Date:27th May 2020 Dr.

Sachin Kaushal (22206)

SINGULAR POINTS

1 INTRODUCTION
3
(f x2  f y2 ) 2
For implicit function f(x, y) = 0  
f xx f y2  2f xy f x f y  f yy f x2

0
If fx = fy = 0 then  will be of the form   . Thus the curvature at the point has no meaning.
0
f
Similarly the slope of the tangent,  x for the curve f(x, y) = 0 has no meaning if fx = fy = 0. If both
fy
fx and fy do not vanish simultaneously at the point, then a single branch of the curve f(x, y) = 0
passes through the point. Then the point is an ordinary point. If fx = fy = 0 at the point (h, k), the
point is called singular point.
DEFINITION
A point on a curve at which the curve exhibits an unusual or extraordinary behaviour is
called a singular point.
In this chapter we shall discuss two particular types of singular points :
(i) Multiple points (ii) Points of Inflexion

MULTIPLE POINTS
A point on the curve through which more than one branch of the curve pass, is called
multiple point of the curve. It is called a Double Point, if two branches of the curve pass through it.
At the double point of the curve, there are two tangents, one to each branch. These tangents may be
real and distinct, real and coincident or imaginary.

TYPES OF DOUBLE POINTS

According to the nature of tangents at the double points of the curve, these double points are
divide into the following three types:
(i)Node : A double point on the curve through which two real branches of the curve pass and the
tangents at which are real and distinct is called a node. [see fig. (i)].


P

(i) (ii) (iii)

Fig.

MTH125 Calculus
Date:27th May 2020 Dr. Sachin Kaushal (22206)

(ii) Cusp : A double point on the curve through which two real branches of the curve pass and the
tangents at which are real and coincident is called a cusp. [see fig. (ii)].
(iii) Conjugate or Isolated Point : A point P is called a conjugate or an isolated point of the curve,
if there are no real points of the curve in the neighbourhood of the point. For example, consider the
curve a2y2 = x2(x2 a2). The origin (0, 0) lies on the curve. The tangents at the origin are given by y2
= x2 or y   x , which are imaginary.Thus the origin is a conjugate point of the curve.
Working rule to determine the nature of the origin, if it is a double point i.e. if there are two
tangents at the origin, real or imaginary.
(I) (i) If the two tangents at the origin are imaginary, then the origin is a conjugate or an isolated
point of the curve.
(ii) If the two tangents at the origin are real and distinct, then the origin may be a node or a
conjugate point according as the two branches of the curve through the origin are real or imaginary.
(iii) IF the two tangents at the origin are real and coincident then the origin may be a cusp or
conjugate point according as the two branches of the curve through the origin are real or imaginary.
(II) In (ii) and (iii) above when we are doubtful about the nature of the double point, the following
methods are useful for testing the nature of the curve at the double point (origin in the present case).
(i) If y = 0 is a cuspidal tangent at the origin, then neglect cubes and higher powers of y from the
equation of the curve and solve the equation for y. If for small enough values of x; y is real, then the
branches of the curve through the origin are real, otherwise imaginary.
(ii) If x = 0 is a cuspidal tangent to the curve at the origin, then neglect cubes and higher powers of
x and solve the equation for x. If for small enough values of y; x is real then the branches of the
curve through the origin are real, otherwise imaginary.

Example 1 : Find the nature of the origin for the curve a4y2 = x4(x2 a2).
Solution : The given curve passes through the origin and tangents at the origin are given by y2 = 0.
i.e. y = 0 is a double tangent.
x2
 Origin is a cusp or a conjugate point and y   2 x 2  a 2
a
Now near origin x a <0
2 2

 x 2  a 2 is imaginary and so near origin, the curve has no real branch.

Example 2 : Prove that the point (1, 2) is a node on the curve y(x – 1)2 = x(y – 2)2 and find the
equations of the tangents to the curve at this point.
Solution : Shifting the origin to the point (1, 2) i.e. putting x – 1 = X, y – 2 = Y, we have

MTH125 Calculus
Date:27th May 2020 Dr. Sachin Kaushal (22206)

(Y + 2)X2 = (X + 1)Y2 (1)

The tangents at the new origin are given by

2X2 = Y2  Y   2X
 The new origin is either a node or a conjugate point.
Equation (1) may be written as
(X + 1)Y2 X2Y  2X2 = 0

X 2  X 4  8(X  1)X 2
 Solving for Y, Y
2(X  1)
Now for small values of X, the quantity under the radical sign is positive. Thus y is real.
Hence the two branches of the curve that pass through the new origin are real and so the new origin
is a node i.e. the point (1, 2) is a node.
The tangents at the new origin are

Y= 2X and y 2X

i.e. y–2= 2 (x – 1) and y – 2 =  2 (x – 1)

i.e. y= 2x 2 +2 and y= 2x+ 2 + 2.

Working rule for finding the position and nature of double points on a curve.
1. Write the equation of the curve in the form f(x, y) = 0
f f  2f  2f  2f
2. Find the partial derivatives , , , , .
x y  2 x  2 y xy
f f
3. Solve the equations  0 and  0 . The pair of values of x, y so obtained are the possible
x y
double points but amongst these, only those which satisfy the given equation of the curve are the
required double points.
2
  2f   2f  2f
4. At each of these double point, calculate D     2 2 . Then if
 xy  x y
(i) D is +ve, double point is a node or conjugate point.
(ii) D is zero, double point is a cusp or conjugate point.
(iii) D is ve, double point is a conjugate point.
Example 1 : Find the position and the nature of the double points on the curve y2 = (x – 2)2(x – 1)
Solution : Let f(x, y) = (x – 2)2(x – 1) = 0 (1)
f
Then  (x  2)2  2(x  2)(x  1)
x
f
 2y
y

MTH125 Calculus
Date:27th May 2020 Dr. Sachin Kaushal (22206)

f f
For the double points  0 and 0
x y
 (x – 2) {x – 2 – 2x + 2} = 0
i.e. x = 2 and x = 0
and y=0
Thus the possible double points are (2, 0) and (0, 0). But only (2, 0) satisfies (1). Therefore (2, 0) is
the only double point.
Shifting the origin at (2, 0), equation (1) transforms into
Y2 = X2(X + 1) (2)
The tangents at the new origin are Y2 = X2 i.e. Y = X
Thus the new origin is either a node or a conjugate point.

Solving (2) for Y, we get Y  X X  1 which gives Y real for small values of X. Thus the
branches of the curve near the new origin are real. Therefore the new origin or the point (2, 0) on
(1) is a node.
Example 4 : Find the position and the nature of the double points of the curve, x 3 + x2 + y2 –
x – 4y + 3 = 0.
Solution : The equation of the curve is
f(x, y) = x3 + x2 + y2 – x – 4y + 3 = 0 (1)
f f
  3x 2  2x  1 and  2y  4
x y
f f
For the double points, and =0
x y
 3x2 + 2x  1 = 0  (3x – 1)(x + 1) = 0
and 2(y – 2) = 0
1
which gives, x  , 1 and y = 2
3
1 
Thus the possible double points are  , 2  and (1, 2). Of these only (1, 2) satisfies (1).
3 
Shifting the origin at (1, 2) the transformed equation is
(X – 1)3 + (X – 1)2 + (Y + 2)2 (X – 1)  4(Y + 2) + 3 = 0
or X3 2X2 + Y2 = 0 (2)
 The tangents at the new origin are

Y2 2X2 = 0  Y   2X
Thus the new origin is either a node or a conjugate point.

Solving (2) for Y, we get Y  X 2  X

MTH125 Calculus
Date:27th May 2020 Dr. Sachin Kaushal (22206)

Near the origin for small values of X (+ve or ve), Y is real, therefore two real branches of the
curve exist near the new origin. Hence (1, 2) is a node.

SPECIES OF CUSPS
When the double points of a curve is a cusp, then the two tangents at this point are coincident and
therefore the normal to the two branches of the curve is also common. A cusp is called a single cusp
or a double cusp according as the two branches of the curve lie entirely on one side or on both the
sides of the normal. Again the cusp, single or double, is said to be of first species or of second
species
N N
N N

P P
T T T P T
P

N N N
N

(i) single cusp (ii) single cusp (iii) Double cusp iv) Double cusp
of first species of second species of first species of second species

According as the two branches of the curve lie on the opposite or the same side of the coincident
tangents. In figures PT is the common tangent and NPN is the common normal to the two branches
of the curve where P is the cusp.

Point of oscul-inflexion : A double cusp with change of species on the two sides of the common
normal is called a point of oscul-inflexion.

P T

N
Point of oscul-inflexion

MTH125 Calculus
Date:27th May 2020 Dr. Sachin Kaushal (22206)

A cusp of first species is also called a keratoid cusp (i.e. a cusp like horns) and a cusp of the second
species is also called a ramphoid cusp (i.e., a cusp like a beak).

Working rule to the nature of a cusp at the origin

Case I : When the cuspidal tangents are y2 = 0, i.e. x-axis.
Solve the equation of the curve for y, neglecting cubes and higher powers of y. The
branches of the curve can be discussed by the following tree diagram.

Nature of cusp at the origin. When x-axis is a cuspidal tangent


Roots are real for only one   Roots are real for both
sign of x (single cusp) sign of x (Double cusp)


Roots are of opposite signs Roots are of same signs
(Cusp of first species)   (Cusp of second species)

Case II : When the cuspidal tangents are x2 = 0, i.e. y-axis.

Solve the equation of the curve for x, neglecting cubes and higher powers of x and discuss
the branches of curve, as in case I.

Case III : When the cuspidal tangent is of the form ax + by = 0, then put p = ax + by. Eliminate y
between this equation and the equation of the curve so as to get a relation between p and x. Solving
this resultant equation for p, neglecting cubes and higher powers of p, we discuss the nature of the
branches of the curve for small values of x.

Example 1 : Show that the curve (2x + y)2 – 6xy(2x + y) – 7x3 = 0 has a single cusp of first species
at the origin.
Solution : The given curve is (2x + y)2 – 6xy(2x + y) – 7x3 = 0 (1)
Obviously the curve passes through the origin. Equating the lowest degree terms of (1) to zero i.e.
(2x + y)2 = 0 are the tangents at the origin. Thus the origin is a cusp or a conjugate point and 2x + y
= 0 is a cuspidal tangent.
put p = 2x + y [case III]
or y = p – 2x (2)

MTH125 Calculus
Date:27th May 2020 Dr. Sachin Kaushal (22206)

Eliminating y from (1) and (2), we get

p2 – 6px(p – 2x) – 7x3 = 0
or p2 – 6p2x + 12px2 – 7x3 = 0
or (1 – 6x)p2 + 12x2p – 7x3 = 0
which is a quadratic equation in p
12x 2  144x 4  28x 3 (1  6x) 12x 2  28x 3  28x 4
Solving, p  
1  6x 1  6x
Since for small values of x > 0, x4< x3; therefore 28x3 24x4> 0 and therefore p is real. Thus the
origin is a single cusp. Again neglecting 24x4, we get
12x 2  28x 3
p
1  6x
28 7
and we have 28x3> 144x4 if x  
144 36
i.e. the two values of p are of opposite sign. Therefore the cusp is of first species. Hence the curve
has a single cusp of first species at the origin.

Example 2 : Show that the curve (x + y)3 2 (y – x + 2)2 = 0 has a single cusp of the first species
at the point (1, 1).
Solution : the given equation of the curve is

(x + y)3  2 (y – x + 2)2 = 0 (1)

Shifting the origin to the point (1, 1), by putting x = X + 1, y = Y + 1, we have from equation (1),

(X + Y)3 2 (Y  X)2 = 0 (2)

Equating to zero the lowest degree terms in (2), the tangents at the new origin are (Y  X)2 = 0,
which are real and coincident.
Thus the new origin is either a cusp or a conjugate point.
From (2), neglecting Y3, we have

X3 + 3X2Y + 3XY2 2 (Y2 2XY + X2) = 0

or Y2(3X  2 ) + X(2 2 + 3X)Y  X2( 2  X) = 0

which is a quadratic in Y.

X(2 2  3X)  X 2 (2 2  3X) 2  4X 2 ( 2  X)(3X  2)

 Y
2(3X  2)
X(2 2  3X)  X 28 2X  3X 2

2(3X  2)
For every small positive values of X, 28 2X  3X2 is positive and thus Y is real.

MTH125 Calculus
Date:27th May 2020 Dr. Sachin Kaushal (22206)

Hence two real branches of the curve pass through the new origin.
Thus the new origin is a cusp.
Put p=Y–X  Y=X+p (3)
Eliminating Y between (2) and (3), we get

(p + 2X)3 2 p2 = 0

or p3 + 6Xp2 + 12X2p + 8X3 2 p2 = 0

Then (6X  2 )p2 + 12X2p + 8X3 = 0. [Neglecting p3]

12X 2  144X 4  32X3 (6X  2)

Solving, p 
2(6X  2)
6X 2  8 2X3  12X 4 6X 2  8 2X3
  [Neglecting 12X4]
6X  2 6X  2
Thus p is real only when X is positive (i.e., of one sign)
Hence the new origin is a single cusp.

Now 8 2X3 i.e., 8 2X3/ 2 > 6X2, for small values of X as X3/2> X2, when X is small.
Thus the value of p have opposite sign which shows that cusp is of first species.
Hence the new origin or point (1, 1) is a single cusp of first species

Example 3: Show that the curve x5 – 2x3y – 4x2y + + 8y2 = 0 has a point of oscul-inflexion at the
origin.
Solution : The equation of the curve is x5 – 2x3y – 4x2y + + 8y2 = 0
The equations of the tangents at the origin are given by
y2 = 0 i.e. y = 0, y = 0
Thus the origin is a cusp or a conjugate point
Writing the equation as a quadratic in y, we have
8y2(2x3 + 4x2)y + x5 = 0
Solving for y, we have

(2x 3  4x 2 )  (2x 3  4x 2 ) 2  32x 5

y
16
(2x  4x )  (2x  4x 2 ) x 3 x 2
3 2 3
  , .
16 4 2
If x > 0, for both the branches, y > 0
If x , 0, for one branch y > 0 and for the other branch y < 0.
Hence origin is a point of oscul-inflexion.

MTH125 Calculus