33 Real-Time Analyzer has an option that enables it to measure the RT30

and RT20 in the octave or 1/3 octave bands and produce instant results. The
meter will first measure the background noise, then the levels with the noise
source switched on, so that you can ensure that it is at least 45 dB above
background. It will then measure and display the RT30 and RT20 figures.
 ACOUSTIC PANELS
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 Loudspeakers Arrangement systems

Real-World Delay System Example:

The goal in a complicated system with loudspeakers distributed throughout the venue
is to delay each satellite system to its counterpart in the main system (e.g., the left
front fill to the left front-of-house loudspeaker).

 Delay the main system relative to the source on stage. On small stages where
the guitar amp and drum kit can be clearly heard above the front-of-house
(FOH) loudspeaker system, delaying the main system can “move up” the
backline so that it aligns with these instruments and decreases blurring in the
mix. This will tighten the overall mix and give it more punch.
 Delay the front fills relative to the main system by delaying each side of the
system independently (e.g., delay the left front fill to the left FOH loudspeaker).
 Delay subwoofers relative to the main system. How you do this will depend on
how your subwoofer system is positioned and configured. In general, you will
want to delay each subwoofer relative to the full-range loudspeaker closest to it.
 Delay down-fill speakers (upper and under balcony) relative to the main
system, again delaying each side of the system independently.
Stereo System
A stereo system allows panning and adds depth to the acoustic image. This is
good for speech reinforcement and greatly enhances live or pre-recorded music.
Locate speakers to give the best horizontal coverage. Ensure that the listeners
are well covered by the pattern.
References :

 http://www.greenheck.com/library/articles/60
 https://www.thermaxxjackets.com/sound-pressure-math/
 https://www.noisemeters.com/help/faq/reverb-time.asp
 http://www.quietclassrooms.org/library/test2.htm
 https://www.slideshare.net/shahzeb163/acoustical-materials
 http://www.presonus.com/learn/technical-articles/configure-your-pa