Oxford was first settled by the Anglo-Saxons and was initially known as Oxnaford,

meaning "ford of the oxen",[7] as referenced in Florence of Worcester's Chronicon

ex chronicis.[8] A river crossing for oxen began around 900. In the 10th century,
Oxford became an important military frontier town between the kingdoms of Mercia
and Wessex and was raided by Danes. In 1002, many Danes were killed in Oxford
during the St. Brice's Day massacre ordered by Æthelred the Unready.[9] The
skeletons of more than thirty suspected victims were unearthed in 2008 during the
course of building work at St John's College.[10] The ‘massacre’ was a contributing
factor to King Sweyn I of Denmark’s invasion of England in 1003 and the sacking of
Oxford by the Danes in 1004.[11]

Oxford was heavily damaged during the Norman Invasion of 1066. Following the
conquest, the town was assigned to a governor, Robert D'Oyly, who ordered the
construction of Oxford Castle to confirm Norman authority over the area. The castle
has never been used for military purposes and its remains survive to this day.
D'Oyly set up a monastic community in the castle consisting of a chapel and living
quarters for monks (St George in the Castle). The community never grew large but it
earned its place in history as one of Britain's oldest places of formal education.
It was there that in 1139 Geoffrey of Monmouth wrote his History of the Kings of
Britain, a compilation of Arthurian legends.[12] Additionally, there is evidence of
Jews living in the city as early as 1141, and during the 12th century the Jewish
community is estimated to have numbered about 80–100.[13] The city was besieged
during The Anarchy in 1142.[14] In 1191, a city charter stated in Latin,[15]

"Be it known to all those present and future that we, the citizens of Oxford of the
Commune of the City and of the Merchant Guild have given, and by this, our present
charter, confirm the donation of the island of Midney with all those things
pertaining to it, to the Church of St. Mary at Oseney and to the canons serving God
in that place. Since, every year, at Michaelmas the said canons render half a mark
of silver for their tenure at the time when we have ordered it as witnesses the
legal deed of our ancestors which they made concerning the gift of this same
island; and besides, because we have undertaken on our own part and on behalf of
our heirs to guarantee the aforesaid island to the same canons wheresoever and
against all men; they themselves, by this guarantee, will pay to us and our heirs
each year at Easter another half mark which we have demanded; and we and our heirs
faithfully will guarantee the aforesaid tenement to them for the service of the
aforesaid mark annually for all matters and all services. We have made this
concession and confirmation in the Common council of the City and we have confirmed
it with our common seal. These are those who have made this concession and
confirmation. (There follows a list of witnesses, ending with the phrase, "... and
all the Commune of the City of Oxford.")

Oxford's prestige was enhanced by its charter granted by King Henry II, granting
its citizens the same privileges and exemptions as those enjoyed by the capital of
the kingdom; and various important religious houses were founded in or near the
city. Oxford's status as a liberty obtained from this period until the 19th
century.[16] A grandson of King John established Rewley Abbey for the Cistercian
Order; and friars of various orders (Dominicans, Franciscans, Carmelites,
Augustinians and Trinitarians) all had houses of varying importance at Oxford.
Parliaments were often held in the city during the 13th century. The Provisions of
Oxford were instigated by a group of barons led by Simon de Montfort; these
documents are often regarded as England's first written constitution. Richard I
(reigned 6 July 1189 – 6 April 1199) and King John (reigned 6 April 1199 – 19
October 1216) the sons of Henry II, were both born at Beaumont Palace in Oxford, on
8 September 1157 and 24 December 1166 respectively. A plaque in Beaumont Street
commemorates these events.[17]