Course Name: Biostatistics (207)

2. Data and Variables Part

 What is data? What do you know biostatistical data?

A set of values recorded for an event is called data. The data collected for statistical analysis do
not consist of observations that are identical, they are variable in nature.
Quantitative figures are known as data. Statistics is the science which deals with the
 Collection of data
 Organization of data or Classification of data
 Presentation of data
 Analysis of data
 Interpretation of data
Data and statistics are not same as used commonly.
Different characteristics that take different values in different persons, places and things, or the
characteristics and properties, we wish to observe by members of a group (sample) which differ
from one another are called “Variables” in statistics. All the information regarding all the
variables in the study is called data.
Variability is a common characteristic in biological Sciences. A quantitative or qualitative
characteristic that varies from observation to observation in the same group is called a variable.

When a set of data is collected by personal investigation from the original source or by
performing some experiment is called primary data.
When the data collected by some other sources and is used after some processing for
further analysis then the data is called secondary data.

 There are two main types of data:

Qualitative Data: The character of a population which cannot be numerically expressed such as
colour of flower, nature of seed coat, etc., are called qualitative data.

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It is a variable or characteristic which cannot be measured in quantitative form but can only be
identified by name or categories, for instance place of birth, ethnic group, type of drug, stages
of breast cancer (I, II, III, or IV), degree of pain (minimal, moderate, severe or unbearable).

Quantitative Data: The magnitude of any character which can be numerically measured is
called quantitative data. A quantitative variable is one that can be measured and expressed
numerically and it can be either discrete or continuous.

 The quantitative data may be of two types:

Continuous: When the values of variate do not exhibit any break, such as height of plant during
growth.

Discrete: When the values of variate vary by positive or negative jumps, such as the yield of rice
in different plots after application of particular treatment or fertilizer application.

Although the types of variables could be broadly divided into categorical (qualitative) and
numerical (quantitative), it has been a common practice to see four basic types of data (scales
of measurement).

Nominal data
Ordinal data
Interval data
Ratio data

 Briefly discuss presentation of data by frequency table and by the graphical

representation?

The following points highlight the top two ways of representing data. The ways are:
1. Tabular Representation of Data
2. Graphic Representation of Data.
Tabular Representation of Data: Tabulation is a process of orderly arrangement of data into
series or rows or columns, where they can be read at a glance. This process may be called as

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summarisation of data in an orderly manner within a limited space. It helps in simplifying the
raw data, comparison can be done easily, reveals the pattern of distribution of any attribute,
detects the omissions and errors.

Two types of table Tabular representation data…

1. Simple Table
2. Complex Table
Graphic Representation of Data: The quantitative and continuous data can be represented
graphically by using the following diagrams:
 Histogram  Dot diagram
 Frequency polygon  Line diagram
 Frequency curve  Bar diagram
 Cumulative frequency curve  Pie-chart

Collection of data

 Data can be collected by using sampling methods or experiments.

Data:

 The information collected through censuses and surveys or in a

routine manner or other sources is called a raw data. When the raw
data are grouped into groups or classes, they are known as grouped

data.

There are two types of data

1. Primary data
2. Secondary data

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 Primary data Collection

When a set of data is collected by personal investigation from the original

source or by performing some experiment is called primary data.

Or, The data which is collected by actual observation or measurement or

count is called primary data.
Methods of collection of primary data:
Primary data is collected in any one of the following methods

1. Direct personal interviews.

2. Indirect oral interviews
3. Information from correspondents.
4. Mailed questionnaire method.
5. Schedules sent through enumerators.

Direct personal interviews

The persons from whom information are collected are known as

informants or respondents. The investigator personally meets them
and asks questions to gather the necessary information.
It is likely to be very costly and time consuming if the number of persons
to be interviewed is large and the persons are spread over a wide area.

Indirect oral interviews

1. Under this method, the investigator contacts witnesses or

neighbors or friends or some other third parties who are capable of
supplying the necessary information.

Information from correspondents:

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 2. The investigator appoints local agents or correspondents in
different places and compiles the information sent by them.

Mailed Questionnaire method

3. Under this method a list of questions is prepared and is sent to

all the informants by post. The list of questions is technically called
questionnaire.

Schedules sent through enumerators:

4. Under this method, enumerators or interviewers take the

schedules, meet the informants and fill in their replies. A schedule is
filled by the interviewer in a face to face situation with the informant.

Secondary data Collection

When the data collected by some other sources and is used after some

processing for further analysis then the data is called secondary

data.

 The data which are compiled from the records of others is called

secondary data.

 The data collected by an individual or his agents is primary data for

him and secondary data for all others. The secondary data are less

expensive but it may not give all the necessary information.

 Secondary data can be compiled either from published sources or from

unpublished sources.

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Sources of published data:

1. Official publications of the central, state and local governments.

2. Reports of committees and commissions.

3. Publications brought about by research workers and educational

associations.

4. Trade and technical journals.

5. Report and publications of trade associations, chambers of commerce,

bank etc.

6. Official publications of foreign governments or international bodies

like U.N.O, UNESCO etc.

Sources of unpublished data:

 All statistical data are not published. For example, village level

officials maintain records regarding area under crop, crop

production etc. They collect details for administrative purposes.

Similarly details collected by private organizations regarding

persons, profit, sales etc become secondary data and are used in

certain surveys.

Characteristics of secondary data:

 The secondary data should posses the following characteristics.

They should be reliable, adequate, suitable, accurate, complete and

consistent.

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 Difference between Primary and secondary data

Primary Data Secondary Data

Primary data are original because Secondary data are not original

1. Original data investigation himself collects them. since investigator makes use of
the other agencies.

2. Suitability If these data are collected These might or might not suit
accurately and systematically their the objectives of enquiry.
suitability will be very positive.

3. Time and labour These data involve large expenses in These data are relatively less
terms of money, time and costly.
manpower

4. Precaution don’t need any great precaution These should be used with
while using these data. great care and caution.

Simple Random Sampling: Definition & Methods

What is simple random sampling?

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Definition: Simple random sampling is defined as a sampling technique where every item in the
population has an even chance and likelihood of being selected in the sample. Here the
selection of items entirely depends on luck or probability, and therefore this sampling
technique is also sometimes known as a method of chances. 
Simple random sampling is a fundamental sampling method and can easily be a component of a
more complex sampling method. The main attribute of this sampling method is that every
sample has the same probability of being chosen.

Simple random sampling methods

Researchers follow these methods to select a simple random sample:
1. They prepare a list of all the population members initially, and then each member is
marked with a specific number ( for example, there are nth members, then they will be
numbered from 1 to N).
2. From this population, researchers choose random samples using two ways: random
number tables and random number generator software. Researchers prefer a random
number generator software, as no human interference is necessary to generate
samples.

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 Sampling Techniques:

What is Random Sampling & Method/Techniques?

Random sampling, or probability sampling, is a sampling method that allows for the
randomization of sample selection, i.e., each sample has the same probability as other samples
to be selected to serve as a representation of an entire population.

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Random sampling is considered one of the most popular and simple data collection methods in
research fields (probability and statistics, mathematics, etc.). It allows for unbiased data
collection, which lets studies arrive at unbiased conclusions.

Types of Random Sampling Methods

There are four primary, random (probability) sampling methods. These methods are:
1. Simple random sampling
2. Systematic random sampling
3. Stratified random sampling

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 4. Cluster sampling

1. Simple random sampling

Simple random sampling is the randomized selection of a small segment of individuals or
members from a whole population. It provides each individual or member of a population with
an equal and fair probability of being chosen. The simple random sampling method is one of
the most convenient and simple sample selection techniques.

2. Systematic sampling
Systematic sampling is the selection of specific individuals or members from an entire
population. The selection often follows a predetermined interval (k). The systematic sampling
method is comparable to the simple random sampling method; however, it is less complicated
to conduct.

3. Stratified sampling
Stratified sampling, which includes the partitioning of a population into subclasses with notable
distinctions and variances. The stratified sampling method is useful, as it allows the researcher
to make more reliable and informed conclusions by confirming that each respective subclass
has been adequately represented in the selected sample.

4. Cluster sampling
Cluster sampling, which, similar to the stratified sampling method, includes dividing a
population into subclasses. Each of the subclasses should portray comparable characteristics to
the entire selected sample. This method entails the random selection of a whole subclass, as
opposed to the sampling of members from each subclass. This method is ideal for studies that
involve widely spread populations.

Population and Sample:

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If one had to count the number of Rhododendron plants in the hills of Darjeeling then it is
practically impossible to do it. In such case, smaller pockets are taken which bears
characteristics of the Darjeeling hills and subsequently survey can be made. Thus, Darjeeling
hills is the population and smaller pockets taken are the samples. So, samples are true
representative of the population.

Random Sampling:
Collection of data unbiasedly. Selection is done purely on chance occurrence only. Size of the
sample is very essential for accuracy. Bigger size sample gives more accuracy; however,
unmanageable size is often unnecessary.

Thanks For Reading

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