Sustainability 12 07154 v2

sustainability
Article
Form and Function in Two Traditional Markets of
the Middle East: Souq Mutrah and Souq Waqif
Mark David Major * and Heba O. Tannous
Department of Architecture and Urban Planning, College of Engineering, Qatar University, Doha 2713, Qatar;
heba.tannous@qu.edu.qa
* Correspondence: m.major@qu.edu.qa; Tel.: +974-3136-0842

Received: 7 July 2020; Accepted: 24 July 2020; Published: 2 September 2020
Abstract: This paper presents some of the findings of a study comparing the form and function of
two traditional markets on the Arabian Peninsula: Souq Mutrah in Muscat, Oman, and Souq Waqif
in Doha, Qatar. Globalization and rapid urbanization characterize both Doha and Muscat, which
share similar historical origins as coastal settlements despite stark differences in topography; Oman
is mountainous, whereas Qatar is flat. We investigate the urban morphology, land use and function of
the two souqs using several representational techniques typical of morphological research, including
space syntax analysis. The purpose is to develop a deeper understanding of (1) the evolution of space
and form in these marketplaces over time, and (2) the possible implications for their functioning
as urban places. The analysis demonstrates the critical importance of the contextual relations at
the macro- and micro-scale of the urban environment for understanding the complex nature of these
souqs as places today, helping to deepen our knowledge about traditional markets in the Middle East.
Keywords: land use; markets; morphology; topography; urban studies
1. Introduction
The economic viability and social sustainability of traditional marketplaces or ‘souqs’ is a
hot-button issue in cities undergoing globalization and rapid urbanization in the Arabian/Persian Gulf
and broader Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region. MENA is an acronym lacking standard
definition. Generally, it refers to the vast region stretching east-to-west from Iran to morocco and
roughly synonymous with the Arab World. The following is a list of commonly-included countries:
Algeria, Bahrain, Egypt, Iran, Iraq, Palestine, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, morocco, Oman, Qatar,
Saudi Arabia, Syria, Tunisia, the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and Yemen. Different organizations
sometimes include Turkey, Cyprus, Northern Cyprus, Sudan, Mauritania, Somalia and Chad as part
of MENA as well.
The loss of traditional urban fabric to contemporary development in many of the cities in these
countries ties together issues of urban morphogenesis and the socio-economic sustainability of souqs.
Space syntax theory and methods seem well-suited to objectively investigate the connection between
urban morphology, evolution and the performance of these traditional marketplaces in the past,
present and future. We utilize space syntax modeling techniques in this paper to contextualize two
traditional souqs within their metropolitan region to describe the spatial processes at work in the
urban street network. Such an approach can help us to tailor potential interventions based on the
objective parameters of network science, making a sensitive link between the morphological evolution
of traditional marketplaces in cities and their long-term economic sustainability as urban places.
In human history, marketplaces have played a critical role in the economic, political and
social evolution of many settlements, from the agora and forum of the Ancient Greco-Roman
World to Middle Eastern souqs and medieval European bastide towns to contemporary strip and
Sustainability 2020, 12, 7154; doi:10.3390/su12177154 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

x FOR PEER REVIEW
Sustainability 2020, 12, 7154 2 of 19
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Middle Eastern souqs and Medieval European bastide towns to contemporary strip and shopping
shopping malls. marketplaces
malls. Marketplaces often serveoften servepoint
as a focal as a focal
in thepoint in the
physical andphysical
spatial and spatial
structure of structure of
settlements
settlements around the world, including the Arabian Peninsula. The Arabian Peninsula
around the world, including the Arabian Peninsula. The Arabian Peninsula consists of six countries consists of
six countries
forming forming
the Gulf the GulfCouncil
Cooperation Cooperation Council (GCC)—Bahrain,
(GCC)—Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman,Kuwait, Oman,
Qatar, Saudi Qatar,and
Arabia Saudi
the
Arabia 2
United Arab Emirates (UAE)—encompassing about 3.2 million square kilometers (km ) (Figure 1).)
and the United Arab Emirates (UAE)—encompassing about 3.2 million square kilometers
2 (km
(Figure 1). The
The Levant and Levant and Arabian/Persian
Arabian/Persian Gulf define theGulfpeninsula
define theto peninsula to the
the north and north and
northeast, northeast,
respectively.
respectively. The Levant
The Levant refers refers
to a large to in
area a large area in Mediterranean,
the Eastern the Eastern mediterranean,
primarily inprimarily
Western in Western
Asia Asia
associated
associated with the Ancient Near East, consisting of Cyprus, Jordan, Lebanon, Palestine
with the Ancient Near East, consisting of Cyprus, Jordan, Lebanon, Palestine and Syria today. The and Syria
today.
Indian The
OceanIndian Ocean
borders the borders
peninsula thetopeninsula
the southtoandthe the
south
RedandSeathe
to Red Sea toDiverse
the west. the west. Diverse
geography
geography
characterizes the Arabian Peninsula, ranging from a vast central plateau to the stony desert desert
characterizes the Arabian Peninsula, ranging from a vast central plateau to the stony in the
in the north,
north, dunes dunes
to the to theand
east eastcoastlands
and coastlands thatresplendent
that are are resplendent
with with
coral coral
reefs reefs
in theinRed
the Red Sea
Sea and
and mountains
mountains in Oman
in Oman and and Yemen
Yemen to southeast.
to the the southeast.
Figure 1.
Figure 1. Map
Map showing
showing the
the Gulf
Gulf Cooperation
Cooperation Council
Council (GCC)
(GCC) countries
countries in
in black,
black, with
with Qatar
Qatar and
and Oman
Oman
highlighted in red.
highlighted in red.
Traditional
Traditional marketplaces
marketplaces (souq

(souq ““‫)”ﺳﻮق‬
ñ”) inin Arabic-speaking
Arabic-speaking countries
countries date
date back
back to
to at least the 6th
Century BCE BCE[1].[1].Generally,
Generally,souqs
souqsare are publicly-accessible
publicly-accessible pedestrian
pedestrian markets
markets withwith arcades,
arcades, plazas
plazas and
and numerous
numerous shopsshops
where where
peoplepeople regularly
regularly gathergather to purchase
to purchase and selland sell goods,
goods, socialize
socialize and walk.
and walk. Some
Some
are are street-oriented
street-oriented retail Others
retail areas. areas. Others are covered,
are covered, outdooroutdoor
or indoor. or Some
indoor.areSome are permanent,
permanent, whereas
whereas
others areothers are temporary.
temporary. There is noThere is no universally
universally agreed definition.
agreed definition.
Initially located
located outside
outsidecity
citywalls,
walls,souqs
souqsshifted
shiftedtotocity centers
city centersas as
urban populations
urban populations grew.grew.In
Islamic
In Islamiccountries, thethe
countries, Friday mosque
Friday usually
mosque forms
usually the heart
forms of the
the heart ofsettlement, with with
the settlement, an adjacent souq
an adjacent
serving
souq as anasimportant
serving an important facility to to
facility support
support people’s
people’sdaily
dailyactivities.
activities.Friday
Fridayprayer
prayer hashas great
significance. The Qur’an
Qur’an invokes
invokes the
the importance
importance of Friday as a sacred day for worship when people
gather and pray together in the main mosque. The The term
term souq
souq possesses
possesses many alternatives in different
parts of the world, including socco (a corrupted
corrupted Spanish
Spanish term)
term) inin northern
northern Morocco
morocco and
and bazaar
bazaar in
in Iran.
Iran.
Words in
Words in the
the Arabic
Arabic language
language tend
tend to
to be more expansive
expansive in meaning, but we attempt to explain these
terms in English. The paper tends to use the Arabic word, souq. The The word
word bazaar
bazaar also
also tends
tends to identify
identify
areas of a souq selling specialized goods, goods, such
such as the ‘spice
‘spice bazaar’ and ‘textile bazaar’ in the Old City
of Jerusalem. However,
However, locals often use the word word souq similarly,
similarly, so there is a souq within a souq, i.e., i.e.,
the Gold Souq.
The traditional
traditionalmarket
marketofofSouq
SouqWaqif
Waqif emerged
emerged near
near a dry
a dry riverriver
bedbed
knownknown as Wadi
as Wadi Musheireb
musheireb early
early
in thein the founding
founding of Doha,
of Doha, Qatar,Qatar,
in thein the 1820s
1820s [2]. There
[2]. There is evidence
is evidence of communal
of communal activity
activity in theinarea
the
area around
around Muscat,Muscat,
OmanOman datingdating
to theto6th
themillennium
6th Millennium BCE,Greek
BCE, and and Greek geographer
geographer Ptolemy Ptolemy
refers refers
to the
to the suitability
suitability of Muscat
of Muscat as as
as a port a port
earlyasasearly as Century
the 1st the 1st Century CE,itcalling
CE, calling Cryptusit Portus
Cryptus(‘the
Portus (‘the
Hidden
Hidden Port’) [3]. Souq Mutrah in old Muscat dates to the early-to-mid 19th century, when Said bin
Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 19

Port’) [3]. Souq Mutrah in Old Muscat dates to the early-to-mid 19th century, when Said bin Sultan
re-established the naval
Sultan re-established thesupremacy of Muscat
naval supremacy over theover
of Muscat Arabian Gulf in Gulf
the Arabian an alliance with thewith
in an alliance United
the
States
United[4]. Said[4].
States binSaid
Sultan
binwas thewas
Sultan last the
ruler of ruler
last the Omani
of the Empire from 1806–1856.
Omani Empire Both souqs
from 1806–1856. Bothpossess
souqs
apossess
maze-like series of series
a maze-like (mostlyofpedestrian) pathwayspathways
(mostly pedestrian) leading inleading
and outinofand
the out
area.ofThey sell aThey
the area. variety
sellofa
goods and services and attract many different types of users today (Figure 2).
variety of goods and services and attract many different types of users today (Figure 2).
Figure 2.
Figure 2. Interior
Interior and
and aerial
aerial views
views of
of the
the (top)
(top) Souq
Souq Mutrah
Mutrah in
in Muscat
Muscat and
and (bottom)
(bottom) Souq
Souq Waqif in
Waqif in
Doha [5].
Doha [5].
Many people
Many people leftleft the
the old
old city
city centers
centers during
during the the initial
initial stages
stages ofof globalization,
globalization, rapid rapid urbanization
urbanization
and economic
and economicdevelopment
developmentofofthe cities
the in the
cities Arabian
in the ArabianPeninsula. It led to
Peninsula. deterioration
It led and neglect
to deterioration and
in many traditional marketplaces despite renewed interest in the inherent
neglect in many traditional marketplaces despite renewed interest in the inherent value of public value of public spaces in
general and heritage preservation of traditional areas in Arab cities in
spaces in general and heritage preservation of traditional areas in Arab cities in particular [5–7]. particular [5–7]. Historically,
the local economics
Historically, the local of supply
economicsand demand
of supply for and
selling produce
demand forgoods drove
selling these traditional
produce goods drove markets.
these
The effects of globalization, international supply chains, market demand
traditional markets. The effects of globalization, international supply chains, market demand and the and the evolution of socio-
cultural characteristics
evolution of socio-cultural in Middle Eastern in
characteristics cities
Middlecontributed
Eastern to a transformation
cities contributed toof traditional souqs.
a transformation of
Many continue to thrive by embracing change, and new uses such as restaurants,
traditional souqs. many continue to thrive by embracing change, and new uses such as restaurants, cafés cafés and souvenir
shops
and cateringshops
souvenir to international tourism. Others
catering to international appear
tourism. diminished.
Others The spaces within
appear diminished. souqswithin
The spaces often
facilitate
souqs a need
often for economic
facilitate a need for exchanges,
economicsocial interactions
exchanges, socialand unplanned
interactions and encounters
unplanned inencounters
communal
life among a diverse range of users. Such places can generate civic value
in communal life among a diverse range of users. Such places can generate civic value in support of in support of community
cohesion andcohesion
community enhanceand the enhance
quality of theurban
qualityspace in promoting
of urban space insustainable
promoting cities [6]. cities [6].
sustainable
The complex
The complex role rolethat
thatsouqs
souqsappear
appeartotoplay play asas physical
physical and and cultural
cultural mechanisms
mechanisms in everyday
in everyday life
life of the urban environment is a worthy subject of investigation. This
of the urban environment is a worthy subject of investigation. This paper conducts morphological paper conducts morphological
analysis to
analysis tounderstand
understandbetter better how
how Souq
Souq Mutrah
Mutrah in Muscat
in Muscat and and
SouqSouq
WaqifWaqif
in Doha in responded
Doha respondedas spatialas
spatial objects to the realization and transformation of a multitude
objects to the realization and transformation of a multitude of factors during rapid urban expansionof factors during rapid urban
expansion
over time. over
At itstime.
heart,At theitsfundamental
heart, the fundamental
question of this question
research of is:
thiswhat
research
are the is:morphological
what are the
morphological of
characteristics characteristics
the two souqs, of the
withtwo souqs, question
a subset with a subsetbeing:question
how mightbeing:they
howbe might
alikethey be alike
or different
or different from each other? The scope of this research is multidisciplinary,
from each other? The scope of this research is multidisciplinary, involving aspects of urban studies, involving aspects of
urban studies, architecture, history and other integrated social sciences,
architecture, history and other integrated social sciences, but is also specific to issues of the built but is also specific to issues
of the built environment,
environment, markets and markets
urbanism andin urbanism
the MENA in the MENA
region. Theregion.
goal isThe goal is to understand
to understand both souqs bothas
souqs as urban places beyond mere differences of style, how these
urban places beyond mere differences of style, how these markets fit and operate within their urbanmarkets fit and operate within
their urban context, and attempt to objectively describe these markets as urban places in the history,
function and evolution of Muscat and Doha, respectively.
To answer these questions, we summarize the methodology of the study and its limitations. We
then briefly review the literature about souqs in general, urbanism in the Gulf Region—specifically
context, and attempt to objectively describe these markets as urban places in the history, function and
evolution of Muscat and Doha, respectively.
To answer these questions, we summarize the methodology of the study and its limitations.
We then briefly review the literature about souqs in general, urbanism in the Gulf Region—specifically
with regards to Muscat and Doha—and the historical background and evolution of Souq Mutrah and
Souq Waqif as urban places. We summarize some of the findings of the research into these two souqs.
Finally, the paper concludes by discussing the implications for future research and design interventions
in the traditional urban fabric of Middle Eastern cities.
2. Research Methodology and Limitations

The research focus of this study is the urban morphology of the two souqs within their
immediate and metropolitan urban context. Urban morphology is the study of form in cities,
and the components of the urban tissue, such as streets, squares and other public spaces, that give shape
to the spatial network. morphological research tends to focus on the formation and transformation of
physical cities over time, the spatial pattern of street networks at different scales, and other physical
characteristics that might inform appropriate design interventions in the promotion of sustainable
urban development [8]. Such studies seek to understand the shape, form, arrangement, spatial
structure and character of settlements by identifying the pattern of their components and the process
of their development. This study analyzes the urban morphology of Doha and Muscat by utilizing
several cartographic sources indicating building footprints and street layout, including historical maps
where available.
The methodology of the study aims to identify the key concepts and themes useful for
understanding these souqs, the nature of the users, and how the souqs currently operate within
their immediate context and metropolitan region. We take a generalist, interdisciplinary approach to
the literature to summarize the historical evolution of souqs, and their nature as physical entities and
social experiences of significance in the life of the city. The study includes qualitative descriptions of
historic (where available) and contemporary materials such as maps and photographs to help pull
together the story of Souq Mutrah and Souq Waqif. Time and resources limited the scope of the research.
Other restrictions included a lack of documented resources and map inaccuracies. Researchers made
site visits to Souq Mutrah in march 2019 and Souq Waqif in march, June and September 2019 for data
collection, observations and mapping verification to compensate for these limitations. We had to
utilize multiple methods of qualitative observation within a short time to compare the two souqs under
similar circumstances.
The researchers conducted extensive space syntax modeling of the souqs within their metropolitan
surroundings at various scales, but only briefly summarize the most relevant findings of this analysis
with reference to a previous paper [9]. The purpose is to describe the spatial processes at work in both
cities using space syntax theory and demonstrate the fundamental relationship to their morphological
evolution and long-term sustainability as urban places. Space syntax proves useful for a more in-depth
understanding of the morphological differences between the souqs and their cities in helping to
address a gap in our knowledge about Arabian cities. The study makes extensive use of figure-ground
representations to compare, contrast and analyze the urban form, space, pattern, scale and edge
definitions of the souqs using the poche technique where space is black and blocks/buildings are white.
We created these figure-ground representations based on available maps and satellite imagery [10–16].
3. General Background about Souqs and Gulf Urbanism

According to scholars, a multifunctional core of religious, educational and civic facilities, souqs,
and single-story courtyard houses tends to characterize the oldest Islamic settlements. Components
of this multifunctional core interconnected via narrow streets and passageways. The grand mosque
complex formed the center. markets surrounded the complex, often immediately adjacent to its
entry gates. Entry to the mosque required passing through the souq [17]. In The Image of the City,
Lynch describes Islamic settlements as ‘inward cities’ because they often seem closed and private [18].
The street layout of such settlements seems to consist of a few main streets, many smaller local
routes leading to narrow, blind alleys providing access to the intensely-private entrances of individual
dwelling units. Researchers often use the typological descriptions of public, semi-public, semi-private
and
and private,
private,derived
derivedfromfromAlexander et al.,
Alexander to characterize
et al., the labyrinthine-like
to characterize street pattern
the labyrinthine-like of Islamic
street pattern of
settlements [19] (Figure 3).
Islamic settlements [19] (Figure 3).
Figure 3.
Figure 3. Aerial
Aerial historical
historical photographs
photographs ofof (left)
(left) Old
Old Muscat
Muscat showing
showing thethe Mutrah
Mutrah area
area circa 1900, and
circa 1900, and
(right) Old
(right) Old Doha
Doha showing
showing Souq
Souq Waqif
Waqif in
in the
the 1940s.
1940s. The
The oldest
oldest segment
segment ofof the
the historic
historic spine
spine in
in Souq
Souq
Waqif is discernible due to the larger urban blocks on the left side of the image [20,21].
Waqif is discernible due to the larger urban blocks on the left side of the image [20,21].
However, Major Major et et al.

al.argue
argue using
using space
spacesyntax thatthat
syntax the spatial and social
the spatial logic logic
and social of such of street
such
networks
street is very issophisticated,
networks which they
very sophisticated, whichdescribe
they as hierarchal
describe separation separation
as hierarchal by linear integration
by linear
[22]. They argue
integration [22]. that
They such
arguespatial
thatstructures
such spatial emerge naturally—based
structures on Hillier’s laws
emerge naturally—based onofHillier’s
spatial
emergence—from
laws the restricted random
of spatial emergence—from aggregation
the restricted randomofaggregation
dwelling units following
of dwelling simple
units rules, simple
following which
were first
rules, whichdescribed
were firstbydescribed
Hillier and Hanson
by Hillier about
and HansonEuropean settlements
about European [23,24]. Major
settlements et al.
[23,24]. suggest
Major et al.
that this that
suggest represents a near-universal
this represents plan modelplan
a near-universal in many
model older settlements
in many older of the world,of
settlements especially
the world, in
the Ancient
especially Near
in the East,Near
Ancient more or more
East, less coinciding with with
or less coinciding the modern
the modern MENAMENA region
region[22].
[22].ItIt clearly
clearly
distinguishes between the center, edge and interstitial streets in settlement form without requiring
top-down planning
top-down planningregulation
regulation or or maximizing
maximizing disconnections,
disconnections, as in as in American
American suburban suburban
models.models.
Islamic
Islamic societies
societies merelytwo
merely adopt adopt two additional
additional local rules local rulesthis
during during this restricted
restricted random random
aggregation aggregation
process,
process, governing
governing the locationtheoflocation
dwelling of entrances
dwelling entrances
and windows andoverlooking
windows overlooking
yards, which yards,
giveswhich
rise togives
their
rise to theirpattern
distinctive distinctive pattern
as urban as urban
places over timeplaces over time [22,25].
[22,25].
As traditional marketplaces in the Gulf Region, Souq Mutrah and Souq Waqif share several
similarities. In the same
same way,
way, Muscat and Doha share similarities as coastal coastal settlements
settlements based initially
around the pearling (the practice of diving for pearls) and fishing industries, and later globalization
rapidurbanization.
and rapid urbanization.Both Both countries
countries alsoalso
havehave
shortshort cool,
cool, dry dry winters
winters and longandhot,long
humid hot, humid
summers,
summers,
with averagewith average temperatures
temperatures varying from 12 ◦ C in
varying fromJanuary ◦ C in July.
12 °Ctoin50January to 50However,
°C in July. theHowever,
evolutionary the
evolutionary transformation
transformation of Doha and Muscat of Doha and Muscat
as urban objects as urbaninobjects
differed differed
significant waysinover
significant ways over
time. Nonetheless,
time.souqs
both Nonetheless, both souqs played
played a fundamental role in the a historical
fundamental role in the
development and historical
contemporary development
nature of bothand
contemporary
cities nature
as distinctive of both cities as
socio-economic and distinctive socio-economic
cultural entities [25]. and cultural entities [25].
Like Dubai in the UAE and Riyadh in Saudi Arabia (both growing 15–20 times over in
populationfrom
population from 1965–1995),
1965–1995), MuscatMuscat
and Doha andexperienced
Doha experienced
significantsignificant population
population growth, growth,
demographic
demographic changes, infrastructure development and widespread
changes, infrastructure development and widespread urban expansion over the last half-century urban expansion over the [25].
last
half-century
The newly-formed[25]. The newly-formed
nation-state, nation-state,
land speculation, andland speculation,
political and economic and competition
political andforeconomic
regional
competition
leadership forinfluential
were regional leadership
variables inwereshaping influential variables
globalization in shaping
and rapid globalization
urbanization and [7,26].
in the region rapid
urbanizationurbanization
Large-scale in the regionis[7,26]. Large-scale
a relatively recenturbanization
phenomenon is on
a relatively
the Arabian recent phenomenon
Peninsula compared on theto
Arabian
the rest ofPeninsula
the MENA compared
region and to the world
rest ofinthe MENAHowever,
general. region and theisworld
there a longin general.
record However,
of settlements
there
on theis Arabian
a long record of settlements
Peninsula, perhapsondatingthe Arabian
at least Peninsula,
5000 years perhaps dating at least
ago, especially along5000theyears
coast ago,
of
especially
the along the coast
Arabian/Persian Gulf,ofbutthe atArabian/Persian
a smaller scaleGulf, thanbutin at
the a smaller
AncientscaleNearthan
Eastin[9].
the Ancient Near
In the 1950s,
East [9]. In the 1950s, the northeastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula remained mostly barren
wilderness. However, an entirely different landscape emerged over the last fifty years, mainly
focused around capital cities. Cities in the region experienced three distinctive phases of urban
growth during the Modern Era, beginning with the pre-oil period, then the discovery of oil and rapid
growth, and the current post-oil transition to economic diversity underway in many Arabian cities
the northeastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula remained mostly barren wilderness. However,
an entirely different landscape emerged over the last fifty years, mainly focused around capital cities.
Cities in the region experienced three distinctive phases of urban growth during the modern Era,
beginning with the pre-oil period, then the discovery of oil and rapid growth, and the current post-oil
transition
Sustainabilityto economic
2020, 12, x FORdiversity underway in many Arabian cities [7,25] (Figure 4).
PEER REVIEW 6 of 19
Figure 4.
Figure 4. Representative sketches of the urban form in the (a) pre-oil settlement
settlement (three
(three times
times the
the scale
scale
relative to
relative to the
the other
other sketches),
sketches), (b) oil city,
city, and
and (c)
(c) post-oil
post-oil metropolis
metropolis of
of the Arabian Peninsula.
Peninsula. Source:
Drawing by
Drawing by Heba
Heba O.
O. Tannous
Tannousafter
afterSalama
SalamaandandWiedmann
Wiedmann[7,22].
[7,22].
Environmental
Environmental circumstances, local construction materials such as mud, rock, coral coral and
and palm
palm
fronds,
fronds, and
and the
the scarcity
scarcity ofof water
water tend
tend to define
define the pre-oil
pre-oil settlements.
settlements. Some located near to an oasis.
For others,wadis
For others, wadisor or
valleys
valleysprovided
providedseasonal water—originating
seasonal water—originating in highlands due to annual
in highlands due toflooding
annual
for settlements such as Muscat—or else they evolved near to transitory wells into
flooding for settlements such as Muscat—or else they evolved near to transitory wells into the aquifer the aquifer providing
freshwater access, as inaccess,
providing freshwater Doha.as The
in Friday
Doha. Themosque usually
Friday mosque served as a served
usually focal point
as aof the point
focal settlements
of the
for communal events. There would be an adjacent souq, often extending linearly,
settlements for communal events. There would be an adjacent souq, often extending linearly, and and nearby private,
residential areasresidential
nearby private, with one-storyareasdwellings.
with one-story dwellings.
The
The oil
oil city
city led
led to
to economic
economic prosperity.
prosperity. There
There waswas aa dramatic
dramatic growth
growth in in the
the scale
scale of
of settlements
settlements
due to peripheral housing developments, which led to an outflux of
due to peripheral housing developments, which led to an outflux of residents abandoningresidents abandoning the old
the city
old
centers. NewNew
city centers. high-rise business
high-rise districts
business emerged,
districts and large-scale
emerged, industrial
and large-scale areas toareas
industrial the south
to thedue to
south
predominant wind direction
due to predominant [7,25]. [7,25].
wind direction
Rising
Rising concerns
concernsaboutabout continuing
continuing dependency
dependency on oil
onrevenues, and their
oil revenues, and potential decline decline
their potential arising
from increased
arising competition
from increased from Russia
competition fromand the United
Russia and theStates,
United drove investment
States, plans for economic
drove investment plans for
diversification in the post-oilincities
economic diversification the ofpost-oil
the Arabian
citiesPeninsula
of the [7,27].
Arabian Large-scale
Peninsula infrastructure projects
[7,27]. Large-scale
(‘mega-projects’) characterize
infrastructure projects much of thischaracterize
(‘mega-projects’) transformation,much including land reclamationincluding
of this transformation, projects inland
the
Arabian/Persian
reclamation projectsGulf,innew thesuburban districts,Gulf,
Arabian/Persian and satellite cities within
new suburban enlarged
districts, and metropolitan
satellite citiesregions.
within
The MENA
enlarged region nowregions.
metropolitan teems with large-scale
The MENA regionurban
nowareas,
teemsoperating almost urban
with large-scale like city-states within
areas, operating
their
almostrespective countries.
like city-states Theytheir
within haverespective
become desirable locations
countries. for companies,
They have academiclocations
become desirable institutions
for
and tourists academic
companies, from around the world.
institutions andThe initialfrom
tourists production
around and the exportation of oil and
world. The initial natural gas,
production and
and the subsequent
exportation of oil andtransition
natural to more
gas, anddiversified economies,
the subsequent fed an
transition explosion
to more of population
diversified growth,
economies, fed
prosperity,
an explosion mega-projects,
of populationand housing
growth, development
prosperity, [28,29]. and housing development [28,29].
mega-projects,
In 2019, the population of the MENA region was approximately 457 million people across about
8.9 million km2. It represents about 6% of the total population and land area in the world [30]. It
possesses a significant amount of petroleum (~57%) and natural gas (~41%) reserves in the world,
mostly concentrated in the Gulf States of the Arabian Peninsula [31]. These reserves make the MENA
region a vital source of global stability. It also represents the source of rapid urbanization and
globalization trends in the region over the last fifty years. How traditional marketplaces such as souqs
In 2019, the population of the MENA region was approximately 457 million people across about
8.9 million km2 . It represents about 6% of the total population and land area in the world [30].
It possesses a significant amount of petroleum (~57%) and natural gas (~41%) reserves in the
world, mostly concentrated in the Gulf States of the Arabian Peninsula [31]. These reserves make
the MENA region a vital source of global stability. It also represents the source of rapid urbanization
and globalization trends in the region over the last fifty years. How traditional marketplaces such
as souqs might respond to such drastic changes to evolve and thrive in the new urbanscape has
become critically important to both the governments and citizens of these rapidly modernizing Arabian
societies. As we shall see, Souq Mutrah and Souq Waqif appear to provide different—but entirely
appropriate—answers
appropriate—answers to to this
this problem,
problem, which
which adapt
adapt to
to the
the challenges
challenges of
of the
the topography
topography for
for urban
urban
growth in Muscat and Doha, respectively
growth in Muscat and Doha, respectively (Figure 5).(Figure 5).
Figure 5.
Figure 5. Bird’s
Bird’s eye
eye views
views of
of the
the urban
urban fabric
fabric in
in (left)
(left) Old Muscat in
Old Muscat in Mutrah
Mutrah in
in 2005,
2005, and (right) Old
and (right) Old
Doha with
Doha with Doha
Doha Bay
Bay and
and the
the modern
modern skyscrapers
skyscrapers ofof West
West Bay
Bay in
in the
the background
backgroundinin2010
2010[32,33].
[32,33].
4. About Souq
4. About Souq Mutrah
Mutrah and
and Muscat
Muscat
Muscat
Muscat Governorate
Governorate is is the
the capital
capital city
city ofof the
the Sultanate
Sultanate of of Oman.
Oman. The The governorate
governorate coverscovers anan area
area
of 3900 km 22 and consists of six wilayat (Arabic for provinces or states; the singular is wilayah), which
of 3900 km and consists of six wilayat (Arabic for provinces or states; the singular is wilayah), which
are
are As
As Seeb, Bosher, Al-Amerat,
Seeb, Bosher, Al-Amerat, Mutrah,
Mutrah, Muscat
Muscat and and Qurayat.
Qurayat. Muscat
Muscat developed
developed extensively within
extensively within
this
this capital
capital region.
region. DueDue toto the
the mountainous,
mountainous, often often inaccessible terrain surrounding
inaccessible terrain surrounding the the old
old city
city and
and
port in the Mutrah wilayah (basically, Old Muscat), many individual
port in the Mutrah wilayah (basically, Old Muscat), many individual settlements developed settlements developed separately
before theirbefore
separately eventualtheirincorporation into the expanded
eventual incorporation into thecity of Muscat
expanded city[7,25].
of Muscat [7,25].
As
As Tannous
Tannousand andMajor
Major argue, these
argue, topographical
these topographical conditions had a profound
conditions effect oneffect
had a profound the emergent
on the
spatial structure of metropolitan Muscat today [9]. These conditions
emergent spatial structure of Metropolitan Muscat today [9]. These conditions gave rise to a gave rise to a predominantly
linear city growing
predominantly linear east
citytogrowing
west along eastthe coastline,
to west alongprincipally governed
the coastline, by Sultan
principally governedQaboos Street
by Sultan
and
Qaboosthe Muscat
Street and Expressway.
the MuscatAtExpressway.
the macro-scale At theof the urban spatial
macro-scale of thenetwork, the metric
urban spatial distance
network, the
from Old Muscat to the metropolitan edge at its furthest extent in
metric distance from Old Muscat to the metropolitan edge at its furthest extent in the west isthe west is approximately 45 km.
To compensate 45
approximately forkm.thisTolinearity at the macro-scale,
compensate for this linearity the local
at theareas of Muscat
macro-scale, theprioritize
local areascompactness
of Muscat
in 2 in built areas only, excluding
prioritize compactness in street density (65 streets/km in built areas only, excluding mountains and,
street density (65 streets/km 2 mountains and airport lands) and
by implication,
airport lands) and, population densitypopulation
by implication, at the micro-scale
density at[9,25]. It is about
the micro-scale the same
[9,25]. streetthe
It is about density
same
as manchester
street density asinManchester
the United in Kingdom,
the United and 86% of that
Kingdom, and in 86%Barcelona,
of that inSpain [34]. Spain
Barcelona, The resolution
[34]. The
of macro- and micro-scale demands on the urban spatial network
resolution of macro- and micro-scale demands on the urban spatial network weaves a polycentric weaves a polycentric spatial
structure into theinto
spatial structure metropolitan region centered
the metropolitan around around
region centered the Old the Muscat (e.g., Mutrah),
Old Muscat ModernModern
(e.g., Mutrah), Muscat,
Al-Amarat and Mawaleh
Muscat, Al-Amarat areas [9] (Figure
and Mawaleh areas [9]6).(Figure
The polycentric structure becomes
6). The polycentric structureapparent
becomesinapparent
the pattern in
of integration based on the mean depth from the most integrated street
the pattern of integration based on the mean depth from the most integrated street (12.8)—a long, (12.8)—a long, central segment
of the Major
central segment east–west Sultaneast–west
of the major Qaboos Street—in
Sultan Qaboos Muscat, excluding
Street—in all one-connected
Muscat, excluding alllines. Excluding
one-connected
one-connected lines provides a purer picture of the distributive network in
lines. Excluding one-connected lines provides a purer picture of the distributive network in the spacethe space syntax model of a
city using Major’s methodology [34,35].
syntax model of a city using Major’s methodology [34,35].
The Mutrah wilayah possesses sixteen wadis (i.e., valleys/creeks) and two main falaj (i.e., ancient
water channels providing irrigation for agriculture and domestic use). Mutrah is also known for
several sur (‘walled communities’) like Sur Jibroo, Sur Ruwi, the Sur of Old Mutrah, and Sur Al-
Lawatiyah [11,25]. A sur (‘‫ ’ﺳﻮﺭ‬in Arabic) means a wall that could be a fence, rampart, enclosure, or
fortification. It is a term referring to the walls of an enclosed community, similar to a bastide (‘fortified
Figure 6.
Figure 6. Pattern
Pattern of
of integration (radius == 13)
integration (radius 13) in
in the
the space
space syntax
syntax model
model of
of Metropolitan
metropolitan Muscat,
Muscat,
Oman—based on mean depth from the most integrated street (12.8), i.e., a long, central segment of
Sultan Qaboos Street in Modern Muscat—encompassing 14,662 streets without one-connected
one-connected lines,
lines,
km22 in 2018.
of 720 km
over an approximate area of
The Mutrahwilayah
SouqMutrah is the possesses sixteen wadis
oldest traditional (i.e., valleys/creeks)
marketplace in Muscat. Itand two main
is adjacent to,falaj (i.e., ancient
running along,
water channels providing irrigation for agriculture and domestic use).
and extending inward from the Mutrah Corniche on the Gulf of Oman. Corniche is originally a FrenchMutrah is also known for
term, butsur
several it is(‘walled
commoncommunities’)
in the Gulf Regionlike today.
Sur Jibroo,
It means Sur‘aRuwi,
road cut theinto
Surtheofedge
OldofMutrah, and Sur
a cliff, especially
Al-Lawatiyah
one running along [11,25]. A sur (‘often
a coast,’ Pñ’ ininvolving
Arabic) means a wall
reclaimed thatsuch
land couldasbeinaMuscat
fence, rampart,
and Doha. enclosure, or
[36]. The
central spine Itextends
fortification. is a termfrom the main
referring gate
to the on the
walls Mutrah
of an enclosed Corniche promenade
community, similaralong the coast
to a bastide in the
(‘fortified
north and
town’) in thesplits into two
medieval directions
European towards
tradition gateways
or a presidio in theinSpanish
the south (Figure
tradition 7). Except
during for these
the colonization
gateways
of the Newmarking
World [36]. the entry points, Souq Mutrah does not possess well-defined, two-dimensional
boundaries in plan.
Souq Mutrah Individual
is the retail units
oldest traditional tend to bleed
marketplace into and
in Muscat. blend
It is withto,
adjacent the surrounding
running along,
residential
and dwellings.
extending inwardFor thisthe
from study, the researchers
Mutrah Corniche on defined
the Gulfa boundary
of Oman. based on where
Corniche residential
is originally a
dwellings
French tend
term, become
but more prevalent
it is common in the GulfthanRegion
retail units.
today.The most explicit
It means ‘a roadboundaries
cut into theofedge
Souqof Mutrah
a cliff,
are Mutrahone
especially Corniche/Al-Bahri Road to
running along a coast,’ the involving
often north, Surreclaimed
Lawatiyah to the
land suchnorthwest,
as in MuscatandandMutrah
Doha.High
[36].
Street to the south and southeast. The main branch of the souq spine,
The central spine extends from the main gate on the Mutrah Corniche promenade along the coast in Souq Al-Dhalam meaning
‘darkness
the market’
north and splitsininto
Arabic,
two is the residents’
directions towardsname for Souq
gateways in Mutrah.
the southIt (Figure
appears7).to Except
derive for from the
these
dark and crowded
gateways marking the alleyways, whichSouq
entry points, required hand-held
Mutrah does not lamps
possessto navigate the market
well-defined, in the past
two-dimensional
[37].
boundaries in plan. Individual retail units tend to bleed into and blend with the surrounding residential
dwellings. For this study, the researchers defined a boundary based on where residential dwellings
tend become more prevalent than retail units. The most explicit boundaries of Souq Mutrah are Mutrah
Corniche/Al-Bahri Road to the north, Sur Lawatiyah to the northwest, and Mutrah High Street to the
south and southeast. The main branch of the souq spine, Souq Al-Dhalam meaning ‘darkness market’
in Arabic, is the residents’ name for Souq Mutrah. It appears to derive from the dark and crowded
alleyways, which required hand-held lamps to navigate the market in the past [37].
Figure 7. The main spine of Souq Mutrah highlighted in red (left) on a 2019 satellite image, (center)
an aerial view of the Mutrah area, and (right) in combination with the blocks (in black) defining the
dwellings tend become more prevalent than retail units. The most explicit boundaries of Souq Mutrah
are Mutrah Corniche/Al-Bahri Road to the north, Sur Lawatiyah to the northwest, and Mutrah High
Street to the south and southeast. The main branch of the souq spine, Souq Al-Dhalam meaning
‘darkness market’ in Arabic, is the residents’ name for Souq Mutrah. It appears to derive from the
dark and crowded
Sustainability alleyways, which required hand-held lamps to navigate the market in the9 past
2020, 12, 7154 of 21
[37].
Figure 7.
Figure 7. The
The main
main spine
spine of
of Souq
Souq Mutrah
Mutrah highlighted
highlighted in
in red (left) on
red (left) on aa 2019
2019 satellite
satellite image,
image, (center)
(center)
an aerial
an aerial view
view of
of the
the Mutrah
Mutrah area,
area, and
and (right)
(right) in
in combination
combination with
with the
the blocks
blocks (in
(in black)
black) defining
defining the
the
boundary of the souq. Source: Drawings by Authors. Base satellite imagery courtesy of Google
Earth/Maxar Technologies and middle image of Muscat Municipality [10,32].
The souq is opposite to the port of Mutrah, named Sultan Qaboos Port, which engaged in a great
deal of trade during the age of the sailing ship due to its strategic location on the way to India and
China. Today, it is primarily is a cruise terminal, attracting tourists from around the world, though
the port also continues to provide support for the local fishing industry. Souq Mutrah covers an
approximate area of 50,000 square meters (m2 ), as measured using Google Earth tools. Mutrah was
the commercial hub of Muscat from Portuguese occupation in the 16th century until the opening of
the country during the reign of Sultan Qaboos from 1970–2020. Mutrah began to lose its importance
as a commercial hub as the city expanded westward. Traditionally, Souq Mutrah consisted of two
parts: one for retail goods and another for wholesale products such as food, textiles, household items
and traditional Omani clothing. A diverse population of Arabs, Africans (primarily from East Africa),
Pakistani, Indians and Persians characterized the area. However, Souq Mutrah evolved into a more
localized souq catering more to residents in the immediate vicinity, as well as a growing expatriate
community and tourists [25,37]. Today, Souq Mutrah still attracts local Omani customers, even as many
locals shift their shopping habits to newer air-conditioned shopping malls in western Muscat. One of
the most significant changes has been the increase in Western tourists and expatriate (‘expat’ in slang)
residents, and the gradual disappearance of Shiite (Lawatiya and Khoja) and Hindu (Banjans) traders
from the souq. They still own many of the shops but tend to rent retail spaces to Indian and Pakistani
expat residents [12,37,38].
5. About Souq Waqif and Doha

The land in Qatar is generally flat along the coastline of the Arabian/Persian Gulf. It also tends to
be extremely dry, with very few inlets. It was not always the case in the past along the Wadi musheireb
inlet to the sea in Doha. The banks were frequently wet during the winter, which allowed merchants
to sell goods while standing in the water. This curious characteristic gave rise to the name of Souq

Waqif, which literally translates as ‘standing market’ (‘ ¯@ð ñ’) [39]. Initially, the souq was a
weekly market mounted by the local Bedouins to sell goods, fish and pearls to traders from southern
Iran and other Gulf countries.
Over time, Souq Waqif became a permanent market, selling goods from the Arabian Peninsula,
India, Persia and East Africa. Shops aggregated and distributed linearly along a jetty perpendicular
to the coast, forming what would become the historical spine of Souq Waqif. Residential quarters
were adjacent to the northwest and southeast (refer back to Figure 3, right). A cemetery, prayer
ground outside of the Souq Waqif Mosque, and the Turkish fort Al-Kuwt (or Al Koot) south of the
cemetery came to define the western and southern edges of the market. Eventually, retailers established
specialized areas selling similar products such as the Gold Souq, Spice Souq, Pet Souq, Clothing Souq
and others, which remain to this day [25,40].
Tannous and Major argue that the flat terrain in Qatar enabled the urban expansion of Doha to
balance centrality and linearity at the macro-scale of the metropolitan region [9]. Doha grew in a
relatively compact manner to the west, north, and south of Doha Bay; even somewhat to the east via
land reclamation projects such as the Al Corniche, West Bay, The Pearl, Lusail City, Hamad International
Airport and, to the extreme south, Hamad International Port. modern transportation planning helped
to facilitate this compact nature of Doha through a successive series of ring roads, which gave shape
to the distinctive superblock structure of the city today. The street density in metropolitan Doha is
36 streets/km2 , excluding airport lands and large vacant tracts of land in the periphery. It is consistent
with average street density in the city centers of 20 American cities and, specifically, street density in
the city center of Baltimore, maryland [36].
The cumulative effect helps to maintain the shallowness of Old Doha to the expanding edges
of the metropolitan region. It primarily occurs via the radial route sequence of Wadi msheireb and
Salwa Road, which is the longest, straightest street from Old Doha to the southwestern edge of
the metropolitan region. Souq Waqif and msheireb Downtown Doha border the easternmost segment
of this radial route sequence, which also connects to every ring road in the city, including the most
important, i.e., D-Ring/Doha Expressway. Because of this, the metric distance from Old Doha to the
furthest extents of the metropolitan region to the north, west and south is only 17 km. This distance is
nearly three times less than Old Muscat to the western edge of the Muscat metropolitan region [9].
This development pattern gave rise to a distinctive ortho-radial grid in the emergent spatial
structure of metropolitan Doha, which is strongly consistent for the space syntax measures of
integration and choice at the macro- and micro-scale [9,22] (Figure 8). The configurational comparison
of metropolitan Muscat and Doha in this research initially controlled for axial size, i.e., the number of
streets represented as axial lines, based on Major’s previous methodology [34,35]. The axial size was
21,376 lines in Muscat and 22,478 lines in Doha, representing a marginal difference (<6%). The metric
area of both metropolitan areas is also broadly similar: 720 km2 for Muscat and 650 km2 for Doha (<11%
difference). However, more than 50% of the land area in Muscat is unbuilt mountainous terrain [22].
Removing all one-connected lines from the space syntax model leads to stark differences in axial size.
Nearly 26% of all streets in Muscat are one-connected lines or cul-de-sac sequences, primarily due
to the mountainous terrain. Only 8% of all axial lines in Doha are one-connected lines or cul-de-sac
sequences, which is comparable to European city centers [34].
A fair comparison of synergy includes one-connected lines and cul-de-sac sequences to maintain
comparability in axial size and metric area. Synergy is a second-order measure in space syntax based
on the r2 relationship between global and local integration, i.e., where you are locally in the urban
spatial network relates to where you are globally in that network. Because of the development patterns
arising from differing topographical conditions in these cities, synergy is over three times greater
in metropolitan Doha (R2 = 0.388) compared to metropolitan Muscat (R2 = 0.115).
In the past, Souq Waqif used to bleed into and blend with surrounding residential neighborhoods (as
shown in Figure 3), similar to Souq Mutrah. Today, due to modern transportation planning, Major urban
streets define the perimeter of the Souq Waqif: Abdullah Bin Jasim Street/Souq Waqif Park to the north;
Ali Bin Abdallah Street to the south; Banks Street, constructed in the 1980s, to the east; and Al-Asmakh
Street/Msheireb Downtown Doha to the west (Figure 9). The Amiri Diwan complex, the royal palace of
the Qatari Emir, sits to the immediate northwest of the souq. Ali Bin Abdullah Street is a continuation
of the Salwa Road/Wadi msheireb radial route to the southwestern periphery of the metropolitan
region. It eventually reaches the village of Abu Samra in the southwest corner of Qatar as one of only
two roads providing overland access to Saudi Arabia. A continuation of Al Rayyan Road directly
connects into the geometric center of Souq Waqif. Al Rayyan Road is another significant radial route
in Doha that transitions into Al Rayyan Al Jedeed Street six kilometers (km) further to the west, and
integration and choice at the macro- and micro-scale [9,22] (Figure 8). The configurational comparison
of Metropolitan Muscat and Doha in this research initially controlled for axial size, i.e., the number
of streets represented as axial lines, based on Major’s previous methodology [34,35]. The axial size
was 21,376 lines in Muscat and 22,478 lines in Doha, representing a marginal difference (<6%). The
metric area of both metropolitan areas is also broadly similar: 720 km2 for Muscat and 650 km2 for
Sustainability
Doha (<11% 12, 7154
2020,difference). 11 of 21
However, more than 50% of the land area in Muscat is unbuilt mountainous
terrain [22]. Removing all one-connected lines from the space syntax model leads to stark differences
in axial size. Nearly 26% of all streets in Muscat are one-connected lines or cul-de-sac sequences,
it into the Durkan Highway 14 km away from the souq. The Durkan Highway connects ultimately
primarily due to the mountainous terrain. Only 8% of all axial lines in Doha are one-connected lines
across the Qatar Peninsula to the town of Durkan on the west coast.
or cul-de-sac sequences, which is comparable to European city centers [34].
on the r2 relationship between global and local integration, i.e., where you are locally in the urban
spatial network relates to where you are globally in that network. Because of the development
patterns arising from differing topographical conditions in these cities, synergy is over three times
greater in Metropolitan Doha (R2 = 0.388) compared to Metropolitan Muscat (R2 = 0.115).
In the past, Souq Waqif used to bleed into and blend with surrounding residential
neighborhoods (as shown in Figure 3), similar to Souq Mutrah. Today, due to modern transportation
planning, major urban streets define the perimeter of the Souq Waqif: Abdullah Bin Jasim Street/Souq
Waqif Park to the north; Ali Bin Abdallah Street to the south; Banks Street, constructed in the 1980s,
to the east; and Al-Asmakh Street/Msheireb Downtown Doha to the west (Figure 9). The Amiri Diwan
complex, the royal palace of the Qatari Emir, sits to the immediate northwest of the souq. Ali Bin
Abdullah Street is a continuation of the Salwa Road/Wadi Msheireb radial route to the southwestern
periphery of the metropolitan region. It eventually reaches the village of Abu Samra in the southwest
corner of Qatar as one of only two roads providing overland access to Saudi Arabia. A continuation
of Al Rayyan Road directly connects into the geometric center of Souq Waqif. Al Rayyan Road is
another Figure8. 8. Pattern
significant
Figure Pattern of
ofintegration
radial route (radius
in Doha
integration = 6)transitions
that
(radius =in 6)
theinspace syntax
the into
space Almodel
Rayyan
syntax ofmodel
Metropolitan
Al Jedeed Doha, six
Street Qatar—
of metropolitan kilometers
Doha,
based
(km) Qatar—basedon mean
further to theonwest,depth
meanand from
depth the
it frommost integrated
into the mostDurkan street
Highway
integrated (6.4), i.e., Salwa
14(6.4),
street Road—encompassing
km i.e.,
away from
Salwa 20,473
the souq. The Durkan
Road—encompassing
Highway streets
20,473 without
connects
streets one-connected
ultimately
without linesthe
across
one-connected over an
Qatar
lines approximate
over Peninsula area of area
to the
an approximate 650 km
town
2 in 2018.
km2 in 2018.
of Durkan
of 650 on the west coast.
A fair comparison of synergy includes one-connected lines and cul-de-sac sequences to maintain
comparability in axial size and metric area. Synergy is a second-order measure in space syntax based
Figure
Figure 9.9. The
The area
area of
of Souq
Souq Waqif
Waqif highlighted/outlined
highlighted/outlined in in red
red (left)
(left) on
on aa 2019
2019 satellite
satellite image,
image, (center)
(center)
an
an aerial view of the Old Doha area, and (right) the main spine (in red) in combination with
aerial view of the Old Doha area, and (right) the main spine (in red) in combination with the
the
blocks/streets (inblack)
blocks/streets (in black)defining
defining
thethe boundary
boundary ofsouq.
of the the souq. Source:
Source: Drawings
Drawings by Authors.
by Authors. Base
Base satellite
satellite
imageryimagery
courtesycourtesy
of Googleof Earth/Maxar
Google Earth/Maxar Technologies
Technologies [13]. [13].
Souq Waqif was originally adjacent to the oldest port area on Doha Bay. The main port (now
referred to the ‘Old Port’) shifted ~1.5 km to the east due to the construction of Al Corniche during
the late 1950s/early 1960s. The main port of Doha moved to the extreme south of the Al Wakrah
settlement with the opening of Hamad International Port in 2018. However, portions of the Old Port
still operate with a cruise terminal and fishing/recreation boat slips. It also includes the Museum of
Souq Waqif was originally adjacent to the oldest port area on Doha Bay. The main port (now
referred to the ‘Old Port’) shifted ~1.5 km to the east due to the construction of Al Corniche during the
late 1950s/early 1960s. The main port of Doha moved to the extreme south of the Al Wakrah settlement
with the opening of Hamad International Port in 2018. However, portions of the Old Port still operate
with a cruise terminal and fishing/recreation boat slips. It also includes the museum of Islamic Art
with a surrounding park. One block away, Abdullah Bin Jasim Street parallels Al Corniche and the
coast to the north. The approximate total area of Souq Waqif within these well-defined boundaries is
195,000 m2 . However, this includes two large open plazas to the west (consistent with the old cemetery)
and northeast, which account for about 20% of the effective area. The net area of the actual marketplace
itself is ±150,000 m2 , or nearly three times the size of Souq Mutrah in Muscat [25].
6. A Morphological Comparison: Findings and Discussion

The urban fabric of Souq Mutrah and Souq Waqif today bear the hallmarks of their early
development based on a process of the restricted random aggregation; the former more so than the
latter [22,24,25,35] (Figure 10). Adaptation becomes necessary as settlements become larger to maintain
a degree of accessibility to the ever-expanding edges of the settlement in resolving Hillier’s paradox of
the principles of centrality and linearity in urban form [23,35]. Blocks tend to become more rectangular,
and streets become broader/longer based on geometric principles. This process is more apparent in
Old Dohain
apparent inOld
the Doha
surrounding areas of Souq
in the surrounding Waqif,
areas especially
of Souq Waqif,the amount the
especially of open space
amount of around
open space the
perimeter
around theofperimeter
the souq ofduethetosouq
roadduewidening, surface parking
to road widening, toparking
surface the west, to the
the Amiri Diwan
west, the Amiri complex
Diwan
and
complex and its surface parking lots to the northwest, and the Souq Waqif Park/Al Corniche north.
its surface parking lots to the northwest, and the Souq Waqif Park/Al Corniche to the to the
Something
north. Somethingsimilar also occurred
similar in the Mutrah
also occurred in thearea, but on
Mutrah a smaller
area, but onscale in relative
a smaller scale terms; specifically,
in relative terms;
on Al Corniche
specifically, on Alalong the coast,
Corniche alongthe broader
the southern
coast, the broader segment
southernof segment
Mutrah High StreetHigh
of Mutrah and the blocks
Street and
further to the east, south and southeast. The amount of open space in the figure-ground
the blocks further to the east, south and southeast. The amount of open space in the figure-ground representation
of the Mutrah area
representation of theisMutrah
primarilyareadue to coastline,
is primarily due Al Corniche Al
to coastline, and the Gulfand
Corniche of the
OmanGulftoofthe
Omannorth,to
and mountainous terrain to the southwest and southeast, where watchtowers
the north, and mountainous terrain to the southwest and southeast, where watchtowers are visible, are visible, i.e., small
circular
i.e., small block forms.
circular block forms.
Figure 10.
Figure 10. Figure
Figure ground
ground representation
representation(space
(spaceininblack,
black,blocks/buildings
blocks/buildingsininwhite)
white)ofof
a 1a km
1 kmarea
2 2 of
area
thethe
of urban
urbanfabric inin
fabric (left)
(left)the
theMutrah
Mutraharea
areaofofMuscat
Muscatand
and(right)
(right)the
the Old
Old Doha
Doha area including Souq
area including Souq
Waqifand
Waqif andpart
partof
ofmsheireb
MsheirebDowntown
DowntownDohaDohainin2018.
2018.
However, their early development remains most most apparent

apparent along
along the
the main
main spine
spine of
of both
both souqs.
souqs.
Both spines
spines consist
consistofoflong
longpedestrian-only
pedestrian-only routes connecting
routes connecting viavia
open-ended
open-endedangles (within
angles 15a◦
15° of
(within
direct
of continuation),
a direct with with
continuation), most most
shorter routesroutes
shorter connecting to the to
connecting spine
the at right-
spine at or near-right
rightangles
or near-right
[25,41] [25,41]
angles (Figure(Figure
11). Retaining these morphological
11). Retaining characteristics
these morphological of the traditional
characteristics urban fabric,
of the traditional urban
including
fabric, smallersmaller
including block sizes,
block is a crucial
sizes, component
is a crucial for promoting
component walkability
for promoting in both
walkability souqs.
in both The
souqs.
overwhelming
The overwhelmingmajority of routes
majority in both
of routes insouqs
both are only
souqs areforonly
pedestrians. A pedestrian
for pedestrians. shed showing
A pedestrian shed
everything reachable within 300 and 400 m (m) from the approximate geometric center of both souqs
ably illustrates this point. (Figure 12). We selected pedestrian shed radii of 300 m and 400 m due to
the hot climatic conditions on the Arabian Peninsula during much of the year. The industry-standard
practice is radii of 400 m and 800 m, consistent with a range of ¼ and ½ mile or a 10 min walk. A 300
m and 400 m radius represents an unimpeded 3–5 min walk based on an average human walking
However, their early development remains most apparent along the main spine of both souqs.
Both spines consist of long pedestrian-only routes connecting via open-ended angles (within 15° of a
direct continuation), with most shorter routes connecting to the spine at right- or near-right angles
[25,41] (Figure
Sustainability 2020, 12,11).
7154 Retaining these morphological characteristics of the traditional urban 13 fabric,
of 21
including smaller block sizes, is a crucial component for promoting walkability in both souqs. The
overwhelming majority of routes in both souqs are only for pedestrians. A pedestrian shed showing
showing
everythingeverything
reachablereachable
within within
300 and300 400and 400 from
m (m) m (m)the
from the approximate
approximate geometric
geometric centercenter of souqs
of both both
souqs ably illustrates this point. (Figure 12). We selected pedestrian shed radii of
ably illustrates this point. (Figure 12). We selected pedestrian shed radii of 300 m and 400 m due 300 m and 400 m dueto
tothe
thehot
hotclimatic
climaticconditions
conditionson onthe
the Arabian
Arabian Peninsula
Peninsula during
during much
much ofof the
theyear.
year.The
Theindustry-standard
industry-standard
1 1
practice is radii of 400 m and 800 m, consistent with
practice is radii of 400 m and 800 m, consistent with a range ofa range of and
4 ¼ and mile or a 10 min
2 ½ mile or a 10 min walk. A 300
walk. m
A 300
and 400 m radius represents an unimpeded 3–5 min walk based on an average
m and 400 m radius represents an unimpeded 3–5 min walk based on an average human walking human walking speed
ofspeed
1.4 m/second. Almost the
of 1.4 m/second. entire
Almost Mutrah
the entire area is reachable
Mutrah within a within
area is reachable 3–5 mina walk.
3–5 min Thewalk.
areasThe
outside
areas
ofoutside
a 400 m distance are in the extreme northwest, where Al Bahri Road turns inland
of a 400 m distance are in the extreme northwest, where Al Bahri Road turns inland heading heading west,
and the and
west, extreme the southwest, where Mutrah
extreme southwest, whereHigh StreetHigh
Mutrah and At Towain
Street andStreet diverge Street
At Towain into parallel
divergeroads
into
for about 300 m before converging together anew. Both Al Bahri Road and
parallel roads for about 300 m before converging together anew. Both Al Bahri Road and Mutrah Mutrah High Street/At
Towain Street head
High Street/At towards
Towain thehead
Street broader Muscat
towards theregion.
broader Muscat region.
Figure11.
Figure 11.Illustration
Illustrationofofthe
themain
mainspinespinecomposed
composedofoflong longlines
linesconnecting
connectingusingusingopen-ended
open-endedangles
angles
withshorter
with shorter linesconnecting
lines connecting totothe
thespine
spineatatright
rightorornear-right
near-rightangles
anglesinin(left)
(left)Souq
SouqMutrah
Mutrahand
and(right)
(right)
SouqWaqif.
Souq
Sustainability Waqif.
2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 19
Figure 12. Pedestrian

Pedestrianshed of of
shed a 3–5 minmin
a 3–5 walk fromfrom
walk the approximate geometric
the approximate centercenter
geometric of (left)
of Souq
(left)
Mutrah
Souq and (right)
Mutrah Souq Souq
and (right) Waqif.Waqif.
In Souq
SouqWaqif,
Waqif,almost
almostevery
everyblock
blocklies within
lies 300300
within m ofmthe approximate
of the approximate geometric center
geometric of theofarea,
center the
except for thefor
area, except street
the corners at the intersections
street corners of the perimeter
at the intersections streets and
of the perimeter building
streets and frontages along Ali
building frontages
Bin Abdallah
along Ali Bin Street to the
Abdallah south.
Street to However,
the south.these building
However, frontages
these building and the streetand
frontages corner intersections
the street corner
of Ali Bin Abdallah/Wadi
intersections of Ali Bin msheireb/Al-Asmakh Street to the southwest,
Abdallah/Wadi Msheireb/Al-Asmakh Alito
Street Binthe
Abdallah/Banks
southwest, Ali Streets
Bin
to the southeast, and
Abdallah/Banks Banks
Streets Street/Abdullah
to the southeast, andBin JasimStreet/Abdullah
Banks Street to the northeast
Bin Jasim areStreet
easilytoaccessible from
the northeast
the
are main
easilyspine of thefrom
accessible souq.the A main
large spine
amount of of
theopen
souq.space around
A large the perimeter
amount of open spaceof Souq Waqifthe
around is
apparent.
perimeter Almost
of Souqall this space
Waqif involves
is apparent. moving
Almost alland
thisstationary vehicular
space involves movingtraffic,
andexcept for Souq
stationary Waqif
vehicular
Park to except
traffic, the northfor and
Souqthe public
Waqif plazas
Park to north
to the the northeast
and theand immediate
public plazas tosouthwest (associated
the northeast with the
and immediate
old cemetery)
southwest of the geometric
(associated with the center.
old cemetery) of the geometric center.
The
The effect
effectofofmodern
modern interventions
interventions in Doha and and
in Doha the tendency towards
the tendency a compact
towards densitydensity
a compact in Muscatin
leads to a stark contrast when comparing the amount, size and shape of all
Muscat leads to a stark contrast when comparing the amount, size and shape all of the urban blocks of the urban blocks and
free-standing
and free-standing buildings accessible
buildings within
accessible 300 m300
within of the geometric
m of centercenter
the geometric of bothofsouqs (Figure(Figure
both souqs 13). There
13).
are 314are
There blocks or buildings
314 blocks accessible
or buildings withinwithin
accessible this distance from Souq
this distance from Mutrah,
Souq Mutrah,with the largest
with block
the largest
being
block 82 m along
being 82 mitsalong
most its
extended length. It length.
most extended includesItthe blocks of
includes thethe Al-Lawatiyah
blocks Sur (inaccessible
of the Al-Lawatiyah Sur
to non-residents),
(inaccessible Mutrah Corniche
to non-residents), Mutrah promenade
Corniche on both sides
promenade onofboth
the sides
street,ofandthe many
street,blocks
and manyand
blocks and buildings within the surrounding residential neighborhoods. In contrast, there are only
82 blocks or buildings accessible within this distance from Souq Waqif, with the largest block having
a length of 90 m (+9.8%). This accessible distance includes portions of blocks in Msheireb Downtown
Doha to the west, the open space of Souq Waqif Park to the north, and the entrances of the Gold Line
Metro Station and Barahat Al-Jufairi Park to the southeast. It also covers one side of Al Corniche to
southwest (associated with the old cemetery) of the geometric center.
The effect of modern interventions in Doha and the tendency towards a compact density in
Muscat leads to a stark contrast when comparing the amount, size and shape of all of the urban blocks
and free-standing buildings accessible within 300 m of the geometric center of both souqs (Figure 13).
There are 314 blocks or buildings accessible within this distance from Souq Mutrah, with the largest
block being 82 m along its most extended length. It includes the blocks of the Al-Lawatiyah Sur
(inaccessible to non-residents), Mutrah Corniche promenade on both sides of the street, and many
buildings
blocks andwithin the surrounding
buildings residential neighborhoods.
within the surrounding In contrast, there
residential neighborhoods. are only
In contrast, 82 blocks
there are onlyor
buildings accessible within this distance from Souq Waqif, with the largest block
82 blocks or buildings accessible within this distance from Souq Waqif, with the largest block having having a length of
90 m (+9.8%).
a length of 90 mThis accessible
(+9.8%). Thisdistance
accessibleincludes
distance portions
includesof portions
blocks in ofmsheireb
blocks inDowntown
Msheireb Doha
Downtownto the
west,
Doha the open
to the space
west, theofopen
Souqspace
WaqifofPark
SouqtoWaqif
the north,
Parkand thenorth,
to the entrances of the
and the Gold Line
entrances metro
of the GoldStation
Line
and Barahat Al-Jufairi Park to the southeast. It also covers one side of Al Corniche
Metro Station and Barahat Al-Jufairi Park to the southeast. It also covers one side of Al Corniche to to the north but does
not
the include
north but thedoes
street corners
not include where there corners
the street are pedestrian
where crosswalks to navigate
there are pedestrian across high
crosswalks tovehicular
navigate
flows
acrosson highthisvehicular
road. There flowsareonalmost four times
this road. Thereasaremany blocks
almost fourand buildings
times as many accessible
blocks andwithin 300 m
buildings
of Souq Mutrah
accessible withincompared
300 m of Souqto Souq Waqif.compared
Mutrah It seems apparent that there
to Souq Waqif. are aapparent
It seems large number of square-
that there are a
and
largesquare-ish-shaped
number of square-blocks available in both areas
and square-ish-shaped blockswithin a short
available distance,
in both areasagain
withinmore so indistance,
a short Muscat
than
againDoha.
more so However,
in Muscat thisthan
stark difference
Doha. is primarily
However, attributable
this stark difference to is larger block
primarily sizes. It isto
attributable also the
larger
consequences
block sizes. Itofisthe emergent
also superblock pattern
the consequences arising from
of the emergent modern planning
superblock pattern interventions
arising from in Doha,
modern
the 2004–2008
planning Souq Waqif
interventions inrestoration
Doha, the project,
2004–2008 andSouq
the recently-completed
Waqif restorationmsheireb Downtown
project, and Doha
the recently-
urban renewal project.
completed Msheireb Downtown Doha urban renewal project.
Figure Rankordering
13. Rank
Figure 13. orderingbased
basedonon size—from
size—from largest
largest to smallest—of
to smallest—of allthe
all of of urban
the urban blocks
blocks and
and free-
free-standing buildings accessible within a radius of 300 m from the geometric center of
standing buildings accessible within a radius of 300 m from the geometric center of (top) Souq Mutrah (top)
Souq Mutrah
in Muscat andin(bottom)
Muscat and
Souq(bottom)
Waqif inSouq Waqif
Doha, set tointhe
Doha,
samesetscale.
to the same scale.
Based on this, we could characterize the planning strategy for Souq Mutrah and the Mutrah area
of Muscat in general terms as careful intervention along its perimeter, especially the northern edge
associated with Mutrah Corniche/Al Bahri Road and the coastal port, and minimal intervention (or
highly-localized interventions related to actions on individual dwelling units) within its interior. Muscat
Municipality’s Souq Mutrah Development Plan, the Development of Souq Mutrah and Corniche Mutrah,
and the Beautification of Mutrah projects in 2004–2005 reflect this incremental approach to the
preservation of Souq Mutrah. They focused on drainage, electrical distribution, security improvements,
beautification along Mutrah Corniche and the construction of gateways at the northern and southern
ends of the central spine on the perimeter to help denote main entry points to the souq (Figure 14).
In contrast, extensive intervention at its perimeter and in the surrounding urban context with more
careful intervention within its interior appears to characterize the planning strategy for Souq Waqif
in Doha. The 2004–2008 Souq Waqif Restoration project reflects this approach, despite involving the
wholesale demolition of any buildings constructed after 1950.
The reasons for and consequences of these differing planning strategies become apparent when
we compare the accessibility catchment area of both souqs within their metropolitan region using
space syntax. This analysis uses step-depth (e.g., changes of direction) in space syntax terms, based on
the mean depth from the most integrated street as a common point of reference. For Muscat, this is
12.8, rounded off to 13, based on the mean depth from a long, central segment of Sultan Qaboos Street
in Modern Muscat. For Doha, this is 6.4, rounded off to 6, based on the mean depth from the longest,
straightest segment of Salwa Road. Both models utilize the fully-distributed urban spatial network,
removing all one-connected lines and cul-de-sac sequences.
Muscat Municipality’s Souq Mutrah Development Plan, the Development of Souq Mutrah and
Corniche Mutrah, and the Beautification of Mutrah projects in 2004–2005 reflect this incremental
approach to the preservation of Souq Mutrah. They focused on drainage, electrical distribution,
security improvements, beautification along Mutrah Corniche and the construction of gateways at
the northern
Sustainability and
2020, 12,southern
7154 ends of the central spine on the perimeter to help denote main entry points
15 of 21
to the souq (Figure 14).
Figure
Figure 14.
14. Views
Views of
of the
the North
North Gate
Gate Development Project (top
Development Project (top left)
left) exterior
exterior situation
situation before,
before, (top
(top right)
right)
interior
interior situation
situation before,
before, (bottom
(bottom left)
left) the
the render
render of
of the design proposal,
the design proposal, and
and (bottom
(bottom right)
right) after
after
completion [42].
completion [42].
In
Thecontrast, extensivearea
local catchment intervention
of all of theat routes
its perimeter
within,and in the
passing surrounding
into, and definingurban
the context
perimeterwithof
more careful up
Souq Mutrah intervention within
to 13 changes its interior
of direction awayappears to characterize
encompasses the planning
an approximate strategy
built area km2
for6Souq
of only
Waqif in
(Figure 15).Doha. The 2004–2008
It includes the Mutrah,SouqBayt Waqif
Al FajalRestoration
and Ruwi areasproject reflects
in this this
part of approach,
Muscat, mostly despite
south
involving
of the the wholesale
east–west route of demolition
Bab Al of any
mathaib buildings
Street, which constructed
merges to after 1950.
become part of Sultan Qaboos Street
metro region via Doha Expressway, Salwa Road and Al Wakra Road to the north (~22 km), west (~22
The reasons
further forfurthest
and consequences of this
these differing planning strategies becomefliesapparent when
km) andwest.
southAt(~12its linear extent,
km), respectively (Figure only
16). extends a distance as the crow of 3.5 km.
we compare the accessibility catchment area of both souqs within their metropolitan region using
space syntax. This analysis uses step-depth (e.g., changes of direction) in space syntax terms, based
on the mean depth from the most integrated street as a common point of reference. For Muscat, this
is 12.8, rounded off to 13, based on the mean depth from a long, central segment of Sultan Qaboos
Street in Modern Muscat. For Doha, this is 6.4, rounded off to 6, based on the mean depth from the
longest, straightest segment of Salwa Road. Both models utilize the fully-distributed urban spatial
network, removing all one-connected lines and cul-de-sac sequences.
The local catchment area of all of the routes within, passing into, and defining the perimeter of
Souq Mutrah up to 13 changes of direction away encompasses an approximate built area of only 6
km2 (Figure 15). It includes the Mutrah, Bayt Al Fajal and Ruwi areas in this part of Muscat, mostly
south of the east–west route of Bab Al Mathaib Street, which merges to become part of Sultan Qaboos
Street further west. At its furthest linear extent, this only extends a distance as the crow flies of 3.5
km.
In contrast, the local catchment area for all of the routes within, passing into, and defining the
perimeter of Souq Waqif up to 6 changes of direction encompasses approximately 130 km2 of the
urban fabric in Doha. It is nearly 22 times more area than that of Souq Mutrah. It includes almost
everywhere within the C-Ring Road, except for large areas of the Al Mansoura and Najma
neighborhoods to the south. It extends to every ring road in a westerly direction and incorporates the
entireFigure
perimeter of and distribution
15. Step-depth
streets into the Industrial Areawithin,
in the southwest of the
Figure 15. Step-depth based
based on
on 13
13 changes
changes of of direction
direction from
from all streets within,
all streets passing into,
passing into, and
and
metropolitan region. Furthermore, it includes linear extensions along major routes
defining the perimeter of Souq Mutrah in the space syntax model of Metropolitan Muscat in 2018.
to all edges of the
defining the perimeter of Souq Mutrah in the space syntax model of metropolitan Muscat in 2018.
In contrast, the local catchment area for all of the routes within, passing into, and defining the
perimeter of Souq Waqif up to 6 changes of direction encompasses approximately 130 km2 of the urban
fabric in Doha. It is nearly 22 times more area than that of Souq Mutrah. It includes almost everywhere
within the C-Ring Road, except for large areas of the Al mansoura and Najma neighborhoods to the
south. It extends to every ring road in a westerly direction and incorporates the entire perimeter of and
distribution streets into the Industrial Area in the southwest of the metropolitan region. Furthermore,
it includes linear extensions along Major routes to all edges of the metro region via Doha Expressway,
Salwa Road and Al Wakra Road to the north (~22 km), west (~22 km) and south (~12 km), respectively
Figure 15. Step-depth based on 13 changes of direction from all streets within, passing into, and
(Figure 16).
defining the perimeter of Souq Mutrah in the space syntax model of Metropolitan Muscat in 2018.
Figure 16. Step-depth based on 6 changes of direction from all streets within, passing into, and
Figure 16. Step-depth based on 6 changes of direction from all streets within, passing into, and defining
defining the perimeter of Souq Waqif within the space syntax model of Metropolitan Doha in 2018.
the perimeter of Souq Waqif within the space syntax model of metropolitan Doha in 2018.
The validity of these findings appears strengthened if we examine the local area effect, or grid
intensification, of both souqs [23,35]. The scatter of integration (radius = n vs. radius = 13) in the space
syntax model of metropolitan Muscat demonstrates a clustering effect related to the polycentric spatial
structure of the city. The Al-Amaret, Mutrah, Mawaleh and Modern Muscat areas clearly distinguish
(in ascending order for global integration) from one another. All of the routes within Souq Mutrah
form a relatively focused grid intensification within the Mutrah cluster, hovering above the slope of
correlation for the entire metropolitan region for Muscat (Figure 17, left). It appears to follow the
clustering for the whole of the Mutrah area.
slope of correlation for Metropolitan Doha as a whole into the higher ranges of local integration
[23,35] (Figure 17, right). The scatter of routes in Souq Waqif excludes two lines of sight extending
from the Al Souq area about 50 m into the western portions of Souq Waqif, due to the contemporary
creation of the northeast plaza. The construction of new retail units is currently underway in the
northeast plaza of Souq Waqif, which will eliminate the extension of these two Al Souq routes into
the souq, terminating them on its perimeter at Banks Street.
Figure 17. Scatter

Figure 17. Scatter of
of (left)
(left) integration (radius == nn vs.
integration (radius radius =
vs. radius 13) in
= 13) in metropolitan
Metropolitan Muscat,
Muscat, with
with aa
characteristic distribution line for all of the routes within Souq Mutrah highlighted in red, and
characteristic distribution line for all of the routes within Souq Mutrah highlighted in red, and (right)(right)
global
global integration (radius == n)
integration (radius n) vs. local integration
vs. local (radius == 3)
integration (radius 3) in
in metropolitan
Metropolitan Doha,
Doha, with
with aa
characteristic distribution line for all routes within Souq Waqif highlighted
characteristic distribution line for all routes within Souq Waqif highlighted in red.in red.
On the other hand, the routes within Souq Waqif appear to form a straightforward, or traditional
These conditions arose from the challenges of urban growth and development in the differing
in Hillierian terms, local area effect. There is a grid intensification in the relationship of synergy
topographical conditions of these cities, and the need to adopt different strategies to preserve the
(correlation between global integration, radius = n vs. local integration, radius = 3) crossing over the
long-term sustainability and viability of Souq Mutrah and Souq Waqif as traditional marketplaces
slope of correlation for metropolitan Doha as a whole into the higher ranges of local integration [23,35]
[9,25]. Urban development in Muscat prioritizes linearity at the macro-scale and an intense form of
(Figure 17, right). The scatter of routes in Souq Waqif excludes two lines of sight extending from the Al
centrality or locality at the micro-scale in giving rise to the emergent polycentric spatial structure of
Souq area about 50 m into the western portions of Souq Waqif, due to the contemporary creation of the
the urban pattern in the growing metropolis. Urban development in Doha balances both centrality
northeast plaza. The construction of new retail units is currently underway in the northeast plaza of
and linearity at the macro-scale. In combination with a formal superblock pattern at the micro-scale
Souq Waqif, which will eliminate the extension of these two Al Souq routes into the souq, terminating
in defining locality, this collectively helps to maintain the shallowness of old Doha within the
them on its perimeter at Banks Street.
emergent ortho-radial spatial structure of the growing metropolis (Figure 18). Because of this, Souq
These conditions arose from the challenges of urban growth and development in the differing
Mutrah operates out of necessity as a local, everyday market for residents living in the immediate
topographical conditions of these cities, and the need to adopt different strategies to preserve the
vicinity. It does cater to tourists and residents making the occasional, specific trip from further inland
long-term sustainability and viability of Souq Mutrah and Souq Waqif as traditional marketplaces [9,25].
in Muscat, the cruise terminal in the old port, or both. However, this is supplementary to its primary
Urban development in Muscat prioritizes linearity at the macro-scale and an intense form of centrality
role as a local traditional marketplace. Doha grew in a manner enabling Souq Waqif to fully transition
or locality at the micro-scale in giving rise to the emergent polycentric spatial structure of the urban
from a local traditional marketplace into a cultural heritage district catering to everyday trips from
pattern in the growing metropolis. Urban development in Doha balances both centrality and linearity at
almost everywhere in the metropolitan region. This transition became necessary due to a significant
the macro-scale. In combination with a formal superblock pattern at the micro-scale in defining locality,
loss of residents living within the immediate vicinity of the souq. However, urban regeneration
this collectively helps to maintain the shallowness of Old Doha within the emergent ortho-radial spatial
efforts supported by the Qatari government are well underway to bring residents (especially Qataris)
structure of the growing metropolis (Figure 18). Because of this, Souq Mutrah operates out of necessity
back to old Doha, such as the mixed-use Msheireb Downtown Doha project [7,25].
as a local, everyday market for residents living in the immediate vicinity. It does cater to tourists and
residents making the occasional, specific trip from further inland in Muscat, the cruise terminal in the
old port, or both. However, this is supplementary to its primary role as a local traditional marketplace.
Doha grew in a manner enabling Souq Waqif to fully transition from a local traditional marketplace into
a cultural heritage district catering to everyday trips from almost everywhere in the metropolitan region.
This transition became necessary due to a significant loss of residents living within the immediate
vicinity of the souq. However, urban regeneration efforts supported by the Qatari government are well
underway to bring residents (especially Qataris) back to Old Doha, such as the mixed-use msheireb
Downtown Doha project [7,25].
Figure
Figure 18. 18. Illustration
Illustration of of Hillier’sprinciples
Hillier’s principles of
of centrality
centrality (represented
(representedas as circles) andand
circles) linearity
linearity
(represented at lines) at work during urban growth over time in (left) six time periods
(represented at lines) at work during urban growth over time in (left) six time periods of Muscat, of Muscat,
1987–2016, and (right) ten time periods of Doha, 1937–2013, giving rise to their distinctive
1987–2016, and (right) ten time periods of Doha, 1937–2013, giving rise to their distinctive emergent
emergent spatial.
spatial.
7. Implications for Future Research and Design Interventions
7. Implications for Future Research and Design Interventions
Like many traditional markets in Arab cities, Souq Mutrah and Souq Waqif experienced a period
of decline
Like many during globalization
traditional markets and
in rapid
Arab urbanization. It fed the
cities, Souq Mutrah andshift of commercial
Souq development
Waqif experienced a period
and activities to new, modern centers—such as indoor shopping malls, due
of decline during globalization and rapid urbanization. It fed the shift of commercial development to the harsh climatic
and conditions
activities to in the
new,region—outside of the oldestasareas
modern centers—such indoorof the city. The malls,
shopping result was
duethe
to negligence
the harsh and climatic
degradation of traditional marketplaces such as souqs. In both of the cases in this paper, it meant
conditions in the region—outside of the oldest areas of the city. The result was the negligence and
physical and economic adaption to survive. Catering to international tourism became an essential
degradation of traditional marketplaces such as souqs. In both of the cases in this paper, it meant
attribute of their continuing socio-economic success as sustainable urban places, to one degree or
physical and economic adaption to survive. Catering to international tourism became an essential
another. For Souq Waqif in Doha, this meant a significant urban renewal project to restore its building
attribute
fabricof
andtheir continuing
reinvigorate socio-economic
the souq success
as a public place as sustainable
of significance in the urban places,
city center. For to oneMutrah
Souq degree or
another. For Souq
in Muscat, Waqifan
this meant in economic
Doha, this meant a significant
adjustment urban
to the realities renewal
of the expandingproject tofabric
urban restore
in its
thebuilding
city,
fabricandand reinvigorate
some theof
specialization souq as a public
the goods sold inplace of significance
the market catering toin the cityliving
residents center. Forimmediate
in the Souq Mutrah
in Muscat,
vicinity.this meant anthese
Importantly, economic adjustment
case studies to thethat
demonstrate realities
there isofnottheany
expanding urban
‘one size fits all’ fabric
solution in the
city, toand
the some
issue ofspecialization
socio-economicofsustainability
the goods sold for traditional
in the marketmarketplaces
catering in the Middle East;
to residents in fact,
living in the
the opposite.
immediate It suggests
vicinity. that applying
Importantly, the solutions
these case of one city to another
studies demonstrate that therein any design
is not any intervention
‘one size fits all’
for traditional markets might prove problematic without carefully
solution to the issue of socio-economic sustainability for traditional marketplaces in the accounting for the contextual
Middle East;
relationship of such places within their city using objective tools such as space syntax.
in fact, the opposite. It suggests that applying the solutions of one city to another in any design
intervention for traditional markets might prove problematic without carefully accounting for the
8. Conclusions
contextual relationship of such places within their city using objective tools such as space syntax.
We presented some of the findings for a study comparing form and function in two
traditional markets: Souq Mutrah in Muscat, Oman, and Souq Waqif in Doha, Qatar. Globalization and
8. Conclusions
rapid urbanization have characterized both Doha and Muscat over the last fifty years. Both cities have
shared historical origins
We presented some of as the
coastal settlements,
findings for a but withcomparing
study stark differences
forminand
topography.
functionWeininvestigated
two traditional
the urban morphology, land use and functioning of these souqs using several
markets: Souq Mutrah in Muscat, Oman, and Souq Waqif in Doha, Qatar. Globalization representation techniques
and rapid
typical of morphological research to contextualize these marketplaces within their metropolitan
urbanization have characterized both Doha and Muscat over the last fifty years. Both cities have region
on objective terms using tools such as space syntax analysis. The paper was able to develop an
shared historical origins as coastal settlements, but with stark differences in topography. We
understanding of (1) the evolution of space and form in these marketplaces over time, and (2) the
investigated the urban morphology, land use and functioning of these souqs using several
implications for their functioning as urban places today. The analysis demonstrated the critical
representation techniques typical of morphological research to contextualize these marketplaces
importance of contextual relations at the macro- and micro-scale of the urban environment for
within their metropolitan
understanding the complex region on objective
socio-economic terms
nature usingsouqs.
of these toolsItsuch
helpedastospace syntax
deepen analysis. The
our knowledge
paper wastraditional
about able to develop
marketplacesan understanding
and contemporary of urbanism
(1) the evolution of space
in the Arabian and form
Gulf Region. in these
In doing
marketplaces over time, and (2) the implications for their functioning as urban places today. The
analysis demonstrated the critical importance of contextual relations at the macro- and micro-scale
of the urban environment for understanding the complex socio-economic nature of these souqs. It
helped to deepen our knowledge about traditional marketplaces and contemporary urbanism in the
Arabian Gulf Region. In doing so, we demonstrated a critical link between the morphological
so, we demonstrated a critical link between the morphological evolution and economic vitality
of markets, whereby different topological conditions and planning strategies for intervention can
promote different solutions for the long-term sustainability of significant urban places. As we saw in
this study, sustainable solutions remain fundamentally related to well-defined and understood spatial
processes in all cities, including those of the Arabian Peninsula.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, methodology, Software, Validation, Formal Analysis, Investigation,

Data Curation, Writing—Original Draft Preparation, Writing—Review and Editing, Visualization, Supervision,
Project Administration, Funding Acquisition; m.D.M. Conceptualization, methodology, Software, Validation,
Formal Analysis, Investigation, Data Curation, Resources, Writing—Original Draft Preparation, Writing—Review
and Editing, Visualization, Project Administration; H.O.T. All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Funding: Some portions of this research involving the space syntax model of Metropolitan Doha in Qatar were
supported by an internal grant from Qatar University (Grant ID: QUSD-CENG-2018/2019-4). Additional research
was supported by a grant from the Qatar National Research Foundation (Grant ID: UREP25-002-5-001). Open
access publication of this paper was jointly supported by Qatar National Library and the Qatar National Research
Foundation.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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© 2020 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
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sustainability

Keywords: land use; markets; morphology; topography; urban studies

Sustainability 2020, 12, 7154; doi:10.3390/su12177154 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 19

2. Research Methodology and Limitations

3. General Background about Souqs and Gulf Urbanism

However, Major Major et et al.

5. About Souq Waqif and Doha

Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 19

6. A Morphological Comparison: Findings and Discussion

However, their early development remains most most apparent

Figure 12. Pedestrian

Figure 17. Scatter

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, methodology, Software, Validation, Formal Analysis, Investigation,

References and Notes

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