Singular Points

Worksheet 26 for EMS 2021

November 30, 2021

1 Points of Inflection
A point at which the curves switches from concave upward to concave downward.
Procedure to find the Point of Inflection
d2 y
Step 1 Compute dx2

d2 y
Step 2 If dx2 > 0, then concave upward
d2 y
Step 3 If dx2 < 0, then concave downward
d2 y d3 y 3 4 5 n−1
Step 4 If dx 2 = 0 and if dx3 ̸= 0 or if 0 = dx
d y
3 = dx4 = dx5 = · · · = dxn−1 and if
d y d y d y

dn y
dxn ̸= 0, then the curve has a point of inflection at that point.

1.1 Exercises
Find the points of inflection of the curves given below

1. y = x4 − 6x3 + 3x − 20
2. y(a2 + x2 ) = x3

2 Multiple Points
• A point of the curve at which more than one branch of the curve meet. e.
g., node, cusp, isolate/conjugate etc.
• Double Point: A point of the curve at which two branches of the curve
meet.

• Triple Point: A point of the curve at which three branches of the curve
meet.

1
 2.1 Double Points
• There are three kinds of double points
1. Node: A point of the curve at which two real branches of the curve
meet. The tangents are real and distinct.
2. Cusp: A point of the curve at which two real branches of the curve
meet. The tangents are real and coincident.
3. Isolate/Conjugate: A point of the curve at which no other real
points of the curve exist in at least one neighbourhood. The tangents
are generally imaginary.

Procedure to find the double points at origin

Step 1 Identify the least degree terms of the curve and equate them to 0.
Step 2 Solve the equation to get the corresponding x and y values to check
whether the tangents meet at node, cusp or isolates.
Procedure to find the double points of a curve expressed in the form of an
implicit function f (x, y) = 0.
Step 1 Equate the partial derivatives ∂f
∂x and ∂f
∂y to 0.
Step 2 Solve the equations to find the points.
Step 3 If the point found out using Step 2 is origin, then we evaluate the following.
2
∂2f ∂2f
1. If ( ∂x∂y
∂ f 2
) − ∂x2 ∂y 2 > 0, then the the origin is a node.
2 2 2
2. If ( ∂x∂y
∂ f 2
) − ∂ f ∂ f
∂x2 ∂y 2 = 0, then the the origin is a cusp.
2 2 2
3. If ( ∂x∂y
∂ f 2
) − ∂ f ∂ f
∂x2 ∂y 2 < 0, then the the origin is a conjugate point.
Else, go to Step 4
Step 4 If there exists a point other than origin, that is a point (x1 , y1 ) on the
curve, then we replace x by X + x1 and y by Y + y1 in the given equation.
Step 5 Identify the least degree terms of the curve and equate them to 0.
Step 6 Solve the equation to get the corresponding X and Y values to check
whether the tangents meet at node, cusp or isolates.

2.2 Exercises
Find the nature of the double points at origin of the curves given below.
1. y 2 = 2x2 y + x3 y + x3
2. x4 − 2ay 3 − 3a2 y 2 − 2a2 x2 + a4 = 0